Fundamental concepts in linguistics

Fundamental Concepts in Linguistics
1. Langue vs. Parole
2. Competence vs. Performance
3. Linguistic sign vs. Symbol
4. substance &Form
5. Structure & System
6. Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic Relationships
7. Diachronic & Synchronic Approaches

1. Fundamental Concepts in Linguistics Lecturer at Department of English Language & Literature University of the Punjab , Lahore Pakistan

2. Aspects of Language Language Langue Parole Language Language Performance

3. Langue The following rules & conventions constitute langue: The combination of Sounds & Pronunciation (Phonetic, Phonology) Formation of Words (Morphology) Construction of Sentences (Syntax) Contextual Meanings (Pragmatics) Words Relationship (Semantics)

4. Grammatical System To Saussure: Language is a grammatical system That exists in the brains of a group of individuals In the form of word-image & knowledge of conventions Language exists perfectly within a society/ collectivity Not in any individual speaker

5. Product of Social Agreement There is a similarity of: Sounds Words Meaning among the native speakers of a language They have the same images and signs in their minds The social bond constitutes language

6. Parole Parole belongs to the individual It is the concrete physical manifestation of the abstract langue That exist in mind An individual makes use of this knowledge To produce actual sentence i.e. parole

7. LANGUE VS. PAROLE

8. Langue vs. Parole Langue is Social A set of conventions & rules Shared by all the speakers of a language Parole is Individual Individual performance of language In speech or writing

9. Langue vs. Parole Langue is Abstract These conventions exist in the minds of the speakers Who belong to that society That has created the language Parole is Concrete It is physical, makes use of the physiological mechanism: Speech organs In uttering words and sentences

10. Langue vs. Parole Underlying system Which makes the individual performance (parole) meaningful If we hear unknown language We can’t understand As we do not share the langue Performance Sound and sentence Parole cant be a mean of communication & understood without langue

11. Langue vs. Parole Language System Consist of stable: Conventions Rules Codes Language Behaviour Production of sentences : Unpredictable Heterogeneous Whimsical (capricious) Variable

12. Langue vs. Parole Legislative side of Language Like law langue is relatively fixed It does not change with each individual Langue maintains: The social order Homogeneity of the language Executive side of Language It uses the law or code the language It executes langue through Individual acts of speaking and writing

13. Langue vs. Parole Language can be studied It is well defined Homogenous object It is in form of written symbols So, it can be studied Parole can not be studied Unpredictable mass of speech act It cannot be accurately represented It is heterogeneous So variable that cannot be studied

14. Analogy of a Game of Chess Rules are determined Understood by all the players But each game is different Depends on the individual performance Which differ from player to player

15. ARGUMENTS ABOUT DICHOTOMIES BY SOCIOLINGUISTS

16. Unreal Dichotomies Langue and Parole are interrelated not separate Speech has both an individual & social side We cannot conceive of one without the other Parole is not possible or effective without Langue Langue also changes gradually under the effect of parole

17. Parole has Social Aspect It is concerned with the language use in social situation Has some systematic & predictable features in social situations It has effect on langue Gives a useful insight into language process Can obtain the data ,gives better understanding of langue It is now easy to study through recording Audio, video devices

18. COMPETENCE VS. PERFORMANCE By Noam Chomsky

19. Competence vs. Performance Speaker’s Knowledge Native language (structure) Mastery of the system of rules Is speaker’s linguistic competence Speaker’s Production Production of actual sentences use in real-life situation The way of using linguistic competence is linguistic performance

20. Competence vs. Performance Set of Code Competence is set of principals/code which a speaker masters The abstract/internal grammar which enables a speaker to utter & understand infinite number of utterances Encoding/Decoding Performance is what a speaker does It is the act of encoding or decoding

21. Competence vs. Performance Free from Interference Due to slips of memory Lapses of attention Easy to study It is ideal thus gives coherent picture of the language Can be studied easily Prone to Interference It reflects many such lapses Difficult to study It is difficult to get a direct coherent record of performance Difficult to study

22. LANGUE VS. Competence

23. Langue vs. Competence Same & Social It is same with every language user It has social aspect/agreement/bond Different & Individual Based on inbuilt LAD enables a person: To acquire competence To internalize the rules of the language To generate an infinite number of sentences Speaker A may be more competent than B Though share the same conventions of language

24. LINGUSTIC SIGN VS. SYMBOL

25. Linguistic Sign It is a physical marker –carries some information Direct Brief Precise (only this not other)

26. Parts of Sign The linguistic sign is consist of two parts: Sign The signifier The signified The word The concept which signifies The object

27. Word Represents Concept Word does not represents the actual object in real life But the concept/image of the object we have in our minds If the word tree represents the real object (tree) The word for this object in all languages would have been the same We see an object and form a concept of it in our minds

28. Word/Concept Relationship We invent a word consisting of some sound-images That represents the concept exists in mind The relationship between the sounds/words and the concept they signify An arbitrary No logical reason why we choose a certain word To represent the concept Since signs are arbitrary They differ from language to language Every society constructs its own concepts of the real world Links these concepts to certain signifiers & signified (chosen arbitrarily)

29. Validity of Sign This relationship once establish as social fact Continues over a long period of time Social agreement gives it validity

30. Relational Entity Signs are the relational entities Exist in terms of complex relationships to each other Signs make up the whole system of a language

31. Symbol A kind of sign that signifies several concepts on the basis of the primary relationship of signifier/signified Thus the word “tree” signifies concept of tree (primary relationship ) may also signify: Life, growth etc becomes not only sign but also symbol Symbol means more information e.g. waving one’s hand Symbolic of farewell Dismissal etc.

32. SUBSTANCE & FORM

33. Language Quality Language Quality Substance Form Raw Material Particular Order Meaningless Meaningful

34. Substance Phonic Graphic Phonemes Morphemes Graphemes sounds letters alphabets /k/ /b/ /t/ - tion , -able, -co. A, d, c, h

35. Form All distinct sounds &written scripts are the substance of a language It is meaningless (only noisy) Required some form to become meaningful When sounds, letters, words are arranged in a certain way i.e. We can see some meaning in them It becomes form of a language It is just like a shapeless log of wood The carpenter makes a chair / table out of it He changes substance into form

36. Saussure’s Term Language Quality Substance Form Signifier Signified Mere sound/words Meaningful/ Concept

37. Specific Arrangement makes Form Sounds when arranged in particular order Signify something meaningful Words when arranged in a particular order Express some meaningful idea/action The arrangement itself gives form to the substance of the language

38. Levels of Form Form Expression Content Shape/form of Elements Level of Meanings Regardless of Meanings Grammar & Semantics The bachelor gave birth to a baby

39. Linguistic Study To sum up we say: Substance is element/ raw material of language Form is the associative order In which elements are brought together in a meaningful way So, form is the concern of linguistic study, not substance Form makes it study substance

40. Structure/system & Syntagmatic / paradigmatic relationships

41. Language Structured System of Systems Elements are inter-related A System (At each level of its structure) Phonological Morphological Syntactic Sounds words word-classes Elements of sounds/words/class are inter-related

42. Structure An ordered composition of many elements/parts Each part being related to the whole Also related to other elements within it Inter-relationship of elements constitute SYSTEM Within each system, elements are selected & combined to build up structure

43. The Phonological System: Word Structure To build up a word such as “TAKE” We will select some sounds Out of several possible sounds We combine them in a particular order decide which one is to occur 1 st , which later

44. Structure: Process of Selection Certain rules operate: We can select only one element from a class of similar elements A particular consonant from same class A noun from a class of nouns /k/ /b/ /t/ all are consonants

45. Structure: Process of Combination Certain rules operate: We combine the chosen elements in a particular order We can combine: /t/ + / eI / + /k/ but not / eI / + /t/ These elements are combined in a particular sequence

46. Language Structure : Orchestra The member of an orchestra are all related to each other as a whole By their specific roles Smaller groups (violinists, bass player) perform their function in relation to other Players cannot be added or taken away without changing its quality

47. Structure Constitute System Structure: an order composition of many parts Order Composition of many parts Brass Woodwinds Violin Harp Springs Cello Piano Drum Flute

48. Elements’ Relationships Relationship Paradigmatic Syntagmatic

49. Paradigmatic Relationship The relationship between those elements which are similar as belong to same class/category is PR Which holds between several elements of same class within a system Elements can be replaced by another elements within the same system and class The phonological system The syntactic system The relationship between The relationship Plosive Consonants between nouns

50. Syntagmatic Relationship The particular sequence between elements is syntagmatic relationship In syntagmatic relationship, the elements have to be combined in the proper sequence We cannot violate the sequential order

51. Significance of these Relationships These relationships are like two intersecting threads That build up the fabric of language On the basis of these relationships, the rules of selection & combination operate and constitutes the structure of a language Language has duality of structure Selection of elements at one level Combination of these elements at another level To form a structure unit Limited number of elements can construct large number of combinations

52. Variation & Flexibility Both selection (paradigmatic) & combination ( syntagmatic ) processes unable us to construct different sentences

53. To Sum up System Set of Paradigmatic R (in elements) Structure set of Syntagmatic R (each level) Phonological System Phonological Structure Vowels/ Consonants Combination of it Syntactic System Syntactic Structure Word-classes Combination of it Sound Level Sentence Formation

54. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches

55. Language Study Synchronic Diachronic (traces) Chronos Historical development Records Time Language Changes Language at particular time in between successive point in time (as a living whole/ state)

56. Synchronic Approach This state of language is: Accumulation of all the linguistic activities of language community

57. Irrelevant time Factor To study language linguists: Collect samples of language as it exists Describe it regardless of any historical considerations Which may have influenced the language at any previous time Once linguists have isolated a focal point for synchronic description The time factor becomes irrelevant

58. Main Focus of Study The system of language as it exists i.e.: The system of inter-relationships that bind together co-existing items in the collective mind of the community

59. Diachronic Approach Equivalent to historical: It investigates language changes as they have occurred from time to time The evolution of languages

60. Inter-relationship of Synchronic & Diachronic CD is synchronic axis (static) All the facts of language co-exist at a particular time AB is diachronic axis of successions AB is an imaginary line moving through time The historical path through which language has travelled & will continue travelling CD can intersect AB at any point because at any given time there will be a number of facts about language co-existing X is the point on AB where the particular point in time can be isolated and the language can be described at that point as it exists

61. Synchronic Approach is Prior Saussure make this distinction Gives priority in linguistics to the synchronic approach He explained this priority by analogy with the game of chess

62. Analogy of the Game of Chess Chessboard constantly changes with each move During the game at any moment a 3 rd person can understand the state of game by looking at the position of pieces Regardless what kind of moves & how many moves have been made before arriving at this stage The game can be described without reference to the earlier moves

63. Analogy of the Game of Chess Game Rules Which are determined before the game Continue to operate with each move Language Rules Similarly rules exist in language too

64. Analogy of the Game of Chess Value of Pieces Depends on their position on the chess board Value of Linguistic Term Derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms

65. Analogy of the Game of Chess Changes in Game To pass from one stage to the next Only one piece needs to be moved at a time Succession of moves can change the outcome of the game Changes in Language In language change effects only isolated elements Not the whole language These changes ultimately do result in changing the language

66. Conclusion Language can & should be described synchronically On its own terms without reference to what it has developed from or what it is likely to develop into However, this does not mean that diachronic/historical study cannot be done To Saussure ,though the diachronic perspective is not related to the language system It does affect/condition the system