FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH BNR 22 APRIL 2024 (1).pptx

mjz hHU nmxzm nkvf,b,folfmkbv '
jcfnk f

1. FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH

2. Introduction .Basic Concepts in Research Definition of Research Importance of Research Purpose of Research Goals of Research Characteristics of Research The Use of Research Ethical Guidelines and Considerations in Research

3. Currently: Classification and Types of Research Introduction Learning Objectives Lesson 1. Quantitative Research Lesson 2. Qualitative Research Learning Tasks

4. Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, students should be able to: 1. Classify research according to design and methodology; 2. Identify the types of research; and 3. Point out the importance of e-research.

5. Research Process Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The chart shown in Figure 1.1 well illustrates a research process.

6. The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence. The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process: (1) formulating the research problem; (2) extensive literature survey; (3) developing the hypothesis; (4) preparing the research design; (5) determining sample design; (6) collecting the data; (7) execution of the project; (8) analysis of data; (9) hypothesis testing; (10) generalisations and interpretation, and (11) preparation of the report.

7. A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. Initially, the researcher must single out the problem he/she wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry.

8. 2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down.

9. 3. Development of working hypotheses: A Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher’s thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. How does one go about developing working hypotheses? (a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution; (b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues; (c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and (d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals

10. 4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, leads to the research design. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., ( i ) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. The preparation of the research design, involves usually the consideration of the following: ( i ) the means of obtaining the information; (ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any); (iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection; (iv) the time available for research; and (v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

11. 5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling. Non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.

12. Probability sampling In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection , that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are: Simple random —every single member is chosen randomly. Systematic —sample members are chosen at regular intervals . It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, it is the least time consuming. Stratified —researchers divide the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized , and then a sample can be drawn from each group separately. Cluster — the population is divided into clusters based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc.

13. Nonprobability sampling Nonprobability sampling involves feedback based on a researcher’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. The different types of nonprobability sampling methods are: Convenience —selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc. Purposive—participants are selected at the researcher’s discretion . Researchers consider the purpose of the study and the understanding of the target audience. Snowball —already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants. Quota—while designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject

14. What are data collection methods? During research , data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below. Qualitative research One-on-one interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event Document study/literature review/record keeping: Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc. Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic. Qualitative observation: Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing).

15. What are data collection methods? Quantitative research Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling. Interviews: Commonly telephonic or done in-person. Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research. In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a structured setting. Document review: Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for supporting the research. Surveys and questionnaires. Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending on the requirement and sample size.

16. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.

17. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. Qualitative or Quantitative data analysis.

18. What are data analysis methods? These data analysis methods differ between quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential. Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful . The different types of descriptive analysis methods are: Measures of frequency (count, percent, frequency) Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) Measures of dispersion or variation (range, variance, standard deviation) Measure of position (percentile ranks, quartile ranks)

19. Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population . This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are: Correlation : To understand the relationship between two or more variables. Cross-tabulation : Analyze the relationship between multiple variables. Regression analysis : Study the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable. Frequency tables : To understand the frequency of data. Analysis of variance : To test the degree to which two or more variables differ in an experiment.

20. Qualitative research Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include: Content analysis: For analyzing documented information from text and images by determining the presence of certain words or concepts in texts. Narrative analysis: For analyzing content obtained from sources such as interviews, field observations, and surveys. The stories and opinions shared by people are used to answer research questions. Discourse analysis: For analyzing interactions with people considering the social context, that is, the lifestyle and environment, under which the interaction occurs. Grounded theory: Involves hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis to explain why a phenomenon occurred. Thematic analysis: To identify important themes or patterns in data and use these to address an issue.

21. How to Write a Research Title? A research title is a concise and descriptive phrase or sentence that summarizes the main focus or objective of a research study. ●It provides readers with a clear idea of the topic and scope of the research project.

22. Importance of a Research Title Research titles are critical to the success of a study. ●They serve as the first point of contact between the reader and the research. ● A wellcrafted title can attract readers and increase the visibility of the research.

23. Key Considerations for Writing a Research Title ● Clearly convey the main focus ● Be concise ●Be specific ● Use appropriate language ● Incorporate keywords ● Reflect the research design or approach ●Seek feedback ● Revise and refine

24. Quantitative Research (Almeida et al. 2016) De Belen (2015) defined quantitative research as a traditional, positivist, scientific method which refers to general set order by disciplined procedures to acquire information. Utilizes a deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world. Gathers empirical evidence- evidence that is rooted in objective reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses. Frequently uses a deductive or theory-testing approach. Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.

25. Types of Quantitative Research Quantitative research is a type of empirical investigation. It means that the research focuses on verifiable observation. There are four basic types of quantitative research, these are: a. Survey Research Survey research uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling to get a sense of behaviour with intense precision. It allows researcher to judge behaviour and then present the findings in an accurate way. . it can be used in one group specifically or used to compare several groups.

26. b. Correlational Research It is a research that tests for the relationship between two variables. Performing correlational research is done to establish what the effect of one on the other might be and how that affects the relationship. The purpose is to use two or more variables to better understand the conditions of events that we encounter, to predict future conditions and events yet it does not always mean causation.

27. C. Causal-Comparative Research It looks to uncover a cause and effect relationship. This research is not done between two groups; rather it looks as to how different groups are affected by the same circumstance. The study of two or more groups is done without focusing on their relations. The use of statistical analysis is engaged to synthesize the data. d. Experimental Research This research is guided specifically by a hypothesis. Sometimes it can be supported by several hypotheses. It is a statement to be proven or disproved

28. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS 1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS It is concerned with cause and effect relationship in which all experimental studies involve manipulation or control of the independent variables (causes) and measurement of the dependent variables (effects). The method of difference is the principle being utilized in this study. This means that the effect of a single variable applied to the situation can be assessed, and the difference likewise is determined. In this research, the intervening or extraneous variables are not part of the study but are believed to influence study outcomes these are known as threats to internal and external validity (Campbell and Stanley, 1963).

29. TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS True experimental designs - Pretest-posttest control design - Posttest only control design - Solomon four group Quasi experimental design - Non-equivalent - Time series Pre-experimental designs - One-shot case study - One group pretest - Posttest

30. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN Qualitative research dealt with understanding human behavior in a natural setting. Unlike any other form of research it is more realistic and sensible for it covers behavior and so as the reasons behind it. This highlights complexity of humans and their ability to shape and create their own experience. The focuses of qualitative research are as follow (Almeida et al. 2016):  Gaining insights on and an understanding of the individual’s perception of events.  Concerned with in-depth descriptions of people on events and their interpretation of experiences;  Data are collected through unstructured interviews and participant observation.  The research is to synthesize the patterns and the theories in the data.  Not limited by existing theories but must be open to new ideas and theories. Qualitative research emphasizes the dynamic, holistic and individual aspects of human experience within the context of those who are experiencing them

31. LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ARE 1. It is reductionist, it reduces human experiences unlike quantitative research where human are highly involved. 2. The subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry, which sometimes causes concerns about the nature of conclusion. 3. Most naturalistic studies involve a relatively small group of people.

32. TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative research is designed to reveal a target audience’s range of behavior and the perceptions that drive it with reference to specific topics or issues. It uses in-depth studies of small groups of people to guide and support the construction of hypotheses. The result of qualitative research are descriptive rather the predictive. Specific qualitative approaches are: 1. Phenomenology The purpose of this approach is to describe experiences as they are lived. It examines uniqueness of individuals lived situations. Each person has its own reality, reality is subjective

33. 2. Ethnography The purpose is to describe a culture’s characteristics. It identifies culture’s variable for study. In data collection, the researcher gains entrance to culture, immerse self in culture, acquire informants, and gather data through direct observation and interaction with subject. In this approach the researcher frequently lives with the people and become a part of their culture. During the immersion process, the researcher must talk to the key persons/personalities called the key informants who can provide important data. 3. Historical The purpose is to describe and examine events of the past to understand the present and anticipate potential further effects. The method includes formatting idea, develop research outline to organize, investigate and collect data. It concerns with the identification, location, evaluation and synthesis of data from the past. It is collecting facts and relating them to the present and to the future. The data are usually found in documents or in relics and artifacts. Data can also be obtained through oral reports.

34. CASE STUDY The purpose of case study is to describe-in-depth experience of one person, family, group or institution. It is a direct observation and interaction with the subject. The purposes are:  To gain insights into a little-known problem  Provide background data for broader studies; and  Explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural processes A case study involves broad and detailed examinations of a particular individual, group or situation over a period of time. It provides information on where to draw conclusion, and about the impact of a significant event on a person’s life.

35. PHASES IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY Polit (2006) (cited in Almeida, Gaerlan & Manly, 2016) enlisted three (3) phases of qualitative study. These are: 1. Orientation and Overview The first place is to determine what is salient about the phenomenon or culture of interest. 2. Focused Exploration It involves focused scrutiny and in-depth exploration of the aspects of the phenomenon judged to be salient. The questions asked and the types of people invited are shaped based on the outcome of the first phase. 3. Confirmation and closure The researcher undertakes efforts to prove that her/his findings are trustworthy, often going back to the study and discussing her/his understanding of it with the participants.

36. MIXED METHODS RESEARCH DESIGNS Johnson & Onwuegbuzie (2004) defined this third type of research. It is a type where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques. Researchers must know the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research techniques. It includes the use of induction (discovery of the problems), deduction (testing of theories and hypothesis) and abduction (uncovering and relying on the best of a set of explanation for understanding one’s results. In using this, once the researcher used this in the same phenomenon and have the same result, the researchers have superior evidence for the result.

37. FIVE MAJOR PURPOSES OR RATIOANLES FOR CONDUCTING MIXED METHODS 1. Triangulation It is seeking evidence from the results of different methods and designs studying the same phenomenon. 2. Complementary It is seeking collaboration, enhancement, illustration and clarification of the results from one method with the results from the other method. 3. Initiation- discovering paradoxes and contradictions that lead to a re-framing of the research question. 4. Development- it means using the findings from one method to help inform the other method. 5. Expansion- seeking to expand the breadth and range of research by using different methods for different inquiry components.

38. Assessment Task 1-1 Instruction: Fill the table with the needed information. You may research about uploaded thesis/dissertation online and/or borrow a completed one from an educator or someone who has conducted it for academic purposes.

39. Assessment Task 1-2 Title: Thinking Media – The world economy has been restructuring itself; the fastest growing industries in the UK are the Creative Industries. Attracting the best creative minds to London is imperative for the city’s economic advantage. We must understand what makes the industry so unique in the present economic landscape in order to ensure its continued success. There is no doubt, that understanding how the best creative work is conceived and produced, is paramount. To achieve this, ‘ Adland ’ and distinctively a London Media Agency provide the setting for a qualitative case study. The literature review evaluated some of the different approaches to general creativity. This has helped to identify patterns within various academic contributions, and explain the ways media planners negotiated creativity. Further review of the academic and trade press publications on advertising creativity, gave the research a vital background. This research has discovered that the new economy is altering the very structure of advertising. The role of media planner is also changing as dynamically as the business, in response to the need for constant new ideas and solutions. However results showed that the most creative part of the process was not as was expected, limited to actual idea generation sessions. Creative thought was found to be necessary in the whole process of developing one cohesive message, and then above all to clearly communicate it. Media planners were found to be largely unaware that government has labelled the creative industries as the bedrock for ensuring the country’s economic success. They were equally surprised to hear of the concept of the ‘creative class’. They do, however see the bigger picture, and the need for good ideas. The agency as a whole appeared ready to operate as an ideas powerhouse in the marketing arena.

40. Questions: 1. How do you classify the research? 2. What is the intended use? 3. How does it treat time? 4. What data collection techniques were used

41. TASK 3: REFLECTIVE EXERCISE

42. RESEARCH PROBLEM

43. Introduction The term problem originates from a Greek word “Proballein” Meaning anything thrown forward, a question proposed for solution, a matter stated for examination.

44. Definition “a situation for which we have no ready and successful response by previously acquired habit”-by R.S.Woodworth. In other words it means a situation in which a ready solution is not available. The solution can be found out only after an investigation.

45. Selection of a Research Problem Is the problem relevant and important. Does the subject area suits to his interest. Does it contain originality and creativeness. Does the problem requires extension of knowledge.

46. Cont.., Is the problem feasible with respect to time and date required in its solution. Is the study reveal some new ideas. Is the study practically fulfill the objectives. Is the problem of investigation is too narrow or too broad.

47. Steps involved in Research Choice of a topic. Data collection. Formation of Hypothesis. Verification. Writing the thesis.

48. Choice of Research Problem The interest of the research scholar in the research work. Technological change. The unexplored area. The available publications on specialised area of his interest. The dialogue or discussion with the supervisor.

49. Sources of Problem Published works Record of previous research. Discussion with learned person. Research abstracts, Research Bulletins, Research reports and Dissertation abstracts. Conference proceedings and papers presented in technical sessions. Trend Reports.

50. Criteria of a Good Research Problem. Clarity and unambiquity: The problem should be related clearly and unambiguously question form. Empirical verification: The problem should be such as to imply possibilities of empirical testing. Relation between variables expressed: The problem should express a relation between two or more variables.

51. Cont…, Novelty: fundamental qualities needed for a research problem. Duplication of work is avoided Interest: The problem should be interesting for the investigator himself. If he is not interested in it, he will not be able to take and overcome the obstacle which comes at every step of research. Importance: It should be significant enough and involves an important principle or practice. .

52. Cont…, Empirical verification: The problem should be such as to imply possibilities of empirical testing. Availability of Guidance: Every research activity needs the patronage of guide and approval and sanction of a competence authority.

53. Cont…, Experience and creativity: Good research problem stem form a clear understanding of the theoretical empirical and practical aspects of the subject derived from personal experience and from a thorough review of the literature. Level of Research: It is another criterion to help in the selection of a problem. The nature and scope of a study will be determined.

54. Cont…, Amenability: The problem chosen for research should be amenable to investigation.Research should posses a reasonable basic knowledge in necessary statistical techniques. Availability of date: Availability of Co-operation: Availability of other facilities.

55. STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL