GED 4-ETHICS. It is the study of Ethics.

Ethics

1. GED 4 ETHICS MAE ANN B. VALENTIN Instructor Davao de Oro State College [email protected]

2. GENERAL INTRODUCTION THE STUDY OF ETHICS AND CULTURAL CONCEPTIONS OF THE GOOD

3. Questions: Does not everyone already have a sense of what is good and bad behaviour? Does not everyone have an instinct about what one ought to do? What one’s duties are? Why is there a need to spend time thinking about what is already inherent in everyone’s mind? Why is it important to take a course in ethics?

4. People like to think that their/our traditions are already clear and unquestionable to serve as basis for how they/we should act.

5. Thus, one cannot rely solely on one’s culture to come to a genuine understanding of the good. There is always the possibility that one’s cultural conception of the good can lead to destructiveness and violence.

6. WHAT IS ETHICS? What do people think about when they think ethically? What is the experience on which ethical reflection is grounded?

7. Ethics is the branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. It seeks to answer questions about morality and to provide guidelines for what constitutes ethical or moral actions. Importance: It helps individuals navigate complex moral issues and informs our decisions and actions in various aspects of life, including personal relationships, business dealings, and societal norms. WHAT IS ETHICS?

8. According to the Divine Command Theory - a moral act is one which GOD says is moral- “Jesus said: “Give unto Caesar what is Caesar’s”, so I should pay my tax bills.” According to the categorical Imperative- a moral act is one which would be universally beneficial if everyone did it- “If everyone told the truth, the world be a better place. Therefore, I should tell the truth.” According to Act Utilitarianism- a moral act is one which does most good for the most people- “If I throw the switch on the railway tracks, the runaway train will run down only one person rather than three.” THE MORAL ACT

9. Human being act based on how we feel and have the capacity to reflexively examine a situation before proceeding to act with respect to how we feel. Although feelings provide us with an initial reckoning of a situation, they should not be the sole basis for our motives and actions. THE MORAL ACT

10. Example: A person who is in a state of rage towards a perceived enemy or competitor is likely unable to process the possible consequences of his/her actions done impulsively. THE MORAL ACT Feelings WITHOUT reason are blind REASON sets the course for making ethical and impartial decisions especially in moral situations although it is not the sole determining factor in coming up with such decisions. Reasons and feelings must constructively complement each other whenever we are making choices.

11. When feelings like anger, jealous and shame are out of control what do you think will happen to one’s moral capacities? THE MORAL ACT one’s moral capacities become short-sighted and limited REASON put theses emotions in their proper places seeking not to discredit their validity but calibrating them such a way that they do not become the primary motive in making moral decisions.

12. Is reason in and by itself a sufficient instrument in assessing moral situations? THE MORAL ACT Reasons can sometimes be blinded in implementing and following its own strict rules that it becomes incapable of EMPATHY for the others

13. Example: Stealing food out of hunger THE MORAL ACT To punish a person for doing it without even trying to listen to his/her reasons for committing such an act may be considered COLD and CRUEL. REASON may be a reliable ground for moral judgement, needs the feeling of EMPATHY to come up not just with a MORAL but also a JUST decision. What is good for you may not be good for others.

14. Example: Jeepney driver gets as many passengers as he can in order to address the needs of his family of by breaking a few traffic rules that to his mind harms nobody THE MORAL ACT If one’s reasoning does not consider the interest of people that are affected by his/her actions, then he/she is actually being prejudicial to his/her own interests. MORALITY involves IMPARTIALITY. PREJUDICES makes decisions IMPARTIAL. REASON recognizes not only the good of oneself but also the good of others.

15. 7 STEPS MORAL REASONING MODEL THE MORAL ACT

16. Personhood –it is the human being himself/herself who gives meaning and receives significance from the acts that he/she executes. FROM THE ACT TO THE PERSON

17. THE ACADEMIC ETHICAL TRADITIONS -Gawi and Gawa and Habituation -Ethics and Ethos -Plato’s Insight Into the Good PART 1

18. Gawi and Gawa and Habituation In Filipino ethical tradition, “ gawa ” refers to action or free action that is oriented toward a particular end, such as a worker using their free imagination and will to create products or services that contribute to society’s well-being. On the other hand, “gawi” refers to habituation or habitual actions that reveal truths about oneself For example, a person who habitually helps others (gawi) may be seen as kind or generous. This habitual action becomes part of their character. In contrast, a single act of helping someone ( gawa ) may not necessarily reflect one’s overall character but is a deliberate action taken at a specific moment.

19. Gawi and Gawa and Habituation The concept of habituation in Ethics suggests that repeated actions (gawi) can form one’s ethical character over time, influencing future actions ( gawa ). A person’s kagawian or habitual action reveals truth about himself/herself. A person is judged good or evil, right or wrong based on kagawian or habituation - Kagawian is the Filipino equivalent of ethos in Greek and mos or moris in Latin

20. Ethics and Ethos The term ethics comes from the Greek word ethos , which means custom, a characteristic, or habitual way of doing things, or action that is properly derived from one’s character . The Latin word mos or moris (and its plural mores) from which the adjective moral is derived is equivalent to ethos. From a purely etymological point of view, ethical and moral are, therefore, synonymous. Also, restricted to such rootword considerations. Ethics and morality may only be a “simple description of the mores or ways of behaving, whether of the human person in general or of a particular population.”

21. Ethics and Ethos Ethics is philosophy of human action that allows them to learn the art of living. It is an art that enables them to be reconciled with their freedom and that which is expected of them (by others and themselves). Thus ethics is a way for them to find happiness. Ethics considers which is worthy of a human being. Filipino saying: Madaling maging tao , mahirap magpakatao .

22. Plato’s Insight Into the Good Athens and Greece went through an expansion of trade around 600 BCE. This “global awakening on the part of Greeks like Plato plunged him to an experience of social, political and intellectual challenge. Because of exchange of different experience Plato was interrogated by different points of view. Plato shared this “global” challenge; it lead to questions of truth and inquiry into what is good. “What is truly good?”

23. Plato’s Insight Into the Good In Plato’s philosophy, “the good” is the ultimate form and the source of all reality and knowledge. It is comparable to the sun in the Allegory of the Cave, which represents truth and enlightenment. The journey out of the cave is a metaphor for the philosopher’s ascent to knowledge and understanding of “the good.” The story of Gyges’ Ring, on the other hand, raises questions about human nature and morality. It suggests that without consequences, individuals might not act morally, implying that people need to be guided to understand and choose “the good.” Both stories relate to Plato’s insight into “the good” by illustrating the importance of knowledge and enlightenment in achieving moral virtue. The Allegory of the Cave shows that understanding “the good” leads to ethical behavior, while Gyges’ Ring warns that without insight into “the good,” people might act immorally if they believe they won’t be held accountable.

24. CHAPTER 1 VIRTUE ETHICS: ARISTOTLE Ethics as the Art of Living Well -Eudaimonia -The Soul -Virtue, the Mean and Practical Wisdom -Contemplation and Philosophical Knowledge

25. OBJECTIVES Recognize the meaning of eudemonia or happiness and its relation to ethics; Differentiate the parts of the soul in relation to their respective functions; Appreciate and articulate the role of virtue in crafting an ethical life; Determine the role of habit in the formation of a virtuous character; and Articulate the difference between philosophical knowledge and practical wisdom

26. Starter: Think-Pair-Share What admirable qualities do these people have? What to you think Virtue Theory might be about?

27. Starter List the things you believe personally bring happiness.

28. INTRODUCTION “The Greek philosopher Aristotle [384-322 B.C.] he shares with his teacher what radically distinguishes the human person from other forms of being is his/her possession of reason (logos) . Nicomachean Ethics – one of his many books that thought to be dedicated to his son, Nicomachus, an essentially a guide for living well. A handbook for those who seek to build and cultivate one’s character in the hope of achieving life’s ultimate goal (telos), where he says is happiness or flourishing (eudaimonia)

29. Aristotle in Nichomachean Ethics states that the Human end or telos is to achieve Eudaimonia or happiness

30. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL Eudaimonia (chief good of the human person) -a Greek term that refers to human flourishing or living well. Aristotle defined it as rational activity in accordance with virtue. -It is often translated as ‘happiness’ or ‘welfare’ but encompasses more than just happiness; it includes virtue, morality, and a meaningful life. -For Aristotle, Eudaimonia is the self-sufficient (make life complete), final (desire itself and not for the sake of something else) and attainable goal of human life.

31. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL Eudaimonia (chief good of the human person) Happiness above all seems to be of this character, for we always choose it on account of itself and never on account of something else. Yet honor, pleasure, intellect, and every virtue we choose on their own account—for even if nothing resulted from them, we would choose each of them—but we choose them also for the sake of happiness, because we suppose that, through them, we will be happy. But nobody chooses happiness for the sake of these things, or, more generally, on account of anything else.

32. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL Eudaimonia (chief good of the human person) -Aristotle, our chief good is something we continually actualize (in practice) -is not achieved by one grand act or one big decision, for it is something one constantly strives for. - is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue. - Happiness is a lifelong activity, it is something we decide to do to ourselves - Happiness not mere self-indulgence or pleasure-seeking (Aristotle).

33. INTRODUCTION Aristotle consider that morality is not merely a matter of knowing the good but actually doing or practicing the good habitually. For him, we can only fully actualize our potential as human beings once we understand what being human essentially aims to and do the necessary things to fulfill our function (ergon) in the most excellent way possible.

34. INTRODUCTION Just as he believes that other things have a specific function and end, for instance, a pair of scissors, whose function and end is to cut things, Aristotle also believes that such a purpose also exists for human beings. To fulfill this function in the most excellent way possible is to live ethically, that is, to achieve a way of flourishing suited to us.

35. Aristotle Saw ‘happiness’ ( eudaimonia ) as something that was sought for itself rather than as a means to some other end. For Aristotle, happiness requires an active & thoughtful engagement with life, it is not simply given. Hence, the virtues are qualities that are to be cultivated, expressed through & reinforced by action. 35

36. Plato, Aristotle and the ‘cardinal’ virtues- What are the 4 ‘cardinal’ virtues? Temperance (or moderation) Justice Courage Prudence (or wisdom) [now think of an acrostic that will ensure that you can remember them]

37. Using your notes write these questions According to Aristotle what is the superior aim? What are the four cardinal virtues?

38. Our virtues must work together like the finely tuned engine of a car

39. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL The Soul -Aristotle (happiness is an activity of the soul) -He emphasize the role of the soul more than of the body is elucidating his ethics.

40. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL THE SOUL Speculative (responsible for knowledge Practical (responsible for choice and action) Rational Irrational Vegetative (nutrition and growth) Appetitive (passion, desire)

41. It is, therefore, important to remember that there is a part of the soul that calls for reason’s governance. Giving in to raw and unchecked appetites is oftentimes the reason a person commits immoral acts. A person’s raw biological and psychological desires blind him/her from the implications of what he/she does to the fulfillment of his/her end, which is happiness. In other words, giving in to passions keeps a person from flourishing and derails him/her from his/her true end as a person. Aristotle is not saying that it is wrong to have such desires. It is only natural to have such passions for they are a constitutive part of having a soul. However, people who aim to be happy must be responsible for such desires and keep them in check. For Aristotle, moral virtue is necessary in making sure that desires do not control the behavior.

42. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL The Virtue, Mean and Practical Wisdom -The Greek word for virtue is aretē which means excellence. By ‘excellence,’ the Greeks thought of how a thing fulfills its function (ergon) in accordance with its nature. - Example: If a knife cuts excellently, is sharp, durable and dependable for different tasks, then it may be said that it is an excellent knife- it does what it is supposed to do in the best way possible.

43. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL The Virtue, Mean and Practical Wisdom VIRTUE Moral Intellectual Excellence in the performance if decisions about moral and practical activity One’s capacity to harness reason’s contemplative capacity for arriving at knowledge.

44. Book 2 of the Nicomachean Ethics Virtue, then, is twofold, intellectual, and moral. Both the coming-into-being and increase of intellectual virtue result mostly from teaching-hence, it requires experience and time-whereas moral virtue got its name [ êthike ] by a slight alteration of the term habit [ethos]. It is also clear, as a result, that none of the moral virtues are present in us by nature, since nothing that exists by nature is habituated to be other than it is. For example, a stone, because it is borne downward by nature, could not be habituated to be borne upward, not even if someone habituates it by throwing it upward ten thousand times. Fire, too, could not be borne downward nor could anything else that is naturally one way be habituated to be another. Neither by nature, therefore, nor contrary to nature are the virtues present; they are instead present in us who are of such nature to receive them and who are completed through habit.

45. Aristotle emphasizes the role of practice and habit in the formation of moral virtue. No person is born morally virtuous. However, all persons have the latent potentiality to be so, if only they habitually do excellent deeds. But what are excellent deeds? What are virtuous actions? How does a person develop the capacity to bring these virtues out of the realm of possibility to the realm of actuality? It is only in practice that we come to know that we truly know how to do something. It is only in running that we come to know how fast we can actually run and gain the right to call ourselves runners. Analogously, Aristotle declares that we become morally virtuous by doing morally virtuous acts. We become just by doing just acts.

46. Knowledge Check What are the different parts of the soul? What the types of virtue? What is the role of virtue in crafting ethical life? How we build a virtuous character?

47. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL The Virtue, Mean and Practical Wisdom Aristotle argued there are two vices that accompany every virtue: Vice of deficiency is the distinct lack of virtues Vice of excess is entirely too much of the virtue which leads to excess At some point between the two vices exists the virtue, this is referred to as the doctrine of the mean (golden mean) that can be considered as the appropriate response to the demands of different situations.

48. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL The Virtue, Mean and Practical Wisdom -Example: If you and a friend decide at around 10:00 a.m. to meet in a mall to watch a movie at 2:00 p.m. The travel time from your house to the mall. How much time it usually takes you to attend to before going to the mall Other appointments you might have to attend to before going to the mall. The mode of transportation you will use to get to the mall and etc.

49. To be morally virtuous, one must be able to respond to situations not just with the correct feeling or action but in the proper degree, at the right time, towards the right people, and for the right reasons.

50. Virtue, therefore, is a characteristic marked by choice, residing in the mean relative to us, a characteristic defined by reason and as the prudent person would define it. Virtue is also a mean with respect to two vices, the one vice related to excess, the other to deficiency; and further, it is a mean because some vices fall short of and others exceed what should be the case in both passions and actions, whereas virtue discovers and chooses the middle term. Thus, with respect to its being and the definition that states what it is, virtue is à mean; but with respect to what is best and the doing of something well, it is an extreme. ARISTOTLE DEFINES VIRTUE AS FOLLOWS:

51. Group Question– First write your answer; then discuss them in your group. You are driving down the icy highway, and the person a few hundred feet in front of you spins out of control, hitting other cars and finally going off the highway. The car rolls a couple of times before it lands upside down in the ditch. Traffic comes to a halt, and you are in the vehicle closest to the wreck. You notice that there is no movement from the car. You smell gasoline and notice that there is a spark or two coming from the overturned car’s engine. You hear a child crying and notice the “baby on board” bumper sticker on the overturned car. 1. According virtue ethics, how should you act in this situation? Explain/Justify your answer using terms such as the golden mean . 2. Knowing your own personality and behavior, how would you probably act?

52. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL The Virtue, Mean and Practical Wisdom - For Aristotle, virtue is a state of one's character that is the result of choice. This choice is governed by prudence or practical wisdom (phronesis). Phronêsis is the human person's instrument in dealing with moral choices. Practical wisdom participates in the capacity of the rational part of the soul to reckon situations without easily giving in to the push and pull of the various desires which emanate from the appetitive part of the soul. Phronêsis is the intellectual virtue responsible for bringing the human person closer to his/her chief good in the realm of morality.

53. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL The Virtue, Mean and Practical Wisdom In other words, practical wisdom aids one in being happy. It is comprised both of knowledge and action. One's capacity for choice and action must be guided by the intellectual virtue of practical wisdom or phronêsis in pursuit of the mean or the mesotes for one to be able to call himself/ herself morally virtuous. Aristotle is somehow saying that for one to attain chief good (happiness), the person must continually bring himself/herself to situations where his/her mettle and skills may be tested.

54. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL The Virtue, Mean and Practical Wisdom To be ethical is to be good, to be good is to be virtuous, to be virtuous is to be wise, to be wise is to be happy

55. ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL Contemplation and Philosophical Knowledge - Intellectual intelligence (practical wisdom- phronesis and theoretical wisdom- sophia ) - If practical wisdom (phronesis) serves as a guide for action in everyday life, the act of contemplation is a pursuit of philosophical wisdom. Example: Courage is a practical virtue it need specific conditions (calls for bravery) to be attained, while philosophy is something a person can do it himself/herself anytime through reflection and thought - Living well means having the complementary disposition of intelligent conduct and a thirst for philosophical wisdom.

56. Strengths of Virtue Ethics of Aristotle: Importance of the Person, Motive, Heart, Conscience Connection to Community Realization that morality is not defined by moments but by a long-term process Allowance for gray areas, varying contexts, different levels of moral maturity and life contexts

57. Weaknesses of Virtue Ethics of Aristotle: Dependence on strong communities Not easily applied to ethical issues or to give us practical solutions Demands time Can be turned into a really poor duty-based ethics Might be taken as situational ethics

58. CONCLUSION Ethics is a matter of living well through the habitual practice of virtue which essentially translates into having a virtuous or excellent character. Happiness, being the chief good of the human person, is attainable through the proper exercise of reason, both morally and intellectually. Eudaimonia is an activity of the soul that purposively attempts to choose the mean between two extremes in the realm of morality. As the saying goes, "You can't put a good man down." This seems to resonate with Aristotelian ethics. For him, a good man, a person who has cultivated the proper virtues and has imbibed these in his/her thoughts and deeds, will always flourish.

59. CONCLUSION A person of virtuous character always finds a way to stay intact even in dire times. That person does not compromise the dictates of reason in exchange for the immediate fulfilment of his/her passions. In other words, in being habituated to choose the mean, he/she remains virtuous and, therefore, happy in every circumstance. It is the person's ability to adapt while remaining true to himself/ herself as a rational human being which allows him/her to flourish in various environments.

60. CONCLUSION For example, according to Aristotle, a person who has cultivated the virtue of honesty throughout his/her life will not be influenced by a corrupt system. In fact, it would not even occur to that person that taking bribes or signing dubious contracts are an option because he/she has been so habituated to always choosing neither excess nor deficiency, but always the mean which is the choice proper to a person that stays true to himself/ herself as a rational being.

61. CONCLUSION Aristotle teaches us that character is the most essential component of ethics. A virtuous character is the result of the proper combination of practical wisdom (phronesis) and habituation (ethos) in the pursuit of the mean ( mesotes ). Being ethical is all about being excellent in being human, which is, being excellent in fulfilling one's essence as a rational being that has cultivated an excellent character and is, therefore, capable of making the most prudent decisions in all circumstances.

62. QUIZ 1 What does happiness mean for Aristotle and why does he consider it as the chief good of the human person? What is virtue and what is its place in the ethical theory of Aristotle? What is the mean and how is it related to virtue? What is the difference between moral virtue and intellectual virtue? How do you understand the meaning of character? How is character relevant in making moral choices? Can you think of areal-life example of a virtuous person? Why do you consider him/her to be so? How can you apply Aristotle’s ethics in improving the current state of you self?

63. CHAPTER 2 THE NATURAL LAW: ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

64. OBJECTIVES Recognize the meaning of natural law and its relation to ethics. Explain how natural law is an imprint of Divine Will (Creator) on the free person. Appreciate and articulate the role of natural law in crafting an ethical life. Discuss conscience and how this is defined by natural law.

65. Natural Law – KEY VOCABULARY OBJECTIVE Judgements based on an impartial absolute value system, not influenced by personal feelings. NORMATIVE Considers how people ought to act in moral situations. ABSOLUTIST Fixed moral rules that apply to everyone, regardless of the situation. DEONTOLOGICAL with some TELEOLOGICA L elements. Deontological = the act itself is inherently right or wrong. Teleological = The end goal/purpose of an action determines whether the act was right or wrong.

66. What is Natural Law? Natural Law is based on the view that the universe has a natural order that works to achieve an ‘end’ or ‘purpose’ ( telos ). Human beings are part of the natural world, so they too have a purpose. Natural Law is about humans acting in a way that follows a natural moral code/law that is innate within each of us and leads us towards our purpose. Acts that lead towards our purpose = good/moral acts.

67. Natural Law – Aristotle (384-322 BCE) The tenets of Natural Law can be traced back to Aristotle . Q: What is the telos (purpose) of human life according to Aristotle? A: EUDAIMONIA (Happiness – living well/being fulfilled). Q: How is eudaimonia achieved? A: By being good/moral through cultivating virtues. How do humans know what ‘good’ is? Through using their REASON . He suggested that if all humans in a society used their reason well, then we would reach a happy society.

68. Natural Law – Cicero (106-43 BCE) Natural Law made its first systematic appearance with Roman lawyer, Cicero . Cicero said that, “ True law is right reason in agreement with nature .” For Cicero, the author of this ‘law’ was God. This connection between Natural Law and God was developed by 13 th century theologian and philosopher, Thomas Aquinas ...

69. Natural Law – Aquinas (1225-1274) THINK-PAIR-SHARE What do you know about Aquinas?

70. Aquinas’ Natural Law: Purpose THE PURPOSE OF HUMANS Aquinas believed that the order and purpose he observed in the world reflected the will of _______ Something is ‘good’ when it achieves its God-given _________(telos). The ultimate purpose of humans, being “made in the image of God”, is union and ___________ with God. In achieving their purpose, humans reach PERFECTION. This is reached in the afterlife – in _____________. God is the ‘_______________ good’ towards which humans strive. They aim to fulfil God’s will. Missing words : highest fellowship God purpose heaven

71. Aquinas’ Natural Law – Reason Aquinas believed that the ‘highest good’ (fellowship with God), towards which we must aim, could be discovered through using REASON . Aquinas believed that reason is GOD-GIVEN . Reason leads a person to arrive at the right course of action when faced with a moral dilemma, allowing them to reach their purpose/telos. Moral life = a life lived according to reason. A human can choose to go against reason, but Aquinas says: “To disparage the dictate of reason is equivalent to condemning the command of God.” Q: Why does Aquinas believe this?

72. Natural Purpose What is the NATURAL purpose of the images above? Who does Aquinas believe is governs such NATURAL purposes?

73. Purpose Would Aquinas think that the following images: FOLLOW natural purposes Or GO AGAINST natural purposes?

74. Does this follow natural purposes?

75. Does this follow natural purposes?

76. Does this follow natural purposes?

77. Does this follow natural purposes?

78. Does this follow natural purposes?

79. Does this follow natural purposes?

80. The Four Levels of Law Read about Aquinas’ four levels of law (p142 Eduqas). Eternal Law Divine Law Natural Law Human Law With your ‘elbow buddy’ try and explain the four levels of law in your own words. List examples of people following Divine Law and Human Law in real life. Making ‘connections’: Are there any similarities to other ethical theories that you have studied?

81. Four Levels of Law Aquinas suggested that ethical laws are bound up in the four levels of law which filters through from God to humans. ETERNAL LAW: The principles through which God governs the universe and which only God knows completely. The will of God is revealed to humans through ... DIVINE LAW: t he sacred text (Bible) and teachings of the Church, which are made known in ... NATURAL LAW: the innate human ability to know what is naturally right (through reason), from which ... HUMAN LAW develops, such as the laws of society – it’s legal systems, e.g. not to kill.

82. One Destiny! Since Aquinas believed that God created everybody, theist and atheist, their ultimate destiny is the same. Q: What is this destiny (purpose/telos) of humans? A: Union / fellowship with God. Aquinas believed God made it possible for all human beings to achieve their ultimate purpose in life by ... ... the powers of REASONING alone.

83. One Destiny! God chose to reveal himself to humanity through the person of Jesus Christ, whose teachings are transmitted through the Bible (Divine Law). This is extra help for believers striving for perfection. Using REASON and the BIBLE ( combining Natural Law and Divine Law ) makes it easier for people to reach God. Those who are not Christian will find it more difficult to achieve their purpose, but the way is not closed to them.

84. Natural Law is the key Whilst it is possible to leave Christianity out of the route to God, Aquinas did not consider it was possible to leave out Natural Law: this essential God-given part of every person’s make-up is what enables us to make moral judgements. Task: Draw a visual aid to explain Aquinas’ belief that the ultimate purpose is achieved by all humans.

85. Consolidation Task: Aquinas’ Natural Law How much do you remember? Hold your whiteboard up with the correct answer ...

86. Telos Greek word for ‘purpose’ / ‘goal’.

87. Aristotle Ancient Greek philosopher who influenced Aquinas’ Natural Law theory.

88. Eudaimonia The purpose of humanity, according to Aristotle.

89. Cicero Said “True law is reason in agreement with nature.”

90. Fellowship with God The purpose of humanity, according to Aquinas.

91. Reason Humans must use this to know the moral course of action to be taken that will fulfil one’s purpose.

92. God Where human reason comes from (according to Aquinas).

93. Divine Law God’s moral laws are revealed to humanity through sacred texts / the Bible.

94. Natural Law The innate human ability to use our God-given reason to know what is morally right and thus fulfil our natural purpose.

95. Quick Recap… NATURAL LAW (according to Aquinas) is … The innate human ability to use our God-given reason to know what is morally right and thus fulfil our natural purpose. The ultimate purpose for humans, according to AQUINAS, is to ... ... reach the HIGHEST GOOD – FELLOWSHIP WITH GOD.

96. The Precepts Aquinas created the ethic Natural Law by reasoning out precepts (rules) of Natural Law. By following these rules/precepts the moral agent would be achieving their telos of developing into the image of God and eventually reaching fellowship with God in heaven. The key precept on which all precepts are based is to “act in such a way as to achieve good and avoid evil.”

97. Primary Precepts “Act in such a way as to achieve good and avoid evil.” In other words ‘ do good, avoid evil ’. POWER P reserve innocent life O rderly society W orship God E ducate children R eproduce The primary precepts are ABSOLUTES !

98. Primary Precepts Aquinas set out 5 primary precepts (laws/rules) that he thought a society should follow. With your ‘elbow buddy’, discuss each primary precept and how it might relate to a God-given purpose. Where do you see examples of each precept in society or in laws?

99. Secondary Precepts What are secondary precepts? Rules about things we should or shouldn’t do because they uphold, or fail to uphold the primary precepts . How do we arrive at the secondary precepts? Through using right reason to guide us towards those ‘goods’ that will enable us to thrive and flourish. What secondary precept can be deduced from the primary precept of ‘orderly living in society? Do not steal. Write a secondary precept for each primary precept.

100. What type of theory is Natural Law? ABSOLUTE There are universal moral norms/laws that apply to all people and all situations . In the case of Natural Law – all humans must follow the primary precepts. They are universal moral norms.

101. What type of theory is Natural Law? DEONTOLOGICAL Actions are intrinsically right/wrong regardless of the consequences. In Natural Law, the Primary Precepts are rules that must be upheld regardless of the consequences. Natural purposes are good within themselves (e.g. it is naturally good to allow a sperm to meet the egg).

102. What type of theory is Natural Law? Some people say that Natural Law also has TELEOLOGICAL aspects. What does this mean? Concerned with the end goal/purpose of an action. How is it possible for Natural Law to be both deontological and teleological? It’s deontological because people have a duty to obey the fixed rules on good or bad actions that are derived from the precepts. It’s teleological because the end goal/purpose of following these rules is eternal life in heaven to have fellowship with God. These rules are known through empirically observing the purpose of an item/act.

103. Divine Law Compliments Natural & Human law. “It is necessary for man to accept by faith not only things which are above reason, but also those which can be known by reason: and this for three motives. First, in order that man may arrive more quickly at the knowledge of Divine truth…. Second,... In order that the knowledge of God may be more general. For many are unable to make progress in the study of science, either through dullness of mind, or through having a number of occupations and temporal needs, or even through laziness in learning, all of whom would be altogether deprived of the knowledge of God, unless Divine things were brought to their knowledge under the guise of faith.” He goes on to say…

104. Divine Law Compliments Natural & Human law. “The third reason is for the sake of certitude. For human reason is very deficient in things concerning God. A sign of this is that philosophers in their researches, by natural investigation, into human affairs, have fallen into many errors, and have disagreed among themselves. And consequently, in order that mean might have knowledge of God, free of doubt and uncertainty, it was necessary for divine matters to be delivered to them by way of faith, being told to them, as it is were, by God Himself Who cannot lie” [S.T., II, II, Q. 1, art. 4].

105. Consider the following from Aquinas: “[As to] certain most general precepts that are known to all,… the natural law, in the abstract, can nowise be blotted out from men’s hearts. [However, the natural law] is blotted out in the case of a particular action, in so far as reason is hindered from applying the general principle to a particular point of practice, on account of concupiscence or some other passion…. But as to the other, i.e., the secondary precepts, the natural law can be blotted out from the human heart, either by evil persuasions, just as in speculative matters errors occur in respect of necessary conclusions; or by vicious customs and corrupt habits, as among some men, theft, and even unnatural vices, as the Apostle states ( Rom . i), were not esteemed sinful.” ~ S.T., I, II, Q. 94, art. 6.

106. Consider the following from Rice: “ A person can so dull his conscience with repeated sin that he will no longer acknowledge that what he is doing is wrong. As Saint Thomas said, “Through sin, the reason is obscured, especially in practical matters, the will hardened to evil, good actions become more difficult, and concupiscence [yearning of the soul for the good] more impetuous.”

107. THREE CONTEMPORARY QUESTIONS Who am I? Who do I want to be? How can I get there?

108. Natural Law Theory: The “conscience” is the pedagogue to the soul (teacher). Judaism, Origen, and Aquinas say that all ten of the Commandments (the Decalogue) are in some sense self-evident. Modern Christian scholars such as J. Budziszewski defend this view.

109. Conscience We know that we are to pursue good and avoid evil because natural law is written on the heart (prescriptive, not descriptive). We have the ability to tell right from wrong. We can violate natural law, but when we do, we personally suffer (e.g., guilt).

110. QUIZ (Write up) Explain Aquinas’ Natural Law theory. [20] (You will add to this next lesson) PEEL P oint – make a point E xplain – explain that point E vidence /examples – provide evidence / examples to support the point. (Scholars ideas/quotes/analogies are good to use here) L ink – link to the question and the paragraph which follows You must mention: Reason Final purpose of humans Four levels of law Primary and secondary precepts Absolutism, deontological and teleological. Examples