Git Prodigy Mastering Version Control with Git and GitHub Ebenezer Don

Git Prodigy Mastering Version Control with Git and GitHub Ebenezer Don
Git Prodigy Mastering Version Control with Git and GitHub Ebenezer Don
Git Prodigy Mastering Version Control with Git and GitHub Ebenezer Don

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3. GitProdigy
Mastering Version Control with
Git and GitHub
Ebenezer Don
This book is for sale athttp://leanpub.com/git-prodigy
This version was published on 2023-08-31
This is aLeanpubbook. Leanpub empowers authors and
publishers with the Lean Publishing process.Lean
Publishingis the act of publishing an in-progress ebook
using lightweight tools and many iterations to get reader
feedback, pivot until you have the right book and build
traction once you do.
© 2023 Ebenezer Don

5. Contents
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1. Introduction to Version Control. . . . . . . . . .4
What is Version Control?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Why is Version Control Important?. . . . . . . . 8
Introduction to Git. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Other Version Control Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 19
Installing Git. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and
GUI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Basic Git Commands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
CLI vs GUI: Understanding the Differences. . . 34
Performing Basic Commands in VSCode. . . . . 38
Creating Your First Repository and Making Your
First Commit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Viewing the Commit History and Reverting To
A Previous Commit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

6. CONTENTS
3. Branching and Merging in Git. . . . . . . . . . .51
Understanding Branches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Creating and Switching Between Branches. . . . 55
Merging Branches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Resolving Merge Conflicts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Branching and Merging Using VSCode. . . . . . 67
4. Introduction to GitHub. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
What is GitHub?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Creating a GitHub Account. . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Exploring the GitHub Interface. . . . . . . . . . . 79
Creating Your First GitHub Repository. . . . . . 83
5. Remote repositories with GitHub. . . . . . . . .87
Understanding Remote Repositories. . . . . . . . 88
Connecting Git with GitHub. . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Cloning a GitHub Repository. . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Pushing to and Pulling from GitHub. . . . . . . . 100
6. Collaborating on GitHub. . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Understanding Collaborators and Permissions. 105
Inviting Collaborators to a Repository. . . . . . . 108
Forking a Repository. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Pull Requests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Code Review and Merging on GitHub. . . . . . . 125
7. Best Practices for Git and GitHub. . . . . . . .129

7. CONTENTS
Writing Good Commit Messages. . . . . . . . . . 131
Managing Branches Effectively. . . . . . . . . . . 137
Repository Organization and READMEs. . . . . 141
Things to Keep in Mind when Working with Git
and GitHub. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8. Licensing and Open Source. . . . . . . . . . . . .147
What is Open Source?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Open Source Licensing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Best Practices for Contributing to Open Source
Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9. Advanced Git Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Stashing Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Rebasing and Rewriting History. . . . . . . . . . . 171
Using Git Hooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Git Blame and Bisect: Tracing Changes and
Debugging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
10. Troubleshooting Common Git and GitHub
Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Detached HEAD State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Authentication Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Recovering Lost Commits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11. Conclusion and Next Steps. . . . . . . . . . . .195
Reflecting on Git and GitHub Concepts. . . . . . 196

8. Further Resources and Learning Paths. . . . . . . 199
Appendix A: Git Command Cheat Sheet. . . . . .204
Appendix B: Glossary of Git and GitHub Terms.210

9. Preface
This book exists for one reason: tohelp you master Git,
GitHub, and the open-source landscape, regardless of
your prior knowledge or experience.
When I first encountered Git, I was, frankly, scared of
it. The concept ofVersion Controland the commands
associated with Git seemed intimidating. The term“Open
Source”was a mystery, and I couldn’t understand how a
group of strangers around the globe could use GitHub to
efficiently collaborate on a project. However, my perspec-
tive changed dramatically when I finally delved in and
learned how to use Git. I came to the startling realization
of how many thousands of hours and years of lost work I
could have saved if I had embraced it earlier. Git became a
tool thatempowered me to work confidently, giving me
the freedom to collaborate, experiment, and even break
things, all while knowing I had a reliable safety net.
“Git Prodigy”was crafted as a clear, accessible, and
practical guide designed to unravel these powerful tools
and the vibrant world of open-source software.
In the pages of this book, we will take a journey. It’s
a journey that begins in the roots of version control,

10. Preface 2
unfurling the basic concepts of Git. You’ll learn how
to initiate a new repository, stage and commit changes,
manage branches, and merge code—always with an eye on
real-world application, with plenty of examples to make
the concepts come alive.
We’ll then exploreGitHub, a platform that has emerged
as a cornerstone of collaborative software development.
You’ll learn how to work with remote repositories, use pull
requests, manage code reviews, and fork projects. But we
won’t stop at the mechanics: you’ll also learn how to work
effectively as part of a team, leveraging GitHub’s features
to facilitate productive collaboration.
Beyond Git and GitHub,“Git Prodigy”shines a spotlight
on the thrivingopen-source community. This ecosystem
is as diverse and colourful as it is influential, shaping
much of today’s software landscape. Through this book,
you’ll gain a deep understanding of the customs, rules,
and culture of open-source software, with insights into
licensing and best practices for making contributions.
This knowledge willempower you to participate con-
fidently, responsibly, and meaningfully.
As we reach the final chapters, you’ll learnadvanced
Git featuresand real-world troubleshooting techniques.
From rebasing to cherry-picking, from handling merge
conflicts to recovering lost commits, you’ll acquire skills
that turn problems into opportunities for learning and

11. Preface 3
growth.
In this journey, you’ll learn more than just commands
and features. You’ll understand the philosophy behind
Git, GitHub, and open source—thewhy, not just the
how. Whether you’re a beginner hoping to grasp the
basics, an experienced developer aiming to hone your
skills, or an open-source enthusiast seeking to contribute
more effectively, you’ll find“Git Prodigy,”a valuable
companion.
Let’s get started.

12. 1. Introductionto
VersionControl
This chapter sets the foundation for understanding the
importance and role of version control in software devel-
opment. We’ll delve into Git, one of the most widely used
version control systems, and explain the key differences
between Git and GitHub. We’ll end the chapter with a
guide on how to install Git.
•1.1 What is Version Control?
•1.2 Why is Version Control Important?
•1.3 Introduction to Git
•1.4 Git vs GitHub: What’s the Difference?
•1.5 Other Version Control Systems
•1.6 Installing Git

13. 1. Introduction to Version Control 5
What is Version Control?
Imagine you’re working on an important document, like
an essay or a report, and it’s been weeks since you
started. You keep restructuring your document as you
write, adding and removing paragraphs, and saving your
changes.
Then you realize that you’ve made a mistake. You’ve
deleted a paragraph that you wanted to keep. You try
to undo your changes, but you’ve saved over the same
file multiple times, and you can’t go back to the previous
version. You’re stuck!
Now, if you have ever worked on a project and saved dif-
ferent versions at different points with names like “first-
draft”, “second-draft”, “final-draft” or “final-final-draft-
for-real”, to avoid this problem, instead of overwriting
only one saved file, you’ve actually done some kind of
version control. You did this so that you can always go
back to a previous version in case you don’t like your new
changes.
Version Control, in programming, is just a more sophis-
ticated and streamlined version of this concept. It’s like
a time machine for your project. It keeps snapshots of
your work at different points in time, and you can travel
back and forth through these snapshots whenever you

14. 1. Introduction to Version Control 6
want. And the best part? It’s all in one place; you don’t
need multiple versions of the same file cluttering your
workspace.
There are two types of version control systems:Central-
izedandDistributed.
Centralized Version Control (CVC)
Centralized Version Controlis like having one master
document on a central server. Users check out parts of the
document to their local workspace, make modifications,
and then push those changes back to the master document.
There’s a single place where you can find the history of
the document and see all the changes. But, if something
happens to that central place, all the history might be lost.
Distributed Version Control (DVC)
Distributed Version Control is different. It’s like every-
one having a complete history of the document. They
can make changes independently and later merge their
changes with others. Even if the central place is lost, the
document’s history is safe because everyone has a copy.
This is the type of version control we’ll be learning in this

15. 1. Introduction to Version Control 7
book, and it’s the most popular type of version control
used today.
Gitis a Distributed Version Control System that allows
you to keep a history of your project, collaborate with
others easily, and make changes without affecting the
main project until you are ready.
In the following sections, we’ll dive into the fascinating
world of Git and learn how to harness its power for
managing your projects efficiently and collaboratively.

16. 1. Introduction to Version Control 8
Why is Version Control
Important?
Version controlis essential to modern software develop-
ment for a multitude of reasons. It’s like an insurance
policy for your project, offering a safety net for potential
mistakes and facilitating smooth team collaboration. Let’s
dive into some specifics of why version control is so
indispensable.
Reverting and Rectifying Mistakes
Everyone makes mistakes, and programmers are no ex-
ception. Sometimes you’ll make changes that either create
new bugs or just don’t pan out the way you hoped. With
version control, there’s no need to panic.
Imagine you roll out a new feature for your web app
and immediately receive messages about a critical bug.
Version control allows you to swiftly revert to a stable
version of the code, effectively undoing the changes, so
you can address the issue.

17. 1. Introduction to Version Control 9
Experimentation Without Fear
Being innovative and experimenting with new ideas is at
the heart of software development. However, experiment-
ing in your main codebase can be risky. Version control
systems allow you to mitigate this risk.
For example, consider a scenario where you are develop-
ing an app and want to add a new feature that you’re
not sure will be enjoyable. Version control allows you to
create a separate copy of your code, known as a branch,
for experimentation. If your new feature proves to be
successful, you can merge it back into the main code. If it’s
unsatisfactory, you can simply discard the branch without
affecting the main codebase.
Simplifying Collaboration
When working on a software project with a team, things
can get messy if you don’t have a good system in place.
Imagine multiple people making changes to the same files
- it’s a recipe for disaster without version control.
Let’s say you and your colleague are both working on
different features of a mobile app. Version control enables
you both to work on the same codebase without inter-
fering with each other’s work. When you’re both done,

18. 1. Introduction to Version Control 10
you can combine your changes into the main project, and
if there are any conflicts, the version control system will
help you resolve them.
In essence, version control is not just a good-to-have, it’s a
must-have for any software development process. It’s
like a safety net, a time machine, and a team coordinator
all rolled into one. In the next section, we’ll start our
journey into one of the most popular version control
systems - Git.

19. 1. Introduction to Version Control 11
Introduction to Git
Now that we’ve established how critical version control
is for software development let’s delve into Git. Git is
a Distributed Version Control System (DVCS) that has
become an industry standard for both small and large-
scale projects. In this section, we will lay the groundwork
for understanding what Git is, how it differs from other
version control systems, and why it has become so popular
among developers.
What is Git?
Git is a distributed version control system designed to
manage the source code history of software development
projects. It was created byLinus Torvaldsin2005to
manage the development of the Linux kernel. Since then,
it has become the most widely used version control system
in the world.
The term “distributed” in its architecture means that each
user’s working copy of the codebase includes the full
history of changes and commits. Unlike Centralized Ver-
sion Control Systems (CVCSs) where there’s one central
repository, in Git, every developer’s working copy is a
repository.

20. 1. Introduction to Version Control 12
Arepository, often shortened to “repo,” is a storage
location where all the files of a project and their history
of changes are stored. A repository can be local, which
means it’s stored on your computer, or remote, which
means it’s stored on a server.
Git’s distributed architecture makes it possible to work
offline on your local repository, and then push your
changes to a remote repository when you’re ready. This
remote repositoryis typically a version of your project
that is hosted on the Internet or network somewhere. This
makes collaboration and version control efficient, even
with large codebases and teams.
How Does Git Work?
To track changes in your project, Git uses a feature known
as acommit. Commits in a Git repository are like
snapshots of your project at a particular point in time.
With commits, you can revert to previous versions of your
project, compare changes over time, and identify when
and where changes were made.
These snapshots are stored within a directory at the root
of your project called.git, which is created when a new
Git repository is initialized. This directory is hidden by
default on most systems and contains all the information

21. 1. Introduction to Version Control 13
necessary for Git to manage your project’s history. To
see the contents of the.gitdirectory, you might need
to enable the option to show hidden files in your file
explorer.
Whenever you make a commit, Git saves a snapshot of
what all your files look like at that moment. This is
different from some other VCSs, which store data as a list
of file-based changes.
Why Use Git?
Here are a few reasons you might want to use Git for your
projects:
•Speed: Git is fast. Since you have the entire reposi-
tory and history on your local machine, most opera-
tions are almost instantaneous.
•Collaboration: Git’s distributed nature makes it easy
for teams to work together. Different members can
work on different features in parallel.
•Data Integrity: Git uses a cryptographic hash func-
tion called “SHA-1” to generate unique identifiers for
each commit. This helps ensure data integrity and
tracks changes, contributing to the protection of your

22. 1. Introduction to Version Control 14
files, directory structure, and history from unnoticed
modifications or corruption.
•Flexibility: Whether you’re a solo developer work-
ing on a small project or part of a multinational team
on an enterprise application, Git can scale to your
needs.
•Open Source: Git is free and open source. It has
a large, active community of contributors, which
means it’s continually being improved and updated.
•Integration: Git integrates well with various devel-
opment tools and platforms, making it versatile in
different workflows.
In Summary:
Git is not just an ordinary tool—it’s an entire ecosystem
that stands on its own. The combination of its decen-
tralized structure, exceptional efficiency, and flexibility
makes it the favored version control system among many
developers. As we progress through this book, you’ll ob-
tain hands-on knowledge and understand how to harness
Git’s potential to manage your code effectively.

23. 1. Introduction to Version Control 15
Git vs GitHub: What’s the Difference?
One of the common questions everyone new to version
control has is the distinction between Git and GitHub.
Although they sound similar and are closely related, they
serve different purposes. Let’s demystify these two and
understand how they complement each other.
Understanding Git
As we discussed in the previous section, Git is a version
control system. It is a tool that manages the source code
history and allows multiple developers to work on a single
project without stepping on each other’s toes. Git is
software that you install locally on your computer, and
it works primarily from the command line (though there
are also graphical user interfaces for Git).
Key Points about Git:
•It is a Distributed Version Control System (DVCS).
•It allows you to track changes, create branches, and
collaborate in your local code repository.
•Git does not require an internet connection for most
operations.

24. 1. Introduction to Version Control 16
•It is free and open source.
Understanding GitHub
GitHub, on the other hand, is a web-based platform that
uses Git for version control. Think of it as a social
networking site for coders and their code. It allows you
to upload your Git repositories online, making it easier
to collaborate with others. GitHub provides additional
features such as Pull Requests, Issues, and Wikis for your
repositories.
Key Points about GitHub:
•It is a hosting service for Git repositories.
•It facilitates collaboration by making it easy to share
repositories and work with others.
•GitHub offers additional features such as Pull Re-
quests, code reviews, and Issue tracking. We’ll dis-
cuss these in detail in later chapters.
•GitHub can be integrated with third-party tools and
services, such as continuous integration systems,
code quality measurement tools, and project
management applications.

25. 1. Introduction to Version Control 17
•GitHub provides several security features such as se-
curity vulnerability alerts, automated security fixes,
and token scanning to protect repositories and user
data.
How They Complement Each Other
Git is mainly a local tool; you use it to track changes
on your computer. It is powerful on its own, but its
capabilities are magnified when you bring GitHub into
the mix. With GitHub, you can share your code with
the world, collaborate with other developers, and even
integrate third-party apps and services.
When to Use Git and When to Use
GitHub
•Use Git when you are working on a project (either
alone or with a team) and need to keep track of the
changes in your code.
•Use GitHub when you want to share your project
with others, collaborate more efficiently, or when
you need a remote backup of your repository.

26. 1. Introduction to Version Control 18
In Summary:
Git is the tool, and GitHub is the service that hosts your
repositories and enhances collaboration. They are distinct
but complementary. While you can use Git without using
GitHub, utilizing them together creates a more powerful
and efficient workflow, especially for collaboration on
larger projects or open-source contributions. Next, we’ll
look at other version control systems and how they com-
pare to Git.

27. 1. Introduction to Version Control 19
Other Version Control Systems
While Git is undoubtedly one of the most popular version
control systems, it is by no means the only one. There are
several other VCSs, each with their unique features and
strengths. It’s beneficial to know that alternatives exist,
as different projects may have different needs. Let’s take
a brief look at some other prominent VCSs.
Subversion (SVN)
Subversion, also known as SVN, is a centralized version
control system initially developed by CollabNet Inc in
2000, and now maintained by the Apache Software Foun-
dation. Unlike Git, which is a distributed system, SVN
follows a more linear approach to version control.
While SVN does support branching and merging, the
mechanism is quite different and can be more cumber-
some compared to Git. SVN requires a connection to the
central repository for commits, but it can track changes
offline to some extent. Some teams find SVN straight-
forward and suitable when transitioning from a no-VCS
setup, but it lacks some of the robust features offered by
distributed systems like Git.

28. 1. Introduction to Version Control 20
Mercurial
Mercurial is a distributed version control system like Git,
but it was designed with simplicity in mind. Its commands
and workflow are more straightforward, making it easier
to learn, especially for those new to version control.
While Mercurial supports most of the basic features of Git,
such as local commits and easy branching, its simplicity
does come at the cost of fewer features by default. How-
ever, it does have a robust plugin system that allows you
to extend its functionality.
Perforce
Perforce, orHelix Core, is a version control system that
is widely used in the gaming industry. It excels in
handling large binary files, making it an excellent choice
for projects like game development, where you’re dealing
with 3D models, textures, and other large assets.
However, Perforce operates as a centralized version con-
trol system and is proprietary software. So depending
on your project’s needs or team size, you might need to
purchase a license.
Unlike Git, Perforce lacks a distributed architecture and
does not support local repositories in the same way that

29. 1. Introduction to Version Control 21
Git does.
Concurrent Versions System (CVS)
Concurrent Versions System, first released in 1986, is
an older centralized version control system, once widely
used in the open-source community. CVS allows multiple
developers to work simultaneously on a project, a notable
advancement when it was introduced.
However, CVS is less efficient with large projects or binary
files and has a more error-prone branching and merging
system compared to newer VCS like Git or SVN. Develop-
ment on CVS has slowed significantly, and it lacks many
features found in contemporary systems. Today, CVS is
mostly used in projects that adopted it before modern
systems were available and have not yet migrated to a
newer VCS.
In Summary:
Different version control systems have different strengths
and are suited to different types of projects. While Git’s
robustness, flexibility, and widespread adoption make it
the tool of choice for most software development projects,
other systems may be more suited to specific use cases.
The key is to understand your project’s needs and the
capabilities of each VCS. Regardless of the specific system

30. 1. Introduction to Version Control 22
you use, the important thing is that you use version
control. It’s an essential tool for modern software de-
velopment. In the following chapters, we will focus on
mastering Git, but many of the principles and practices
you’ll learn will apply to other version control systems as
well.

31. 1. Introduction to Version Control 23
Installing Git
Now that we’ve learned what version control is and have
a basic understanding of Git, it’s time to start using
Git practically. The first step is to install Git on your
computer. This section will guide you through the process
of installing Git on Windows, macOS, and Linux.
Installing Git on Windows
1.Go to the official Git website atgit-scm.com
1
.
2.Click on the “Download” button for Windows.
3.Once the installer is downloaded, run the .exe file.
4.During the installation, you can leave the default
options selected or customize them according to your
preferences.
5.Click “Install” to begin the installation process.
6.Once the installation is complete, you may need
to restart your computer or your command promp-
1
https://git-scm.com

32. 1. Introduction to Version Control 24
t/PowerShell terminal to ensure Git is accessible from
any command prompt.
7.You can open the Git Bash application, which is a
command-line interface for using Git on Windows.
Installing Git on macOS
1.Git might be preinstalled on macOS. You can check
this by typinggit --versionin the terminal. If it’s
already installed, you’ll see the Git version displayed.
2.If you don’t have Git or want to install a newer
version, the easiest way to install Git is using Home-
brew. If you don’t have Homebrew, you can install it
by visitingbrew.sh
2
and following the instructions.
3.After installing Homebrew, you can install Git by
typingbrew install gitin the terminal, and
pressing Enter.
4.To check if Git was installed successfully, typegit
--versionin the terminal. It should display the
installed Git version.
2
https://brew.sh

33. 1. Introduction to Version Control 25
Installing Git on Linux
1.On a Linux system, you can use the package manager
that comes with your distribution to install Git.
2.For Debian/Ubuntu-based systems, open a terminal
and typesudo apt-get updatefollowed bysudo
apt-get install git.
3.For Red Hat/Fedora-based systems, usesudo dnf
install git.
4.Please note, other distributions might require differ-
ent commands or procedures.
5.To confirm that Git is installed, typegit --version
in the terminal. This will show you the version of Git
that’s installed.
Configuring Git
After installing Git, it’s a good idea to configure it with
your information.
1.Open your terminal or Git Bash (on Windows).

34. 1. Introduction to Version Control 26
2.Typegit config --global user.name "Your
Name"and press Enter.
3.Typegit config --global user.email "youre-
[email protected]"and press Enter.
This sets up your name and email as the author of your
commits. It’s important because every commit you make
will include this information.
Wrapping Up
Congrats! You have successfully installed and configured
Git on your system. You’re now ready to start creating
repositories, making commits, and delving deeper into
version control. In the next chapter, we’ll take a closer
look at creating your first repository and making your first
commit. Let’s dive right in!

35. 2. GettingStarted
withGit-Command
LineandGUI
In this chapter, we’ll discuss how to interact with Git, both
through the command line Interface (CLI) and Graphical
User Interface (GUI) tools, with a focus on understanding
when to use each. We’ll walk through some basic Git
commands and use Visual Studio Code to perform them
in a GUI. This chapter concludes by guiding you through
creating your first Git repository and making your first
commit.
•2.1 Basic Git Commands
•2.2 CLI vs GUI: Understanding the Differences
and When to Use Each
•2.3 Performing Basic Commands in VSCode
•2.4 Creating Your First Repository and Making
Your First Commit

36. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI28
•2.5 Viewing the Commit History and Reverting
To A Previous Commit

37. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI29
Basic Git Commands
Before we dive into creating repositories and making
commits, it’s essential to familiarize yourself with some
basic Git commands. These commands form the bedrock
of your interactions with Git and will be used frequently
throughout your Git journey.
Let’s start by looking at some of the most common Git
commands you’ll use. Remember, practice makes perfect.
So, as you read, try to follow along by typing the com-
mands on your own computer.
git init
Thegit initcommand is used to create a new Git
repository. When you run this command in a directory,
Git initializes a new repository in it. This means that
Git starts keeping track of your files and changes in that
directory. You can run this command in any directory to
create a new repository there:
$ git init
The dollar sign ($) is used to indicate the command
prompt, so you don’t need to type it too.

38. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI30
git clone
Thegit clonecommand allows you to create a copy of
an existing Git repository in your local machine. This is
especially useful when you want to work on a project that
is hosted on a remote repository, like GitHub.
$ git clone <repository-url>
git add
The git add command is used to stage changes for a
commit. It tells Git that you want to include the updates
to a particular file(s) in the next commit. This includes
new files, modifications to existing files, and the deletion
of files. Here, the term “staging” refers to the process of
preparing files for a commit. The “staging area” is where
Git keeps track of the changes that are to be included in
the next commit.
$ git add <file-name>
To add all new and modified files in the current directory
and its subdirectories to the staging area, use the.(dot)
as the file name:

39. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI31
$ git add .
Thegit addcommand also has a-Aflag that allows
you to stage all changes, including all new, modified, and
deleted files in the entire repository, not just the current
directory and its subdirectories:
$ git add -A
git commit
Thegit commitcommand is used to save your changes
to the local repository. This step takes the files as they are
in the staging area and stores a snapshot of these files as
a commit. Acommitin Git is like a checkpoint in your
project history that you can return to at any time. Each
commit has a unique ID, often referred to as a “hash”,
which you can use to access it whenever you need to.
$ git commit -m"Commit message"
The-mflag is used to add a commit message. A commit
message is a short description of the changes you made
in the commit. It’s a good practice to write a descriptive
commit message that explains your changes accurately. In

40. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI32
the terminal, a flag is a way to specify the behavior of a
command. Flags are usually preceded by a hyphen (-) or
two hyphens (--).
Thegit commitcommand also has an-aflag that allows
you to automatically stage files that have been modified
and deleted, but new files that have not been tracked are
not affected:
$ git commit -a -m"Commit message"
If there are new files that you’ve never added to the
repository before, you will need to add them usinggit
add <file>orgit add .before they can be included
in a commit.
If you need to write a longer commit message, you can
omit the-mflag and just rungit commit. This will open
a text editor where you can write your commit message.
When you’re done, save the file and close the editor to
complete the commit. We’ll discuss best practices for
writing commit messages in a later chapter.
git status
Thegit statuscommand displays the state of the
working directory and the staging area. It lets you see

41. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI33
which changes have been staged, which haven’t, and
which files aren’t being tracked by Git. This command
gives you a summary of all the changes that have been
made since the last commit, and which of these changes
are ready to be committed.
$ git status
git log
Thegit logcommand shows a list of all the commits
made to a repository. The commits are displayed in
reverse chronological order, so the most recent commit
is at the top. This command provides a history of your
project, showing the changes made in each commit, as
well as the author of the commit and the date it was made.
$ git log
These commands are just the tip of the iceberg when it
comes to interacting with Git, but they will get you started
on your journey. As we move along through the chapters,
we’ll introduce more commands and dive deeper into how
Git works.

42. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI34
CLI vs GUI: Understanding the
Differences
When interacting with Git, you have two main options:
the command line or a Graphical User Interface (GUI).
Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages.
Let’s explore what each offers and when it might be
appropriate to use one over the other.
Command Line Interface (CLI)
The Command Line Interface (CLI) is a text-based way to
interact with Git. As you’ve seen in the previous section,
you issue commands by typing them into a terminal or
console. This is the original way of interacting with Git,
and it’s powerful because it gives you direct access to all
Git commands.
Advantages:
•Full access to all Git features.
•Automation: CLI allows you to write scripts to auto-
mate repetitive tasks.
•Might be faster for experienced users.

43. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI35
Disadvantages:
•Steeper learning curve for those not familiar with a
command line.
•Requires memorizing commands and their options.
•Might be more error-prone for beginners.
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
GUI tools for Git are applications that provide a visual
interface for interacting with repositories. These tools
are often easier for beginners because they don’t require
memorizing commands.
Advantages:
•User-friendly: Visual representation makes it more
intuitive.
•Easier to learn for those not familiar with the com-
mand line.
•No need to remember commands; options are usually
available through menus.

44. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI36
Disadvantages:
•Might not have support for all Git features.
•Automation is limited compared to the command
line.
•Some GUI tools might not be updated as frequently
as Git itself.
•Might be more difficult to troubleshoot issues.
When to Use CLI or GUI?
•Use the CLIif you’re comfortable with text-based
commands, need to use advanced Git features, or
want to automate tasks using scripts.
•Use a GUIif you’re new to Git, prefer a visual
representation, or don’t have a need for advanced
features and automation.
Ultimately, many Git users find that a combination of both
the command line and a GUI tool is the most effective way
to work. You might use a GUI for day-to-day tasks and the
command line for more complex operations.

45. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI37
In the next section, we will explore how to perform some
basic Git commands using a popular GUI tool: VSCode.

46. 2. Getting Started with Git - Command Line and GUI38
Performing Basic Commands in
VSCode
Visual Studio Code, commonly referred to as VSCode, is
a popular code editor that comes with built-in support
for Git. This makes it an excellent tool for developers
who prefer a graphical interface over the command line.
In this section, we will explore how to perform some of
the basic Git commands we learned earlier, but this time,
using VSCode’s Git integration.
Setting Up VSCode with Git
Before we begin, make sure you have both Git and VSCode
installed on your computer. VSCode should automatically
detect Git, but if not, you can set the path to Git in the
VSCode settings.
Initializing a Git Repository
In the command line, we usedgit initto initialize a Git
repository. In VSCode, you can do this with the following
steps:

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48. "Sympathetic vibrations," said Gerrod happily. "If you could hang up
one of those microscopic shells and ring it it would ring that note.
So, when the vibrations from the piano strike them, they vibrate in
sympathy, only the piano vibrations are so strong and the shells so
fragile that they rack themselves to bits, and the animals are killed.
Whee! Hurray! Hurray!"
He shook hands all around, hardly, able to contain his excitement.
"But I say," said Davis anxiously, "will those vibrations travel through
water, and can we put a piano overboard?"
Gerrod laughed.
"We'll put a submarine siren overboard," he said excitedly, "and tune
it to that note. You can hear a submarine siren for fifteen miles with
an under-water telephone. Man, you've done the trick!"
The maid appeared in the doorway.
"Some one on the telephone for Miss Morrison."
Nita reluctantly left the room where the others were chattering
excitedly. She went to the telephone and put the receiver to her ear,
still unconsciously trying to catch the words of the party in the music
room. Almost the first words she heard drove them from her mind,
however. Her father was speaking.
"Nita," he was saying coolly, "this is your father. I'm marooned in the
house on the island, and the Silver Menace is climbing up the walls.
The windows are blocked. I'm expecting them to break in any
minute. When they do I'm done."
"Daddy!" Nita choked, aghast.
"Simmons, the chauffeur, tried to get across the bridge this
morning," said her father still more coolly, "and the sticky stuff got
him. The room I'm in is dark. The Silver Menace has climbed up to
the roof. We've stopped up the chimney so it can't come down to get
us, but when the house is completely covered we'll be in an air-tight
case that will suffocate us sooner or later. I'm rather hoping the

49. windows will break in before that time. I'd rather die like Simmons
this morning."
"But, daddy, daddy, hold on! We'll come to you——"
"It can't be done," her father interrupted crisply. "I called you to say
good-by and to tell you to look after the families of the servants that
are fastened up here with me." He paused a moment, and said
quietly: "I'm in the library downstairs. I can hear the windows
creaking. They may give way at any moment and let the horror into
the house. It tried to creep in under the doorsills, but we calked
them with the table linen."
"Daddy!" cried Nita agonizedly. "Oh, daddy, try to fight it off just a
little while! We've found a way to stop it! We can kill them all!"
"I have about ten minutes more, Nita," said her father gently. "You
couldn't get to me. Be a good girl, Nita——" There was a crash.
"There go the windows! Good-by, Nita, good-by——"
The others heard her cry out, and rushed from the music room to
hear her calling, calling desperately for her father to answer her,
calling into a silent phone.
CHAPTER IX.
Davis pounded mightily upon the great gate of the half-deserted
shipyard. Behind him, Nita was sobbing in spite of her efforts to hold
back her tears. Evelyn tried her best to calm Nita, but without real
effect. Gerrod had shot the party out at the gate of the shipyard and
darted off in the little motor car on some mysterious errand. Davis
pounded again wrathfully, using a huge stone to make his blows
reverberate through the yard. A workman came slowly toward them.
"Hurry! Hurry!" Nita called tearfully. "Please hurry!"

50. The workman recognized her through the palings. All of Morrison's
employees knew his daughter. The workman broke into a run. The
gate swung open.
"Where's Mr. Keeling, the manager?" demanded Nita urgently. "We
must see him at once."
The workman pointed, and the three of them hurried as fast as they
could walk toward the man he had indicated.
"Mr. Keeling," said Nita desperately. "Father is marooned in our
house up the Hudson. He may be dead by now. We've got to get to
him!"
"I don't know how——" began the manager helplessly.
"I want a submarine siren," said Davis crisply. "One that can be
tuned to different notes. Also the fastest motor boat you have. Give
the necessary orders at once."
"But the Silver Menace——" began the manager again.
"Don't stand there talking," barked Davis in a tone that secured
instant obedience. "Get the siren and the boat. And hurry! This is life
and death!"
Galvanized into action, but still confused, the manager gave the
orders. A fast motor boat that had been hauled ashore and pot into
a shed when the Silver Menace blocked the river was hauled out. A
heavy submarine siren was hastily unearthed from one of the
workshops, and Davis drove the workmen to the task of fitting a
sling on the boat by which the siren could be lowered over the bow.
A heavy crane was run up and the motor boat made fast, in
readiness to be lifted overboard. Every one worked with the utmost
speed of which they were capable. Davis was not his usual good-
natured self now. He drove his workmen mercilessly. Hardly had the
last of their preparations been completed when a heavy truck
rumbled into the yard. Gerrod had commandeered the truck and
worked wonders. A grand piano had been lifted bodily into the big
automobile. As the truck stopped he was lifting the lid that protected

51. the keys. An electrician stood by the siren, with the tuning apparatus
exposed. Hardly had the engine of the truck been shut off when
they were busy tuning the blast of the siren to match the tinkling
sound of the piano. It took a heart-breakingly long time to get the
pitches precisely alike, but then the launch swung high in the air and
alighted on the surface of the jelly below. The electrician in the
launch pressed the button that would set the siren at work sending
out its blast of sound waves through the water.
Those on the bank watched in agonized apprehension. The siren
sank into the jelly like mass. No audible sound issued from it, once it
was submerged, but when the curious sound waves issued into the
water from the giant metal plate that in normal times carried
warnings to ships at sea a change was visible in the jelly. Where
ever the curious water sound traveled the silvery jelly clouded and
abruptly turned to liquid! Almost instantly the space between the
two wharves, in which the launch lay, was free of the horrible stuff.
Gerrod shouted excitedly. Davis swore happily. Nita pushed anxiously
forward.
"We've got to get to daddy!" she cried desperately. "We mustn't
waste a second! Not an instant!"
The four of them piled into the launch. An engineer leaped down
and twisted the motor. The fast launch shot forward, the submarine
siren at the bow sending out its strange water sound that was
inaudible to those on board, but which had such an amazing effect
on the microscopic animals that composed the silver sea. As the
launch gathered speed and headed up the Hudson a high bow wave
spread out on either side. The water on which they rode was
yellowed and malodorous, but it was water, and not the silvery, slime
that had threatened the world. The Silver Menace vanished before
the launch as if by magic. When the motor boat approached, with its
siren still sounding fiercely, though inaudibly, the jellied surface of
the river shivered into yellowed liquid, and the creeping horror on
the banks trembled and became a torrent of water that flowed
eagerly back into the bed of the stream.

52. The island on which Morrison had been marooned loomed up ahead,
looking like a small mountain of silver. The house at its top was as a
monument of shining metal. But as the boat sped toward it the
silvery appearance of the coating clouded and melted away. Instead
a torrent of evil-smelling water poured down the sloping sides of the
island and into the river again!
They found the servants weeping for joy. Morrison, when the
windows of the library had broken in under the weight of the mass
of the horror outside, had leaped through the door of the library and
slammed the door behind him. They had calked the cracks with
cloth, and for a moment isolated the Silver Menace in that one room.
As window after window broke in, however, they had been forced to
withdraw from room to room, until at last they were huddled
together in a tiny linen closet, windowless and without ventilation.
They were waiting there for death when they heard the rushing of
water all about them and found the Silver Menace, silver and a
menace no longer, flowing down to rejoin the waters from which it
had come.
As is the way of women, Nita, having sobbed heartbrokenly for
sorrow when she believed her father dead, now sobbed even more
heartbrokenly for joy at finding him alive, but she did not neglect,
after a reasonable interval, to bring Davis forward.
"You know him, daddy," she said, smiling. "Well, he is the person
who found the way to destroy the Silver Menace, and so he's the
person you are going to pay that big reward to."
Morrison shook hands with Davis. He knew what was coming next.
"And though it hasn't anything to do with the other things," Nita said
proudly, "he's the person I'm going to marry."
"It would be ungracious," observed Morrison, "to disagree with you.
Mr. Davis, you are a lucky man."
"I know it," said Davis, laughing in some embarrassment. He looked
at Nita, who dimpled at him, and was promptly and frankly kissed

53. for her daring. She did not seem to mind, however. In fact, she
dimpled again.
The last vestige of the Silver Menace was turned to yellowed water
within a month. Submarine sirens, carefully tuned to precisely the
pitch that would cause the tiny shells to shatter themselves, were
hastily set aboard huge numbers of fast steamers, that swept the
ocean in patrols, clearing the sea as they went. Whenever the clear
note was poured out by one of the under-water sirens the silvery
animalcules died in their myriads. Slowly, as the evil smell of their
bodies dissipated, the inhabitants of the Atlantic Ocean came back to
their normal haunts. By shoals and schools, by swarms and in tribes,
the fishes came down again from the North. A week after the
destroying steamers began their patrol rain fell on the Atlantic coast.
The abnormally dry air above the ocean took up water avidly and
poured it down on the parched earth with a free hand. The ocean,
too, took up again its former function of furnishing cool breezes
during the day and warm breezes at night. The seashore became
once more a place of charm and delight. At least Davis and Nita
found it so. Davis was being waited upon with decorations and
honorary degrees, with the freedom of cities and medals of honor
from learned societies. At each presentation solemn speeches were
made in which he was told how superlatively clever he was.
Remembering the purely accidental nature of his discovery, he found
it difficult to keep from laughing. These things were tiresome, but
were not active nuisances until after his marriage. When he found
that he and Nita would not be left alone, that no matter how
scrupulously they concealed their identity it was sooner or later
discovered and they were interviewed and written up in special
articles for the newspapers he grew annoyed.
The climax came on a beautifully moonlit night at a seashore resort
where they were quite confident they would not be discovered. The
beach was like silver, and the waves were dark and mysterious,

54. except where the reflection of the moon glittered on their shining
sides. Davis and Nita, forgetting the world and devoutly hoping that
they were by the world forgot, sat and looked at the moon and
played idly in the sand and told each other the eternal foolishnesses
that are probably the truest wisdom. They were utterly happy just
being alone with each other.
A dark figure looked up over and coughed. They started.
"You are Flight Commander and Mrs. Davis?" said a voice
deprecatingly.
Davis groaned and admitted it.
"Our little villagers learned that you are visiting here, and a banquet
has been prepared in the pavilion in your honor. Won't you do us the
honor to attend?"
Davis muttered several words under his breath, for which Nita later
reprimanded him, and rose heavily.
The banquet was a great success. The freedom of the village was
given them both. Speeches were made, in which Davis was told how
superlatively clever he was. The band played "See the Conquering
Hero Comes." Davis sat miserably through it all, with Nita, scarcely
less miserable, by his side.
The next morning he sent a wire to Teddy Gerrod:
Can we come and spend our honeymoon with you? People
won't let us alone.
Davis.
Within an hour the answer came:
Come along. We'll let you alone. We're having a second
honeymoon ourselves.
Gerrod.

55. Davis showed the wire to Nita.
"Splendid!" she said with a sigh of relief. Then she dimpled and
looked up at Davis. "But, Dicky, dear, we'll never have a second
honeymoon like they are having."
"We won't?" demanded Davis. "Why not?"
"Because," said Nita, putting her face very close to his. "Because our
first one is never going to stop."
THE END.

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