Growth and development pdf

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

1. GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
SOLOMON MUTINTAKAYASA
4
TH
YEAR BSC NURSING UNZA

2. INTRODUCTION
•Growth and development begins at conception and
ends at death.
•Growth generally takes place during the first 20 years
of life while development continues after that.
•All children pass through predictable stages of growth
and development.

3. CONTI…
•Each child’s progress is unique.
•Though often used interchangeably, they have different
meanings.
•Growth and development begins at conception and
ends at death.

4. CONTI…
•Most people use the terms „growth‟and „development‟
interchangeably and accept them as synonymous. But in
reality, the meanings of these twotermsare different.

5. GENERAL OBJECTIVE
•By the end of this lecture, the student will be able to discuss
growth and development of children and theories of
development and growth.

6. SPECIFIC OBEJECTIVES
•Define growth and development
•Outline the principles of growth and development
•Describe the stages of human development.
•Outline factors affecting growth and development
•Explain current theories of growth and development
•Explain the stages of development throughout the life cycle

7. CONTI…
•Growth refers to an increase in physical size of the
whole body or any of its parts.
•It is simply a quantitative change in the child’s body.
•It can be measured in Kg, pounds, meters, inches, …..
E.t.c

8. GROWTH
•an increase in number and size of cells as they divide
and synthesize new proteins; results in increased size
and weight of the whole or any of its parts
•It is the process of physical maturation resulting in an
increase in size of the body and various organs.

9. DEVELOPMENT
•a gradual change and expansion; advancement from lower to
more advanced stages of complexity; the emerging and
expanding of the individual’s capacities through growth,
maturation, and learning.

10. CONTI…
•It is progressive increase in skill and capacity to function.
•Development is continuous and gradual process (Skinner).
According to Crow and Crow (1965)development is
concerned with growth as well as those changes in
behavior which results from environmental situation.

11. CONTI…
•It is a qualitative change in the child’s functioning.
•It can be measured through observation.

12. TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT
•

13. GROWTH VS DEVELOPMENT ARE THEY THE SAME ?

15. CONT…

16. PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
•Cephalo-caudal (head down to toes)
•Proximodistal(center of the body to the peripheral)
•General to specific
•It’s a continuous process
•It proceeds in an orderly sequence
•It happens at different rates.

17. CEPHALO-CAUDAL(HEAD TO TOE)
•It proceeds from head to tail
•This means that improvement in structure and function
come first in the head region, then in the trunk and
then in the leg region

18. PROXIMAL DISTAL
•It proceeds from the center or midline to the
periphery direction
•Development proceeds from near to far
•Outward from central axis of the body towards
extremities

19. DEVELOPMENT IS CONTINUOUS
•Development is a continuous process:-Development
continues throughout the life of an individual.
•This process takes place in interaction with the
environment in which a person lives.

20. GENERAL TO SPECIFIC RESPONSES
•Children at first are able to hold big things by using both
arms
•Then they are able to hold things in the single hand then
pick small objects like peas, cereals
•When they begin to hold the pencil, they first draw a
circle, then square, then letters and words

21. FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
•Growth and development depend upon multiple factors or
determinants
•They influence directly or indirectly by promoting or hindering the
process
•Genetic factors
•Prenatal factors
•Postnatal factors (e.g. Nutritional and Environmental factors).

22. CONTI…
•Genetic
•Sex
•Race and nationality
•Inheritance

23. FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal factors
•Intra uterine environment is very important predominant factor of growth and development
i.e.
•Maternal nutrition
•Maternal infection
•Maternal substance abuse
•Maternal illness
•Hormones (thyroid hormones, insulin, prostaglanidsetc)

24. PRENATAL FACTORS CONT…
•Maternal substance abuse
•Maternal illness
•Hormones (thyroid hormones, insulin, prostaglanids
etc)

25. POSTNATAL FACTORS
•Nutrition
•Childhood illnesses
•Physical environment
•Cultural influence
•Socio-economic status

26. POSTNATAL FACTORS
•Climate and season
•Play and exercise
•Birth order of the child
•Intelligence
•Hormonal influence

27. FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT CONT’
Intelligence
•It is co-related to some degrees with physical
development i.e., a child of high intelligence is likely to be
better than one of low intelligence. Intelligence influences
illness, mental and social development.

28. FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT CONT’
Hormonal influence
Normal secretions of endocrine glands and gonads
promote normal growth of the body especially in the
young child.

29. FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT CONT’
•Environmental influences, ranging from nutrition to
stimulation and from the impact of disease to the
effects of psychologic factors, interact with genetic
factors to determine the pace and pattern of
development.

30. THEORIES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
•Theories are broad explanations and predictions
concerning phenomena of interest.
•They provide a framework for understanding the
relationship among a set of otherwise organized facts
or principles (Feldman, 1996).

31. •The ingrained patterns of thought, feeling, and behaviour
characterizing an individual's unique lifestyle and mode of
adaptation, and resulting from constitutional factors,
development, and social experience.

32. CONT…
Personalityan enduring pattern of inner experience and
behavior that manifests in two or more of the following;
•cognition (i.e., ways of perceiving and interpreting self and
others);
•Affectivity (i.e., range, intensity, lability of mood)
•Interpersonal functioning; Impulse control

33. PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
•Sigmund Freud provided with a view that personality develops
through a series of five psychosexual stages.
•The newborn infant is essentially an id, driven by the desire for
sexual pleasure and demanding total immediate satisfaction.
According to him failure to resolve conflicts at a particular
stage can result in fixation.

34. ORAL STAGE (BIRTH TO 12-18 MONTHS)
•In the early years of life the sexual instinct is satisfied
through oral contact, i.e. through the act of sucking and
biting the nipple and other objects. Freud termed this
the oral stage of development.

35. CONT…
•Freud suggested that if infants were over indulged (being
fed every time) or frustrated in their search for
gratification, they might become fixed at this stage.
•The child’s bite, sucking and eating are not only a way of
feeding but also as a way of satisfying sexual pleasure
(Libido).

36. CONT….
•Fixation is showing personality traits characteristic of an earlier
stage of development.
•For example, insufficiently gratified infants compensate that by
drinking, smoking, eating a lot when they grow up and sucking
of a thumb.
•Over gratified children may become over dependent.

37. ANAL STAGE –(12-18 MONTHS TO 03 YEARS)
•Following the oral phase the locus of sexual
gratification shifts to the anus, particularly in the act of
defecation; appropriately Freud termed this the anal
stage.

38. •The child becomes aware of the other end of the
alimentary canal (anus).
•The child finds pleasure in playing with the anus or
elimination functions associated with it.

39. PHALLIC STAGE (3 TO 5 –6 YEARS)
•The penis or the clitoris becomes the focus of the libido
during the phallic stage during which all children
experience the Oedipus complex. The Oedipus complex
is named after the mythical Greek character Oedipus who
unknowingly kills his father and then commits incest with
his mother.

40. •According to the theory, the complex occurs when the
young boy lusts after his mother and so views his father
as a sexual rival. Through observation, the young boy
realisesthat girls do not have a penis and comes to the
conclusion that it has been cut off by a jealous father
(this is termed castration anxiety).

41. •Freud attributes the nature of this psychosexual stage
in girls to the notion of penis envy. According to the
theory, penis envy leads to resentment of the mother,
who is believed to have caused the girl’s ‘castration’.

42. •Anxious to avoid this, boys repress their lustful feelings
towards their mother and identify with their father by
adopting many of their father’s attitudes and developing
a superego.

43. •Fixation: If these complexes are not resolved, there will
be inadequate development of masculine or feminine
identity leading to possible homosexual behaviour,
impotence and frigidity.

44. LATENCY STAGE(5 –6 YEARS TO ADOLESCENCE)
•Latency period in which sexual motivations become
much less pronounced.
•At this stage, children’s sexual urges are submerged,
sexual thoughts are replaced and children direct their
energy towards intellectual achievement and coping
with their expanding environment.

45. CONTI…
•Children try to identify people of their own sex until
they reach puberty.

46. GENITAL STAGE (ADOLESCENCE TO ADULTHOOD)
•Genital phase in which the locus of pleasure or energy
release refocuses around the genital area.
•Stories about sex are common during this stage.
•The reproductive system is active and sexual desires
are experienced.

47. CONTI…
•Fixation: If this stage is not handled properly, it may result
in sexual perversion.
•How these desires are resolved is cardinal.
•Masturbation is also common during this stage.

49. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY -BY JEAN PIAGET
•Until the 1930s, children were considered to be small versions of
adults. It was assumed that children just behaved differently
because they had less knowledge and less experience with the
world.
•Jean Piaget (1896–1980), a Swiss psychologist, was instrumental in
developing a theory of cognitive development that fundamentally
challenged this viewpoint.

50. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

51. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
•The course of intellectual development is both maturational and
invariant and is divided into the following stages (ages are
approximate):
•Sensory motor stage (0 –2 years)
•Sensory reflexes set the course for the baby’s first exploration of
the world

52. CONTI…
•Children manipulate the world using their senses and
motor activities
•At 9 months, they develop what is known as “object
permanence”
•Object permanenceis the awareness that objects and
people continue to exist even if they are out of sight.

53. CONTI…
•Later, they develop what is called “Goal Orientation”
•Goal Orientation-is a deliberate plan to meet an object
•During this age, they have a self development of habits i.e.
reaching or grasping a desired object.

54. CONTI…
•At about 2yrs, they develop “Make-believe play”-a kind
of play in which children pretend acting everyday
activities e.g. sleeping, eating, etc.
•Toward the end of the sensorimotor period, children
begin to use language and representational thought.

55. PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2 –7 YEARS)
•It is characterized by language development. Children at this stage
are able to describe people, events and feelings.
•They are engaged in “symbolic play”-this is where children pretend
to play roles e.g. as parents, policemen and imitate various positions
or things

56. CONT…
•Children in this stage are also engrossed in egocentric
thoughts, animism, irreversible, illogical thinking and lack of
conservation.
•Egocentrism-self-centred, taking on their own perspective
and thinking that everyone sees the world the way they do.

57. •Animism-belief or thinking that lifeless things have life
e.g. stones.
•Irreversible-lack of thinking backwards.
•Lack of conservation-lack knowledge that quantities
remain the same despite changes in their appearances

58. CONTI…
•Centration/centering-tendency of the child to focus on
only one aspect of changing system.
•At this age, children think that no body can see them
when they close their eyes.

59. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-12 YEARS)
•At this stage, the child develop the ability to conserve and
become less egocentric, they start understanding things
concretely and tangibly.
•At this, the children believe in seeing and doing, and well with
seen objects.
•But have difficulties with abstract terms.

60. CONTI….
•During this stage, the child have:
•Seriating-child is able to sort objects according to size,
shape or characteristics (can order other things in
sequence)
•Transitivity-ability to recognize logical relationship among
elements

61. CONTI…
•Classification-able to name and identify sets of objects
(can group objects on the basis of common features)
•Decentering, reversibility
•Conservation-child becomes aware that some aspects of
things remain the same despite changes in appearance

62. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12 YEARS AND
ABOVE)
•During this stage, the child can think in abstract terms.
•Begin thinking abstractly, reason logically, able to form
hypothesis
•The child thinks about the future, career and religion.

63. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12 YEARS AND
ABOVE) CONT…
•During this stage, the child (adolescent) experiments a
number of things like alcohol, sex and other vices.
•Personality is fully developed.
•The child learns how to plan and solve problems
systematically.

64. JEAN PIAGET’S 5 BASIC CONCEPTS ON COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
•Organization-according to Jean, this is the on-going
process of arranging, re-arranging, combing and re-
combining of information, behaviour, experiences, and
thought into coherent categories.

65. •Schemes-are basic building blocks of thinking; cognitive
structures in which information is stored.
•Adaptation-is the adjustment to the environment and
takes place through two process:

66. ADAPTATION
Assimilation-the process by which information is
altered or changed to fit into the already existing
structures OR incorporating new experiences or
information.
Equilibrium-is the balance of information and Dis-
equilibrium-where information does not balance,
normally it has just been received.

67. •Accommodation-process by which already existing
structures are altered to fit in new information.

68. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (ERIKSON)
•The most widely accepted theory of personality development
is that advanced by Erikson (1963).
•Erik Erikson described development in terms of critical
periods for the achievement of social goals; if a specific goal is
not achieved at a specific age, the individual will never achieve
the goal.

69. •Erikson proposed eight stages in human personality
development, beginning in infancy and continuing into late
adulthood.
•Each stage is characterisedby psychological crises which the
individual must resolve in order for a successful adult
personality to emerge.

70. •Understanding this model can therefore help the nurse
understand and interpret a child’s behavior.

81. OTHER GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
•Margaret Mahler described early development as a
sequential process of separation of the child from the
mother or primary caregiver.

82. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT THROUGHOUT THE LIFE
CYCLE
•Development starts as early as conception
(pregnancy).
•The following are the stages of development in
chronological order:

83. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN CHRONOLOGICAL
ORDER:
•Intra uterine life
•Infancy
•Childhood
•Adolescence
•Adulthood
•Aging

85. SUMMARY OF THE THEORIES

86. CONCLUSION
•Growth is the increase in body size of an organism
•Development is the progressive change in an
individual adaptation to the environment which
includes physical, intellectual, social and emotional
aspects of one’s behaviour.

87. CONCLUSION
•Human beings go through a lot of developmental stages
from conception to old age.
•Each developmental stage has its own characteristics
and challenges. The way an individual is handled at each
developmental stage will help to determine what type
of a person he/she becomes in future.