History of Pakistan formative years.pptx

History of Pakistan formative years

1. Pakistan History (Since 1947 CE) Course In-charge: Dr. Humera Naz

2. First Martial Law and the Controlled Democracy: The Ayub Era (1958-1969) Ayub Khan, who soon replaced Iskander Mirza in a coup d’état*, promised to restore democracy but instead took greater authority for himself and failed to deliver democracy or progress. This set the pattern for all later military rulers who seized power from elected leaders, as Pakistan lurched between democracy and dictatorship for the next half century. Pakistan’s problems would have been a challenge to any administration, with i. I ts poor, uneducated population ; ii. lack of public services and economic development; iii. disparate ethnic and religious groups and sects that resisted assimilation; and iv. intensifying estrangement between East and West Pakistan . All led to growing disenchantment with Ayub Khan. Within a decade of his coup, demands for freedom brought a temporary restoration of civilian rule. * coup d’état: Sudden and decisive action in politics, especially one resulting in a change of government illegally or by force

3. Ayub Khan became convinced that democracy had to be limited in order to avoid being counterproductive in a struggling, fledgling nation. Unhappy with the civilian government, many Pakistanis supported his coup d’état against Irkander Mirza , and Ayub Khan used this goodwill to institute major reforms in the political, social, and economic fabric . One of main Ayub Khan’s priorities was the destruction of the existing political order . In this connection, he abolished political parties on 7 th October 1958 . In August 1959, Ayub Khan passed the Elected Bodies Disqualification Order (EBDO) . Under this, 75 leaders were disqualified for participating in political activities for 8 years (until December 1966). Politicians who were especially targeted and charged under security laws and martial law regulations were from the National Awami Party and the East Pakistan Awami League since both these parties were opposed to One Unit. Corrupt administrators were put on trial as part of his first demonstration of government reform. In all, some 3,000 public officials were dismissed , and many more were demoted.

4. Basic Democracies Order On October 27, 1959, Ayub Khan introduced the Basic Democracies Order , a plan that replaced the parliamentary system of democracy. He suspended 1956 constitution with an indirect elective government system . The doctrine was based on Ayub Khan’s belief that Pakistan’s largely illiterate population required a more limited form of democracy , one with reduced political and social freedoms . The system was intended to slowly introduce the population to the workings of the government by limiting its decision-making powers to local government and rural development . Ayub Khan called the form of governance “ Basic Democracies ,” while others called it representational dictatorship . The order created some 80,000 elective council seats , whose holders were charged with electing senior government officials . The public voted for the 80,000 representatives , members of village and town councils , who then elected members of the national assembly .

5. Eighty thousand representatives may seem like a large number, but being officials, they were prone to pressure from Ayub Khan and his proxies more than anonymous citizens, and they represented less than one-thousandth of the population . In an effort to curb the influence of landlords , whose concentration of wealth and power was deemed a threat to the government and an impediment to economic progress , Ayub Khan also undertook major land reforms in West Pakistan . The reforms limited the size of land holdings to 1,000 acres for non-irrigated lands and 500 acres for irrigated lands ; for properties exceeding these limits, the excess land would be distributed to people chosen by the government .

6. Islamabad: The New Capital After his coup d’état in 1959, General Ayub Khan was determined to relocate the capital from Karachi to an inland location. Ayub Khan appointed a commission under Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan , chief of the army staff (1917–80), to recommend a site for a new capital. The commission suggested a location just north of Rawalpindi . A Greek urban planning firm, Doxiadis , designed the city, laying it out in a triangular grid pointing toward the Margaila Hills. The name Islamabad, or “ city of Islam ,” was chosen in an effort to placate conservative religious figures concerned about the secular tilt of the Ayub Khan regime. Work on the new city began in 1961, and the first residents arrived in 1963. The Constitution of 1962 officially made Islamabad the federal capital. But only the executive branch was based here. The legislative branch would inhabit a new city near Dhaka, in East Pakistan, in order to demonstrate to the East Wing its importance to Pakistan as a whole

7. Some Historical Pictures of Islamabad

8. Resolving the Indus Water Dispute Finally resolving the long-standing dispute between Pakistan and India over the Indus River’s water, in December 1958 Pakistan unconditionally accepted the World Bank’s plan on the division of the waters . India had already accepted these terms. With Pakistan’s approval, the Indus Waters Treaty was drafted and, on September 19, 1960, signed . It gave Pakistan exclusive rights to the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab Rivers, which flow through West Punjab ; India was granted exclusive rights to the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej Rivers up to the point they enter East Punjab . Additionally, during a 10-year transition period India was to supply Pakistan with waters from the eastern rivers . Pakistan used the transitional period to build and renovate massive water projects. These included dams at i . Warsak in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas; ii. Mangla in Azad Kashmir; and iii. Tarbela , some 30 miles (50 km) northwest of Islamabad .

9. The projects, which also linked canals, barrages, and other water works, were funded with $900 million in World Bank loans, monetary compensation from India, and contributions from Australia, Canada, West Germany, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States .

10. The Constitution of 1962 The Basic Democracies system, with its relatively limited local representation, left council seat holders vulnerable to Ayub Khan’s interference and manipulation. Using these council members as electors, Ayub Khan held a referendum in February 1960 , winning their approval to remain as president for five years and draft a new constitution. With his victory in hand, Ayub Khan established a commission to draft a new constitution. General Ayub Khan was the first ruler to attempt to counter the power of the religious establishment , setting the government on a secular course . In his book ‘ Friends Not Masters’ Ayub Khan accused the ulema of fomenting discontent and anger at the government: “ They succeeded in converting an optimistic and enthusiastic people into a cynical and frustrated community ,” he wrote ( Ayub Khan 1967, 209). The Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, passed in 1961, made religious law subservient to secular rules.

11. The constitution of 1962, adopted in March of that year, consolidated authority in the hands of the nation’s president . The president was to be a Muslim , his term would last five years , and he could serve a maximum of two consecutive terms . As head of state, head of the government, and commander of the armed forces , the president enjoyed absolute power . He had the power to appoint federal ministers and department heads, members of administrative commissions , and provincial governors . He appointed chief justices and judges of the supreme and high courts. The constitution also mandated that Pakistan be renamed the Republic of Pakistan and the word Islamic be dropped from the nation’s name. However, the majority of the National Assembly favored restoring Islamic to the republic’s name, and the first amendment to the 1962 constitution , passed in December of that year, made the nation the Islamic Republic of Pakistan once again. The constitution mandated the establishment of the Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology to generate ideas for ways Muslim citizens could hew more closely to Islamic principles. The constitution also incorporated Ayub Khan’s Basic Democracies plan and its system of indirect representational government.

12. The unicameral legislature consisted of a National Assembly of 156 members . The president had veto power over any legislation approved by the assembly and had the power to dismiss its members . He could also make law when the legislature was not in session . And though these laws needed the eventual approval of the assembly, the president also had absolute power to declare a state of emergency , which abrogated the need for legislative approval . Any future constitutional amendment would require a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly and presidential approval . The Constitution of 1962 retained the principle of parity from the 1956 constitution , providing for equal representation for each of the two wings of the nation. It retained the One Unit concept for West Pakistan . Urdu and Bengali remained national languages, and English the official language for 10 years.

13. The Economy The new decade marked the conclusion of the country’s first five-year plan , which had been belatedly implemented more than halfway into its intended time span . Economic growth had fallen short of its goals during the 1955–60 period. Per capita income had increased by less than 1 percent . The growth in the industrial, agricultural, housing and settlement, transport, and communications sectors was below the very modest targets . Ayub Khan had promised Pakistan an improved economy , but failed to deliver results. Having not achieved his initial objective, he appointed himself chairman of the planning commission overseeing the second five-year economic plan. The plan achieved its goal of accelerating economic growth . Between 1960 and 1965 the nation’s gross national product (GNP) grew at an annual rate of 5.2 percent . The economic expansion and superficial political tranquility made the Ayub Khan regime a model for third world developmental success , cited by many international experts and chroniclers of the era.

14. A New Foreign Policy and the 1965 Indo-Pakistan War At the beginning of the 1960s Pakistan and the United States maintained their military alliance . The United States had leased three air bases from Pakistan that played a key part in the cold war. However, Pakistan’s interest in the alliance was not so much to counter communism but to offset India’s might . Relations deteriorated when leaders in Islamabad began to feel a US tilt toward India ; to address the military disparity, Pakistan began to explore relations with China and the Soviet Union . In 1961 Bhutto negotiated an exploration agreement with the Soviet Union . The Soviets also agreed to provide technical and financial assistance to Pakistan’s Oil and Gas Development Corporation . Closer ties to China were also forged in the early 1960s. China and Pakistan shared a common border, and China was eager to foster improved relations.

15. Kashmir Crisis & Indo-Pak War Throughout these years Pakistan had continued efforts to resolve the Kashmir crisis , primarily by seeking the long-promised plebiscite , which had been approved by the United Nations and agreed to by Pakistan and India. But India refused to schedule a plebiscite, finding reason upon reason for its intransigence. In April 1965 , confrontations between India and Pakistan erupted at the Rann of Kutch . Occupying some 3,500 square miles (9,100 sq. km) between Sindh and the princely state of Kutch, the Rann (Hindi for “salt-marsh”) had been disputed territory before joining India at the time of partition. United Nations–brokered cease-fire ended the conflict. Encouraged by its military success in southern Pakistan and believing that the population of Kashmir could be incited to rise up against Indian occupiers , the Pakistani government decided to seek a military solution to Kashmir .

16. Starting on August 5, 1965 , under a plan code named “ Operation Gibraltar ,” thousands of warriors were infiltrated into Kashmir . The warriors were to provide weapons and leadership once the revolt began. But the operation failed to incite an insurrection and only escalated tensions in the region. Indian prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri (r. 1964–66) tried to control contested Kashmir by imposing presidential rule and asserting the right to enforce legislation. Kashmir’s Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah (1905–82), was arrested for trying to block India’s efforts. Protests against India’s attempt to impose rule erupted in Azad Kashmir. In response, the Indian army crossed the cease-fire line to battle insurgent forces. Full-scale war began on September 6, 1965 when India launched a massive air, armor, and infantry attack on Lahore, Sialkot, and Rajasthan . Pakistani troops invaded India at several points along the border. Seeking to contain the conflict, both the United States and the Soviet Union sought UN intervention .

17. The United Nations arranged a cease-fire , which took effect on September 23, 1965 . Afterward, the Soviet Union sponsored a peace conference at Tashkent , in what is today Uzbekistan which commenced on January 4, 1966 . Under the Tashkent Declaration , issued at its conclusion, Pakistan and India agreed to withdraw their forces by February 25 to positions held prior to August 5, 1964, and agreed to attempt to normalize relations and renounce the use of force to settle disagreements. The agreement, which favored neither nation, stunned many Pakistanis, who felt they were winning the war. For them the declaration represented a humiliation. Public protest and riots broke out across Pakistan. On January 14, 1966 Ayub Khan addressed the nation on the reasons for signing the declaration. Though he was able to make his case to the majority of Pakistanis, his position was greatly weakened in the wake of the peace negotiations

18. Economic Fallout The disastrous Indo-Pakistan War strained Pakistan’s economy and drained the treasury at a time when the country was preparing to implement the Third Five-Year Plan (1965-70) . In addition to accelerating economic growth , the plan sought to reduce the economic disparity between the East and West Wings. By the end of the Second Five-Year Plan, East Pakistan was getting half of all Pakistan’s investment in public-sector development . But when the war with India over Kashmir broke out in the first year of the third plan, developmental resources were diverted to the military . The drain slowed even the development of the new capital, Islamabad . By the last year of the plan the GNP increased at the rate of 5.5 percent annually , and per capita income rose 2.7 percent . But the rising income was not shared equally, and many Pakistanis were experiencing economic stagnation. Meanwhile, the failure to unite the two wings successfully and widespread corruption plaguing Pakistan’s institutions left the public disillusioned with the government.

19. Year Spending on West Pakistan (in  crore   rupees ) Amount spent on West as percentage of total Spending on East Pakistan (in crore rupees) Amount spent on East as percentage of total % of total population 36.23 63.77 1950–55 1,129 68.31 524 31.69 1955–60 1,655 75.95 524 24.05 1960–65 3,355 70.5 1,404 29.5 1965–70 5,195 70.82 2,141 29.18 Total 11,334 71.16 4,593 28.84 Source: Reports of the Advisory Panels for the Fourth Five Year Plan 1970–75, Vol. I, published by the planning commission of Pakistan (quick reference: crore = 10 7 , or 10 million)

20. Growing Unrest People were looking for new leadership , and it came from a charismatic, energetic populist, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto , who became the youngest cabinet minister. Zulfikar Bhutto became the first politician to turn Pakistan toward the Soviet Union and engineered an oil and mineral exploration agreement with the Soviet Union in 1961 . It was Bhutto who championed Operation Gibraltar , the failed effort to stir an uprising in Kashmir that preceded the war with India over the disputed territory. In 1967 Bhutto founded his own party the Pakistan People’s Party. Bhutto’s populist platform of nationalism, socialism, and Islamic revivalism generated vigorous support. Making the defeat of Ayub Khan his priority, Bhutto embarked on a nationwide tour, denouncing Ayub Khan along the way. In November 1968, Bhutto and several supporters were arrested for their campaign activities and incarcerated for three months. The detentions further inflamed the opposition .

21. The Six Points of Awami League The six points are noted as being: The Constitution should provide for a Federation of Pakistan in its true sense based on the Lahore Resolution , and the parliamentary form of government with supremacy of a Legislature directly elected on the basis of universal adult franchise . The federal government should deal with only two subjects: Defence and Foreign Affairs , and all other residual subjects should be vested in the federating states . Two separate, but freely convertible currencies for two wings should be introduced ; or if this is not feasible, there should be one currency for the whole country, but effective constitutional provisions should be introduced to stop the flight of capital from East to West Pakistan . Furthermore, a separate Banking Reserve should be established and separate fiscal and monetary policy be adopted for East Pakistan . The power of taxation and revenue collection should be vested in the federating units and the federal centre would have no such power. The federation would be entitled to a share in the state taxes to meet its expenditures.

22. 5. There should be two separate accounts for the foreign exchange earnings of the two wings ; the foreign exchange requirements of the federal government should be met by the two wings equally or in a ratio to be fixed ; indigenous products should move free of duty between the two wings , and the constitution should empower the units to establish trade links with foreign countries . 6. East Pakistan should have a separate military or paramilitary force , and Navy headquarters should be in East Pakistan .

23. General Elections 1970 When registration was completed in March, 56,941,500 people were on the voter rolls, 31,211,220 of them from East Pakistan , and 25,730,280 from West Pakistan. A total of 1,579 candidates from 24 political parties ran for the 300 National Assembly seats . The Awami League and Zulfikar Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party drew the most public support as the campaign intensified. The Awami League campaigned on its six-point program , while the PPP represented socialistic ideals under the banner of “ Rotti , Kapra aur Makan ” (Food, Clothing, and Shelter) . Religious parties such as Jamat -i- Islami , campaigned on a platform of greater Islamization for the country, while leftist parties promoted regional and socialist agendas.

24. Elections for the National Assembly were scheduled for October 5, and for provincial assemblies, October 19. When the election results were tabulated, the Awami League, led by Mujibur Rahman , won a stunning victory and emerged as Pakistan’s major political power, winning 160 of the National Assembly’s 300 seats . The Awami League also won 288 of the 300 seats in the East Pakistan assembly , though it won no seats in any of West Pakistan’s four provincial assemblies . The PPP won 81 of the 138 seats in the National Assembly reserved for West Pakistan, making it the dominant power in that wing.

25. Civil War: Fall of Dhaka With a clear majority in the National Assembly, the Awami League was entitled to form the government. But Zulfikar Bhutto refused to permit Mujibur Rahman to become prime minister, or to accept Mujibur Rahman’s Six Points . Bhutto also refused to take part in scheduled meetings in the National Assembly to frame a new constitution . Finally, in an effort to find a solution, Mujibur Rahman and Bhutto, along with Yahya Khan, met in Dhaka on March 3, 1971 . They failed to find common ground. Mujibur Rahman immediately mounted a non-cooperation movement . The action paralyzed the government in the east. Public transportation was brought to a halt, and factories and businesses closed. Citizens withheld taxes. The Awami League established a shadow government to take the place of the state’s administrative apparatus . A provisional Awami League army, the Mukti Bahini incited public protest and violence.

26. The floods that had devastated Bengal brought worldwide attention to the impoverished and backward region and helped foster the view in the international community that East Pakistan had suffered from the indifference and rapacious policies of West Pakistan . Seeking to defuse the growing crisis, General Yahya Khan announced the National Assembly would convene in Dhaka, East Pakistan, in March 1971 . In answer, Mujibur Rahman called for an immediate end to martial law and a transfer of power to newly elected representatives before the assembly convened as well as other demands. The demands led to the postponement of the meeting of the National Assembly . In its place the Awami League called for a Resistance Day to take place on March 23, the Republic Day of Pakistan. Yahya Khan traveled to Dhaka during this period, ostensibly to negotiate a resolution to the crisis with Mujibur Rahman and West Pakistani political leaders. But making no real effort to reach a political settlement with the East Pakistani leadership .

27. Without proclaiming the negotiations fruitless, Yahya Khan left Dhaka secretly on March 25, leaving orders for the armed forces to launch an offensive to restore order as soon as he arrived back in Karachi. That night Pakistani forces launched Operation Searchlight , a rampage through the East Wing. Thousands were killed, and Mujibur Rahman was arrested and taken to West Pakistan. The next day, March 26, an Awami League official announced that the East Wing was claiming independence under the name Bangladesh . This is now the nation’s Independence Day. Awami League militants took up arms, and on March 27 Yahya Khan sent in troops to put down the revolution. Hundreds of thousands of Bangladeshis were killed as a result of the conflict, and some 10 million refugees fled to the neighboring Indian state of West Bengal. In response to the refugee crisis India invaded the former East Pakistan to engage the Pakistani armed forces on November 21, 1971 .

28. Members of the Mukti Bahini allied themselves with the Indian forces against the Pakistani troops . Yahya Khan failed to finding a political solution to the crisis . Even before their full-scale invasion, Indian troops trained the Mukti Bahini and launched guerrilla raids into East Pakistan to take on Pakistani forces. Additionally, a military alliance treaty India concluded with the Soviet Union in August 1971 gave the Indian armed forces greater power. Pakistan’s army found itself in an unwinnable conflict from the beginning, but Yahya Khan made no effort to seek relief from the UN Security Council . The conflict spread to Kashmir, where Indian and Pakistani troops crossed the cease-fire line , and into West Pakistan itself as Indian troops invaded Punjab and Sindh . With the situation deteriorating daily, on December 6, 1971, Yahya Khan resigned and appointed a civilian government .

29. Nurul Amin , a prominent politician from Bengal and opponent of the Awami League, was named prime minister (r. Dec. 1971). Later that December Bengali freedom fighters aided by Indian forces entered Dhaka , surrounding the main Pakistani forces under the command of General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi . While it was later determined the Pakistan army could have held out for at least two weeks, General Niazi chose to surrender . On December 17 a formal offer of surrender was agreed upon by the United Nations . Some 45,000 troops from West Pakistan and a similar number of civilians from the west were taken as prisoners of war . The majority of the killings of civilians by the Mukti Bahini occurred after the army’s surrender.

30. East Pakistan Signing of Pakistani Instrument of Surrender by Pakistan's Lt.Gen . A. A. K. Niazi  in the presence of Indian military officers in Dhaka on 16 Dec' 1971 Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

31. Strength   Mukti Bahni 175,000   India 250,000 Pakistan~365,000 regular troops (~97,000+ in East Pakistan ) ~25,000 militiamen Casualties and losses   Mukti Bahni ~ 30,000 killed   India1,426–1,525 killed 3,611–4,061 wounded Pakistan  ~8,000 killed ~ 10,000 wounded 90,000—93,000 captured (including 79,676 troops and 10,324—12,192 local militiamen ) Civilian deaths :  Estimates range between 300,000 and 3 million.

32. Fall from power Yahya Khan, on 20 December 1971, handed over the presidency and government to  Zulfikar Ali Bhutto , the ambitious leader of Pakistan's powerful and popular (at that time) People's Party. Within hours of Yahya stepping down, President Bhutto reversed JAG's (Judge Advocate General) verdict against Sheikh Mujibur Rahman  and instead released him to see him off to London. President Bhutto also signed orders for Yahya's  house confinement , the man who imprisoned Mujib in the first place. Yahya remained under house arrest orders until 1979 when he was released from the custody by martial law administrator General  Fazl e Haq . 

33. Yahaya Khan’s political reign was marked by these significant features: a : Legal Framework Order 1970 b : Dissolution of One-Unit c : Holding of Pakistan’s first free elections on adult franchise d. Fourth Five-Year Plan established parallel panels of economic experts, one from East Pakistan and one from West Pakistan. e : Success of Pakistan Peoples Party in West Pakistan and of Awami League in East Pakistan that confirmed the drastic political differences between the two wings of the country. f : The war of 1971 and the division of Pakistan into two independent states.  

34. Hamoodur Rahman Commission The  Hamoodur Rahman Commission  (otherwise known as  War Enquiry Commission ), was a judicial inquiry commission that assessed Pakistan's politico–military involvement in East-Pakistan from 1947 to 1971 .   The Commission was set up on 26 December 1971  by the Government of Pakistan and chaired under Chief Justice  Hamoodur Rahman . Commission members Supreme Court of Pakistan Chief Justice  Hamoodur Rahman (Chairman) Senior Justice  Anwarul Haq  (Vice Chairman) Senior Justice  Tufail Rahman (Chief Justice of Sindh High Court) Two additional members from Baluchistan High Court Lieutenant-General (retired) Altaf Qadir was its military adviser . Initially, the commission interviewed 213 people and made 12 copies of the report. One of the copies was given to President Bhutto and the rest were either destroyed or were stolen .

35. First report The first report recognized the atrocities and systematic massacre at the Dhaka University. Which eventually led to recommendations of holding public trials for civilian bureaucrats and field courts-martial for the senior staff officers. It is theorized that the first report is very critical of Pakistan military's interference in politics and misconduct of politicians in country's political atmosphere. The first report also made many insightful recommendations for reorganizing the military physicals, tradition, and their syllabus and training agenda as well as promoting the sense of democratization environment in the political system of the country.

36. Supplementary report The final report, also called supplementary report, was submitted on 23 October 1974, showed how political, administrative, military and moral failings were responsible for the surrender of Pakistani forces in East Pakistan .  It remained classified and it contents were guessed from the revealing of different military officers.

37. Findings Both the first and the supplementary report's findings accused the Pakistan Army of carrying out the senseless and wanton arson, killings in the countryside, killing of intellectuals and professionals and burying them in  mass graves, killing of officers of East Pakistan Army and soldiers on the pretense of quelling their rebellion, killing East Pakistani civilian officers, businessmen and industrialists, raping a large number of East Pakistani women as a deliberate act of revenge, retaliation and torture, and deliberate killing of members of the Hindu minority . The report accused the army generals of what it called a "premature surrender" and said the military's continued involvement in running the government after 1958 was one reason for the corruption and ineffectiveness of senior officers . According to the report " Firm and proper action would not only satisfy the nation's demand for punishment where it is deserved, but would also ensure against any future recurrence of the kind of shameful conduct displayed during the 1971 war. "

38. Causes of Separation of East Pakistan The economic disparities between the East Pakistan and the West Pakistan and the reluctance of the rulers to eliminate them were the principal causes of the emergence of Bengali nationalism. Under representation of the East Pakistanis in the Army and Bureaucrac y was another cause of their walk on the path of an independent state of their own. A bsence of nation-wide political parties and charismatic and selfless national leadership also  played a huge role in the dismemberment of the countr y and the independence of East Pakistan. The controvers y over national language  was another great factor that was responsible for the rise of Bengali nationalism In fact, this was the first bone of contention between the East Pakistan and the West Pakistan. The adamant  attitude of Zulfi k ar A li Bhutto  and Yahya K han  to transfer power to the Awami League of Mujib ur Rehaman which had scored a landslide victory in the first ever general elections of the countr y held in  1971 led the Bengalis to the point of no return. The Indo-Pak War of 1971 struck the final blow to the integrit y of Pakistan when an Indian passenger aircraft was hijacked and caused to land at the Lahore a irport by two K ashmiri men. These small-scale ri v alries and skirmishes taking place between the armed forces of the two ever   ri v al countries ultimatel y plunged  them into large-scale war.

39. Zulfikar Bhutto’s Regime His Early Challenges With its East Wing gone, the rationale for Pakistan’s existence, a homeland for the subcontinent’s Muslims, seemed hollow . Pakistan had lost more than half of its population, 70 million people and more than 54,000 square miles of its territory . While those in Bangladesh rejoiced at their independence, Pakistanis in the West Wing reacted in shock and anger, venting their rage at the armed forces and the government. Normalization of relations with India. Relations with the Foreign world ( specifically the forging ties with the Muslim World Centre-Province Relations Role of Islam in Public Sphares Bhutto’s Populism: Hopes and Dashed Expectations ( Populism is a political approach that strives to appeal to ordinary people who feel that their concerns are disregarded by established elite groups .) Atomic Deterrent Constitution Making In one of his first official acts, Bhutto addressed the nation and vowed to rebuild Pakistan and restore its pride .

40. The Simla Agreement ( July 1972) In the immediate aftermath of the war, India held some 92,000 Pakistani troops and civilians as prisoners of war . To win their release, Bhutto met Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi (r. 1966–77, 1980–84) at Simla , in northern India, in late June 1972 and agreed to recognize Bangladesh . India dropped plans to try some 200 soldiers accused of war crimes . The parties signed the Simla Agreement in early July , pledging to use peaceful means to settle differences between the two nations in the future. Both countries also agreed to pull back their troops in Jammu and Kashmir to their respective sides of the internationally recognized border and withdraw from other occupied territories seized in the war. India relinquished more than 5,000 square miles of Pakistani territory it held, and Pakistan relinquished about 70 square miles of Indian territory under its control. The agreement also stipulated the countries resume economic and diplomatic relations . Almost two years later, on February 22, 1974 , Pakistan formally recognized Bangladesh , announced at the Islamic Conference in Lahore with the leaders of Islamic nations in attendance.

41. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s Policies: Internal Policy Though he had championed restoration of democracy, Bhutto initially retained martial law . In March 1972 Bhutto gained effective control over the military by putting officers loyal to him in command of the army and air force . He pushed through an interim constitution that gave him expanded powers. He initially allowed formation of NAP (non-PPP-led) governments in NWFP and Balochistan , but within a few months dismissed these local governments, alleging foreign powers held undue influence over them . He also banned the National Awami Party , the primary voice of the political opposition. Bhutto set the nation on a more economically socialist and politically non-aligned course . In an attempt to break up the concentration of wealth symbolized in the expression “22 families ” in early 1972 Bhutto nationalized 10 heavy industries, including steel, chemicals, and cement .

42. In March he unveiled large-scale land reforms . Since 1959 landholdings had been restricted to 500 acres for irrigated land and 1,000 acres for non-irrigated land . To further break up large estates and make more land available to peasants, the Bhutto government limited ownership of agricultural land to a maximum of 150 acres for irrigated and 300 acres for non-irrigated land. Rights of tenant farmers were also strengthened. A new labour policy was announced increasing workers' rights and the power of trade unions.  Socialism A political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole . Islamic Socialism Islamic socialism  is a term coined by various  Muslim  leaders to describe a more spiritual form of  socialism .  Muslim socialists  believe that the teachings of the Sharia , especially the zakah , are compatible with principles of economic and social equality.

43. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s Policies: Foreign Policy On the foreign-policy front Bhutto terminated Pakistan’s membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and SEATO and recognized the Communist nations of East Germany, North Korea, and North Vietnam . Soon after taking office, he commenced a tour of 20 countries . The display of solidarity with international leaders bolstered the spirit of Pakistanis devastated by the civil war. Bhutto pursued a policy of bilateralism , maintaining good relations with all nations by eschewing alliances with any . The policy’s purpose was to facilitate relations with the three competing major powers: China, the Soviet Union, and the United States . Early in 1972 he visited China and the Soviet Union; the United States, concerned about his policies of nationalization of private industries, was less welcoming to Bhutto when he visited in September 1973. Now that Bengal was no longer part of Pakistan, Islamabad’s standing as the nation’s capital was unquestioned . When Bhutto summoned the members of the National Assembly to session in the spring of 1972, they met in Islamabad, where the constitution of 1973 , the nation’s third, was created and voted into law

44. Unrest in Balochistan Balochistan , with its tradition of independence and aspirations for autonomy , was inspired by the birth of Bangladesh. The Baloch tribes, spread across Central Asia, had been separated by international borders in the 19th century when boundaries between Iran, Afghanistan, and British India were established , disrupting their nomadic life and culture. A large portion of Pakistan’s mineral and energy resources were located in Balochistan , but the local population, among the poorest in Pakistan, benefited little from the wealth of natural resources . The Balochs were unhappy with the growing number of miners, traders, and settlers, mostly from Punjab , migrating to Balochistan to explore these resources. The frustration and anger erupted in an insurgency in 1973 led by the Baloch People’s Liberation Organization . Many of the most committed nationalists had communist leanings and considered seeking protection from the Soviet Union to guarantee the security of the independent Balochistan they envisioned.

45. The core of the insurgency was small , but as the conflict wore on, the appeal of its message grew. Pakistan’s government and military were still reeling from the loss of Bangladesh. Afghanistan was a close ally of India, and India was ruled by Indira Gandhi. Bhutto and others were concerned the Baloch nationalists might receive support from the Afghan, Indian, or Soviet governments . The Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941–79), eager to keep the insurgency from spreading to Balochs in Iran, reportedly promised that should India give them assistance, the Iranian army would battle alongside Pakistani troops in Balochistan . With the pledge of help from Iran, Bhutto used harsh methods to suppress the insurrection. The Pakistan army waged full-scale warfare against the insurgents , deploying Huey-Cobra helicopter gunships supplied and flown by the Iranians. Bhutto gained public support for the war.

46. The threat of loss of another major piece of the country , so soon after the loss of the East Wing, also helped solidify public backing . Western governments feared an independent Balochistan allied with Moscow would give the Soviet Union its long-sought warm-water port , Balochistan’s port of Gawadar . The Soviet Union , which saw Bhutto as a friendly leader, did not want to alienate a potentially important client state . Afghanistan seemed eager to normalize relations with Pakistan and so refrained from supporting the Baloch cause . And India did not want to see further fragmentation of the subcontinent and the instability that could accompany it . Bhutto’s harsh methods ultimately quelled the opposition. Many involved in the movement sought sanctuary in Afghanistan and the Soviet Union as well as in the United Kingdom and France. But the insurrection did not end until 1977 , after Bhutto had been removed from office. The regime of General Muhammad Zia ul-Haq , which deposed Bhutto’s, used economic inducements to win the hearts and minds of the Baloch and tamp down secessionist aspirations.

47. The Constitution of 1973 Bhutto oversaw the drafting of the nation’s third constitution, accomplished with the cooperation of opposition parties, and was able to reach consensus on the fractious issues of i . provincial autonomy, ii. Islam’s place in government, and iii. the nature of the federal government . The constitution declared the nation to be a federal republic ; it continued to be known as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan . In place of the One Unit system that had been adopted in part to mollify East Pakistan, the nation was to have four provinces: Punjab, Sindh , NWFP, and Balochistan . Islam was declared the state religion. The government would be a bicameral parliamentary system consisting of the National Assembly and the Senate . Members of these bodies would choose the president , who would serve a five-year term and be limited to two terms . The president would appoint a governor for each province and also appoint the attorney general, supreme and high court judges, and the chief election commissioner .

48. The prime minister would appoint federal ministers from among members of Parliament . The constitution guaranteed citizens fundamental rights of life, liberty, equality, freedom of speech, and freedom of association . Unlike the previous constitution, which gave the president absolute power, this version made the prime minister the key power . It placed the military under civilian authority in an effort to prevent coups, which had previously brought military rulers to the presidency. The constitution of 1973 was also more Islamic in nature than the two previous constitutions had been. It created an Islamic advisory council , the Council of Islamic Ideology , to ensure all laws were in keeping with the tenets of Islam as had the constitution of 1962. However, it also mandated the government take further steps to promote Islam . These included making the teaching of the Qur’an compulsory in schools; making the government responsible for organizing the collection of zakat , or charitable donations, which Islam requires; and making the state responsible for preventing gambling and prostitution , which the religion forbids.

49. The constitution took effect on August 14, 1973 , Pakistan’s 26th anniversary. The passage of the new constitution was followed by elections in the legislative bodies for president, prime minister, and other key leadership posts . Bhutto resigned as president, and members of the National Assembly and the Senate elected him prime minister . He was sworn into office on August 14, 1973. Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was elected president (r. 1973–78) who wielded no real power, as the constitution vested almost all authority in the prime minister.

50. A Socialist Economy For all the efforts of Ayub Khan’s economic development plans in the early 1960s, by the end of his regime real wages had declined, poverty increased, and income was concentrated in the hands of a burgeoning industrial elite . At the time Bhutto took office, Pakistan was operating at a deficit , importing far more than it exported. The loss of East Pakistan added to the challenge facing the country’s economy. To redress Pakistan’s international trade imbalance, Bhutto’s government devalued the rupee by more than half (58 percent ) in relation to the US dollar soon after coming to power. Pakistani goods became cheaper on the international market, and imported goods cost more . But devaluation also made paying off debts to international banks more expensive , and it stimulated inflation . Zulfikar Bhutto’s economic policies reflected his populist platform , an approach he called “ Islamic socialism .” More socialist than Islamic, it included land and labor reform initiatives , nationalization of industries and major business sectors , and efforts to alleviate economic inequities and improve social services .

51. But draping the economic policy under the mantle of Islam minimized attacks from rightists who objected to socialism . Moreover, the message was malleable: i. Islam could be stressed to religious constituencies, ii. socialism to industrial workers, and iii. land reforms to Sindh’s rural lower classes. Bhutto also saw the policy as similar to those practiced in Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, and Syria , which he admired. Bhutto’s blend helped win support across a spectrum of classes and interest groups. Carrying through on his nationalization agenda, in 1972 the government took control of more than 31 large companies in 10 basic industries : iron and steel, basic metals, heavy engineering, motor vehicle assembly and manufacture, tractor assembly and manufacture, heavy and basic chemicals, petrochemicals, cement and public utilities. The nationalization was undertaken in part to reduce the hold Pakistan’s 22 wealthiest families , who controlled these industries, had on the country’s economy and political power. Banks were also nationalized , as were 32 life insurance companies .

52. Credit policies for small farmers and small businesses and entrepreneurs were eased. That same year Bhutto lowered the maximum limit on individual ownership of land from about 500 irrigated to 150 irrigated acres , and from about 1,000 to 300 un-irrigated acres . However, loopholes enabled many landowners , including the Bhutto family, among the largest landowners in Sindh , to retain their lands. Laws governing the landlord-tenant relationship were amended to prevent evictions and outlaw free labor . The rights of workers and trade unions were strengthened .

53. Some Other Reforms Bhutto also introduced educational reforms , making education through high school free and providing allowances to unemployed college graduates. He also mandated admission quotas to public universities , ensuring that students from rural areas had access to college degrees . Higher oil prices following OPEC’s 1973 oil embargo, along with natural disasters including floods and an earthquake , also impacted the economy during Bhutto’s rule. The floods affected crops and boosted prices , and in response the cotton and rice export trade were nationalized . Flour, rice, and cotton-processing businesses were nationalized in 1976. Owing to nationalization, the role of the public sector in the economy increased dramatically. In 1972 the public sector contributed 3 percent to the nation’s output . By 1976 the figure rose to 13 percent, and a full 20 percent of nonagricultural output. The costs of nationalization, which included large investments in acquired industries and businesses, financed with international loans, quickly became a drag on the economy.

54. By 1974 Pakistan was unable to make its debt payments on the loans , commencing ongoing payment rescheduling efforts by Pakistan over the next several years. This basic restructuring also caused widespread economic dislocation . Many left the country to look for work in the Middle East, Europe, and the United States. Remittances sent back to Pakistan from these émigrés helped bolster the country’s economy during the Bhutto years. The government experienced perennial budget deficits during Bhutto’s rule. To finance them, money was printed , adding to inflationary pressures . The economic results of nationalization and of the investments made in formerly private enterprises are difficult to determine. In some cases investments made in these industries, for example in fertilizer and cement production, during the Bhutto regime did not begin to pay off until Zia ul-Haq’s regime. Overall the economy under his stewardship was characterized by stagnation . Industrial output increased only 2.1 percent annually , and agricultural output 2.3 percent annually during Bhutto’s years in power.

55. Bhutto and the Army Bhutto’s initial purge of army officers had put the military on the back foot. He created competing forces like Federal Security Force & the People’s Guards were a source of resentment. Measures he introduced to forestall future military intervention. Reduced tenure the Chiefs of Staff to three years. Tried to dilute the army chief’s powers by creating a permanent post ‘Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee.’ The third schedule of 1973 constitution contained an oath which serving members of the military were to take forswearing political activities of any kind. Article 245 defined high treason as any attempt to abrogate or subvert Constitution: law enforced the death sentence or life imprisonment for those found guilty. Promoted the apolitical and apparently pliant Gen. Zia ul Haq the post of COAS in March 1976.

56. Bhutto and the Army How B hutto unintentionally perpetuated the conditions for military intervention? Failure to institutionalize the PPP Use of army to suppress legitimate Baloch demands Need for a strong f orce to confront India.

57. Political Institution • Politics is the social institution through which power is acquired and exercised by some people and groups. • An institutionalized system through which a society is governed… Political institutions are organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws. • They often mediate conflict; make (governmental) policy on the economy and social systems. (i) The Prime Minister and the cabinet are institutions. ( ii) The civil servants working together are responsible for taking steps to implement the minister’s decisions. ( iii) Supreme Court is an institution where disputes between citizens are finally resolved. Political Institutionalization Political institutionalization means that political initiatives have been increasingly constrained by both formal and informal rules or norms. And through the process of political institutionalization, the state-society nexus has been enhanced.

58. The Elections of 1977 As Bhutto’s rule continued, his authoritarian manner and efforts to suppress political opposition eroded public support. Charges of corruption and mismanagement grew, fueled by the country’s imploding economy and rising level of inflation . Bhutto was also held responsible by some for having caused the crisis that led to the loss of East Pakistan. By 1977 the middle class was disillusioned with the Bhutto regime. General elections were scheduled to be held in the latter half of 1977 , but in January Bhutto announced the dates for the election would be moved up . A week later, the chief election commissioner announced that all nominations for the National Assembly and the provincial assemblies had to be filed by January 19 and 22, respectively . Bhutto expected the opposition would be unprepared , and, indeed, the accelerated timetable hampered the ability of the opposition to field candidates as well as to register them . Bhutto immediately plunged into campaigning, allying himself not only with the disadvantaged, who had been the core strength of the PPP, but also with feudal lords.

59. Rather than battle Bhutto and his party individually, nine opposition parties united under the banner of the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA ). They campaigned on an anti-Bhutto platform, charging him with corruption and mismanagement while simultaneously claiming the Qur’an, as their political as well as spiritual inspiration . The PNA generated surprisingly large support during the campaign . The political establishment, which was increasingly unpopular, displayed overt anti-PNA bias, enhancing the party’s appeal among large numbers of voters. Public PNA rallies drew immense crowds. But in the elections for the National Assembly, held on March 7, Bhutto’s PPP took the majority of seats and the PNA won only 36 , a surprisingly poor showing given the crowds the PNA had drawn during the campaign . The PNA protested, claiming widespread election fraud and intimidation , and demanded new elections to be held under the supervision of the armed forces. The PNA also boycotted the provincial assembly elections . The resounding victory of the PPP in these elections—in some areas winning more votes than there were voters —bolstered the charges of corruption leveled by the PPP’s opponents.

60. Bhutto rejected demands for new elections , and in response the PNA called for nationwide strikes and protests , which had the support of religious and business groups. PNA leaders were jailed and martial law was declared in Karachi, Lahore , and Hyderabad , while major cities throughout the country were put under curfew. In May and June battles between PNA supporters and government security forces became particularly violent. Bhutto’s repressive tactics failed to end the standoff. He shifted to a more conciliatory tone and had some of the PNA’s leaders released from jail , initiating negotiations with them in June. Bhutto offered to hold new elections in November and promised the PNA five ministerial positions for their party until then. But the PNA demanded half of all cabinet positions and that elections be held before mid-August . Bhutto finally agreed to meet almost all the PNA’s terms , but before formalizing the agreement he left Pakistan for a tour of Saudi Arabia, Libya, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and Iran. His opponents viewed the trip as a delaying tactic .

61. Zia ul-Haq’s Coup d’État The army was called in to restore order in major cities. With the impasse threatening to incite anarchy across the country, on July 5, 1977 , General Muhammad Zia ul-Haq (1924–88) arrested Bhutto and members of his cabinet and imposed martial law. The constitution was suspended and all legislative bodies dissolved. It was the country’s third military coup.

62. “I did not kill that man. My God is aware of it. I am big enough to admit if I had done it, that admission would have been less of an ordeal and humiliation than this barbarous trial which no self respecting man can endure. I am a Muslim. A Muslim's fate is in the hands of God Almighty. I can face Him with a clear conscience and tell Him that I rebuilt His Islamic State of Pakistan from ashes into a respectable Nation. I am entirely at peace with my conscience in this black hole of Kot Lakhpat . I am not afraid of death. You have seen what fires I have passed through .” — Zulfikar Ali Bhutto,  My Dearest Daughter: A letter from Death Cell .

63. Causes of Bhutto’s failure Bhutto’s failure to harness the new populist forces : but returned to the time-honored parochial politics and co-option of elites. Despite of his claim to abolish feudalism, the large Punjabi and Sindhi landowners continued to wield power : Intra-family land transfers and individual land ceilings were allowed. Bhutto’s inability of restructuring Civil-Military and Centre-Province relations . His own authoritarian tendencies and a threatening regional security environment. Despite of his ‘secular’ predilections, Bhutto made concessions to Islamist demands. The party system displayed instability and immaturity, rather than vitality and development. Degeneration of PPP into yet another ‘ Statist’ political party at the service of oligarchy . Statism is the doctrine that the political authority of the state is legitimate to some degree . Oligarchy means a small group of people having control of a country or organization.

64. Causes of Bhutto’s failure 7 . Bhutto’s reforms for making an egalitarian society were largely cosmetic . 8. Politics remained in the control of patron-client ties , personality counted for more than ideology or party institutionalization. 9 . Army’s institutional recovery and emergence as a domestic political power which was allowed back into public life and aid civil authority . 10. The party system displayed instability and immaturity, rather than vitality and development. PPP degenerated into yet another ‘statist’ political party at the service of oligarchy. 11. Charges of corruption, mismanagement and injustices Egalitarian: believing in or based on the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities. The patron/client system can be defined as a mutual arrangement between a person that has authority, social status, wealth, or some other personal resource (patron) and another who benefits from their support or influence (client).

65. Thank You