Human bite marks

Human Bite marks and it's classifications , difference from animal bites , methods of recording it , softwares used for analysis and comparison

1. Human bite marks P resented by : D r . Hariprasad L ORAL PATHOLOGY AND MICROBIOLOGY SEMINAR

2. CONTENTS : Its Identification Types of Bite Classification Difference between Animal and Human bite Methods of recording Comparison and final analysis Available Softwares Conclusion

3. BITE MARKS Defined by MacDonald as a mark caused by the teeth alone or in combination with other mouth parts Either caused by humans or animals, They maybe on tissue, food items or on objects Biting is considered to be primitive type of assault and results when teeth are employed as a weapon in an act of Dominance Associated with sexual crimes, violent fights and child abuse hence plays an important role in forensic odontology 1

4. HUMAN BITE MARKS Human bite marks are the tool marks left by the action of teeth and other oral structures during the biting of objects or people by a person Most commonest form of evidence presented in criminal court “Sweet and Pretty” considered the size, shape, pattern of Incisal or biting edges of upper and lower teeth to be specific to an individual “Rawson and Associates mathematically calculated that biting edges can be arranged in 1.36 ×10 to power 26 different combinations to depict unique pattern of biters teeth This is crucial to identify a suspect or to exclude an innocent person both of which are equally signifiacnt 2

5. IDENTIFICATION OF HUMAN BITES Sweet has suggested that human bite marks maybe identified by following characteristics * Gross Features : A circular or elliptical marks found on the skin with a central area of echymosis . The circular mark is caused by upper and lower arches while the central area of echymosis is due to sucking action. * Class Features : The marks produced by different classes of teeth are usually distinct, allowing one to differentiate tooth type within a bite mark 3

6. Incisors produce rectangular marks, canines are triangular or rectangular depending on the amount of attrition, premolars and molars are spherical or point shaped Class Features Indivisual Features 4

7. * Individual features : Class features may in turn have characters such as fractures, rotations, spacing etc. * Sites of Bite marks : Bite marks may be found on any part of the body . However females are most often bitten on breast and inner part of thighs as a result of sexual assault Male children are prone to be bitten on genitals, result of sexual abuse Adult males are bitten on fingers, arms and shoulders, most oftenly during fights C hild Adult male 5

8. MECHANISM OF BITE MARKS Three predominant mechanisms associated with production of bite marks * Tooth pressure marks are caused by direct pressure application by incisal edges of anterior teeth or occlusal edges of posterior teeth, clinical presentation of tooth pressure indicates pale areas representing incisal margins * Tongue pressure is caused when the material is taken into the mouth and pressed by tongue against teeth or palatal rugae and distinctive marks are present due to tongue sucking * Tooth scraping against tooth surface commonly invloving the anterior teeth . Clinical presentation can be in the form of scratches and abrasion, that indicate irregularity and pecularity of incisal edges are useful in identification. 6

9. TYPES OF HUMAN BITES Types of human bites are mainly of seven types, which can be classified by four types of impressions A)Hemorrhage: Undamaging mark on skin B)Contusion : Ruptured blood vessels, bruise C)Lacerations : Punctured or torn skin Hemorrhage Lacerations 7

10. D) Incision: Near puncture of skin E) Avulsion : Removal of skin F) Artifact: Bitten of piece of skin Incision Avulsion Artifact 8

11. G) Abrasion: A scrape on skin The following classes are proven significant in practical application * Class 1) It includes diffused bite marks which is having limited class characteristics and lacks individual characteristic such as bruise , diffused bite marks * Class 2) This pattern of injury reffered to as a single arch bite or the partial bite mark as it has some individual and some class characteristicas * Class 3 ) This classifiacation includes both individual as well as class characteristics . It is used for comparision purposes. The main sites for this are buttocks, shoulder, an upper arm or chest . The pressure and deep penetration of tissues is held to record the lingual surfaces of anterior teeth. * Class 4) Mainly avulsion or laceration of tissues is caused by the bite. Class characterstics and individual characterstics are not present. This bite is commonly found where there is avulsion of ear or finger Abrasion 9

12. Factors Influencing Appearance Of Bite Marks The appearance of bite mark is influenced by both the mechanism and forces that produce them and by the mechanical properties of the skin or subcutaneous tissues or other bitten materials. A) Site variation : Bite marks vary from site to site because they are modified by mechanical properties of tissues eg : The tissues of the breasts are innately softer than those of the back B) Directional variation : At given sites due to pre-existing tension lines in the skin is known as Langers line. Flexion, extension and roatation of surface skin markings follow the pattern of these lines . 10

13. C) Other factors : Such as curvature of the surface bitten, dragging during the biting process, structure and vascularity of the tissue, medication,environmental factors etc. D) Clothing : Through which the bite is inflicted, effects the injury to some extents. The age of the injury in the time elapsed from its infliction to the analysis and the damaged tissue . Reliable determination the age of antemortem skin injuries require histopathologic changes of the alleged incident 11

14. Histopathological and Clinical changes to monitor the time elapsed in bite injury TIME PREDOMINATE CELLULAR INFILTRATE HEALING CLINICAL COLOUR HOURS 4-8 12 16-24 24-36 Predominant cellular infiltrate PMNs Macrophages PMNs --------- Peripheral fibroblast Red blue purple Blue black DAYS 1-3 >3 4 4-5 6 10-14 Central necrosis Hemosederin Collagen fibers Capillary growth Lymphocytes Granulation tissue Green-blue Brown yellow green Tan yellow 12

15. CLASSIFICATION MacDonald has stated that as Any field of specialisation gets established, it requires the development of specific nomenclature and systems of classification, As a study of bite marks developed over the past 5 decades, numerous authors have tried to classify the injury. I) Cameron and Sims classification : A relatively simple wide encompassing classification, This is based on the type of agent producing the bite marks and the material exhibiting it. i ) Agents a)Human b)Animals ii) Materials a)Skin, Body tissues b)Food stuffs and other materials 13

16. II ) McDonalds Classification : The most sited, McDonlad suggested an etiological classification. This is pertinent for human bites but also applicable to marks on other material i ) Tooth pressure marks : Marks produced on tissue as a result of direct application of pressure by teeth. These are generally produced by the incisal and occlusal surface of teeth. ii)Tongue pressure marks: When sufficient amount of tissue is taken into mouth, the tongue presses against rigid areas such as lingual surface of teeth and palatal rugae . The marks thus left are reffered to as sucklings . 14

17. iii)Tooth scrape marks: These are the marks caused due to scraping of teeth across the bitten materials.They are usually caused by the ‘Anterior teeth’ and presents as scratches or superficial abrasions. III) Webster’s Classification : It is not uncommon to note bite on food stuff. This is especially in case of theft or robbery at house or shopping centers i ) Type 1 : The food items fractures readily with limited depth of tooth penetration eg : Hard chocolate ii) Type 2 : Fractures of fragment of food item with considerable amount of tooth penetration eg : Bite marks on apple 15

18. iii) Type 3 : Complete or near complete penetration of food item with slide mark eg : cheese Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 16

19. IV) Degree of penetration : i ) Clearly defined : It is produced when significant pressure is applied while biting . ii) Obviously defined : It is produced when pressure of first degree is applied while biting. iii) Quite noticable : When a violent pressure is used during the bite. iv) Lacerated : T he skin is violently torn from the body 17

20. How human bite is different from animal bite Not frequently forensic dentists are requested to investigate animal bites, Such bites are usually produced by dog family ( dog,wolf,fox ), cat family(domestic cat,tiger,leopard ), Rodents(rats), snakes, sharks and crocodiles. A study of the dentition of different animal species is known as comparative dental anatomy. Animals are primarily classified as vertebrates i.e with vertebral columns and invertebrates. Vertebrates- Fishes, mammals, reptiles, amphibian Invertebrates- annelids, arthropodes , cnideria 18

21. Characteristics of some vertebrates a ) Fishes : A major function of teeth in fish is to seize or grasp prey and they usually have conical shape teeth hence called as homodont . This is the characteristics of most fishes. There are some fishes however, They have some different shape heterodont teeth. Hence knowledge of specific morphologic patterns is required 19

22. b) Reptiles : The reptilian dentition is primarily used in combat and to grasp prey. They typically have a row of only conical or only cuspid teeth which are ‘homodont’. However they may vary in size, are ankylosed , simple rooted and polyphydont . The teeth do not occlude and only simple jaw movements could be seen hence they consume small sized prey to swallow completely . CROCODILES: They have a complex dentition i.e they have periodontal fibres . 20

23. SNAKES: Snakes have modified dentition to release poison called ‘fangs ’ which contains canals or grooves for venom release.It is interesting to know that poisonous and non poisonous snakes have different types of dentitions. Non venomous snakes have two rows of maxillary teeth, whereas venomous snakes have a single row. Palatal to this a pair of poison delivering fangs are present. Snake Bite Mark 21

24. C) Mammals : Mammals are characterised by heterodont dentition. Teeth are attached by periodontal ligament to the bony socket. Usually there are only two sets of dentition( diphydont ) where the primary dentition is replaced by permanant teeth. The teeth usually consists of enamel, dentin and cementum and posterior teeth are usually multi rooted. Teeth are specialised for functions such as mastication, So the teeth inter digitate and occlude. 22

25. Dental features of few mammals Dog family ( canidae ) : The denatl formula for the dog family or canidae is “I3/3 C1/1 P4/4 M2/3 ” The incisors have a high central cusp with mesial and distal lobes adopted for holding, tearing and crushing . The canine tooth is long and strong, while the upper fourth premolar and lower first molar are adapted as carnassial teeth which are used for shearing food. D og skull Dog bite 23

26. B) Cat family ( felidae ) : The dental formula for the cat family is I3/3 C1/1 P3/2 M1/1 , The felidae have a dentition i.e specialised for grasping and killing prey by slicing the flesh. The incisors are similar to canidae but the canines are longer and stronger. In addition the premolars and molars are reduced in number. The upper 3 rd premoalar and lower 1 st molar form the carnassial teeth. Felines display a short snout, with the incisors arranged in approximately straight lines across the front of the mouth and large canines at the corners. Cat bite 24

27. C) Bear family ( ursidae ) : Generally the dental formula is I3/3 C1/1 P4/4 M2/3 . Murmann and co-workers state that ursidae differ from both the canidae and felidae but they are more likely to the cat family. The anterior portion of the maxillary arch is only slightly curved and the corresponding region of the mandibular arch is very straight Bear Bite 25

28. In regions where there is a threat of accidental or predatory carnivorous attacks, the subsequent need to identify the animal species causing the bite is essential from an investigative and ecological point of view . A characteristics feature of carnivore is the specialisation of one posterior tooth in each quadrant called the carnassial tooth. These consists of a blade like upper tooth that slices against the buccal surface of opposing lower tooth, which produces a scissor like cutting action 26

29. d) Rodents ( rodentia ) : The rat family have chisel shaped continually erupting incisors with a diastema between the incisors and molars . They have no canines or premolars. The general dental formula is I1/1 C0/0 P0/0 M3/3, The labial surface of incisors is covered with enamel,while the lingual surface has cementum . Although rodents seldom attack humans, there are instances when these animals have nibbled at the extremities of dead bodies, producing peculiar injuries it was to rule out foul play . Also Brown has reported cases where damage was inflicted on electric cables and fire extinguisher hoses. Rat bite 27

30. HUMAN ANIMAL ARCH SIZE Broad, U-shaped Narrow anterior aspect ARCH SHAPE Circular or oval V- shaped and elongated TEETH Broad central and narrow lateral incisor; More blunt Broad lateral, narrow centrals , sharper and longer canines INJURY PATTERN Commonly bruising ; Laceration and avulsion less common Severe laceration and avulsion ; Greater skin damage SITE Breast, abdomen,nipple , thigh,back,shoulders Extremities such as feet ,legs,hands,arms ; Exposed skin 28

31. BITE MARK INVESTIGATIONS Drinnan and Melton, as well as Sweet have emphasised that any attempt at bite mark investigation should begin with following questions Is the injury a bite mark ? If a bite, was it caused by human teeth ? Was it caused by adult or child ? Does the age of the bite mark correspond to time and type of crime ? Are there any unique, individual characteristics in the bite marks ? Can these characteristics be compared to the teeth of the suspect ? 29

32. METHODS OF EVIDENCE COLLECTION Evidence collection from victim : Ideally , bite mark evidence should be collected when it is first presented and observed. If a suspected bite mark is criminal in nature, it must be informed to law enforcement authorities . When a case with suspected bite mark is identified, a primary concern is patient care . Therefore at no time should collection of bite mark evidence interfere with timely patient treatment . This is emphasised since Pretty and associates have found human bites to be more infectious(includes transmission of HIV, Hepatitis-B and syphilis ) especially when the bite injury presents as an abrasion or laceration . The protocol for bite mark evidence collection that follows has been recommended by the American board of forensic odontology (ABFO) 30

33. a)Case demographics: Vital information pertaining to the case should first be noted . Eg : Name, Age and Sex of the victim as well as case number , date of examination and name of examination b) Visual examination : Visually examining the bite mark and document the following : Orientation and location of the mark Type of injury Colour , size and shape Contour, Texture and elasticity of the bite site Differences between upper and lower arches and between individual teeth 31

34. c) Photography : Photographs provide a permanent records of bite marks. No time should be wasted to collect pictures. Since the injurieschange its appearance rapidly due to healing.Colour and black and white photographs from different angles may be taken. Desirably two views are preffered . i ) Orientation photographs : Photographs that depict the location of bite mark on body. Orientation Photography of a bear bite victim Close-up Photography 32

35. ii) Close up photography : These should be made with a rigid refferance scale (such as ABFO NO 2 scale) that is placed on the same place as the bite marks. The entire bite mark and the scale should be visible on the photograph . A close-up photograph depicting the bite mark without the scale can also be made to indicate that no part of the mark has been marked by scale. The camera should be positioned directly over the injury site with long axis of the lens perpendicular to the surface of the bitten skin. According to Pretty and Sweet , this decreases the distortion of the images due to off-angle camera position. When the victim is alive , photographs are repeated every 24 hours for 3-4 days to record progressive changes in appearance of bite marks. 33

36. d) Saliva swabs : It is reasonable to assume that a bite cannot be inflicted without leaving saliva behind. Saliva deposited on skin may have WBCs and sloughed epithelial cells which may be a source of DNA , enabling direct link to the suspect . Hence swabing the bite areas for saliva traces can prove invaluable in investigations.Care should be taken to not wash the bitten area before swabing.Clark also stated that clothes also should be swabbed for saliva traces. Saliva swabing 34

37. e) Impressions of bite marks : Impressions of bite site should be taken when indicated according to American board of forensic odontology bite mark analysis guidelines. Dental acrylic or plaster can be used as a rigid support for the impression to accurately record the curvature of the skin. Use vinyl poly siloxane poly ether or other impression material available in the dental office i.e recommended for fixed prosthetic application. 35

38. f) Bite printing records : It is similar to the method of lifting finger prints from crime scenes, finger print lifting tape can be used to lift the non perforating bite marks ofter brushing the bite mark with finger prints lifting powder . Excellent clarity and details are obtained with this method . There is no expertise required to lift the print and the versatility and the use of the finger print powder and brush technique is yet to be exlpored . g) Video tape documentation : The video tape documentation demonstrated the three dimensionally of the bite in motion. The video equipment should be selected on the basis of four criteria like its portability , its quality of the image produced , its ease of use of the final image . This equipment can range from essential equipment such as extension cords , play back units , editing units . 36

39. Video tape Recording 37

40. h) Radiographic documentation : Bite marks can also be interpreted through soft tissue radiography. It has the advantage of penetrating the tissues there by revealing damage that might not be observed in photographic approach . Xeroradiography and contrast enhanced radiography can add valuable informatio and should be considered as an adjunct to standard photographic procedures i ) Electron microscopic documentation : Electron microscopy requires access to the sophisticated and expensive equipment but can be invaluable investigative tool for the odontologist . Scanning electron microscopy is used for detailed examination of surface configuration of bite mark . Energy dispersive x-ray analysis can be used along with scanning electron microscopy to enhance the surface topographic feature of bite mark. 38

41. Evidence collection from the suspect Evidence collected from the victim of a bite mark should be complimented with evidence from a suspect of the perpetrated bite. Such evidence must be obtained from the suspect using a signed and witnessed inform consent or a court order. Following a detailed clinical examination (intra oral and extra oral ) , the items of evidence recovered should include Photographs of suspects teeth in occlusion and open bite Maxillary and mandibular impressions made with rubber base impression material or irreversible hydrocolloid and models poured in dental stone. Bite registration thin sheet of wax may be made if impressions are available . Saliva swabs preferably from the buccal vestibule should be obtained for comparing with the swab collected from the bite mark 39

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43. Comparison And Bite Mark analysis Comparison technique : According to ABFO the most widely used method for comparison of bite mark evidence are generation of overlays ( acitate ), Test bite media eg : Wax exemplars, styroform . Recently software programmes such as Adobe Photoshop is suggested by Johansen and Bowers to compare dental profiles. With its use transparent overlays can be created which are then laid over the bite marks 41

44. Several methods of bite marks comparison have been documented in the literature. All the documented methods are chiefly comprised of three steps i ) Registration of bite mark and suspects dentition ii) Comparison of bite mark and dentition iii) Analysis of similarity and dissimilarity 42

45. The advantages of using computerised system are accurate measure of physical parameters of the evidence , less photographic distortion , eliminates any examiner subjectivity , good image visualisation , standardisation of comparison procedures are reproducibility of results . Laboratory evaluation of bite marks : Recovery of salivary DNA has been the main focus of biological techniques in bite mark analysis . The advantages of this method is that the DNA recovered from saliva on the bite mark is usually sufficient to produce a profile . Extreme environmental circumstances are to be taken into consideration . The salivary DNA may be highly degraded . It can be assorted by the environment . A new area in biological technique is the use of the bacterial finger print . There are over two thousand recorded species of oral bacteria and each individual has a unique bacterial population . A bacterial profile can be generated by recording the different species of bacteria’s present . This can be used to create data base in future. 43

46. Bite mark analysis Any analysis involves two steps first discovery and preservation of evidence and second involves evaluation, comparison and findings of the recovered evidence In analysing bite mark first it should be determined if the injury is a bite mark and whether it is caused by human teeth , consistency of marks with the time of the crime should be determined . To standardise the analysis of bite mark the American board of forensic odontology established the following guidelines in 1986. a) History : Thorough history of any dental treatment carried out after the suspected date of the bite mark should be taken b) Photography : Extra oral photographs including full face and profile views, Intra oral should include frontal views , two lateral views and an occlusal view of each arch and a photograph of maxiamal mouth opening c) Extraoral examination : Soft tissue and hard tissue factors that may influence biting dynamics . Measurements of maximal opening and any deviation on opening or closing should be noted. 44

47. d) Intraoral examination : Examination of tongue and periodontal status like mobility of teeth . In case of recent marks, they should be swabbed for DNA from saliva left in the wound e)Impressions : Two impressions of each arch using materals that meet the ADA specification . The occlusal relationship should be recorded . Putty Impression Alginate Impression 45

48. f) Sample bites : Sample of suspects bite in centric occlusion using wafer of base plate wax or silicone putty material . The sample is photographed immediately and used for future comparison . g) Study cast: These are prepared using type 2 dental stone. Study casts 46

49. Drawbacks in Bite marks Analysis Doubts have been raised about the accuracy of the bite imprint as skin is considered a poor medium for accurate impressions due to curves and other irregularities producing intrinsic distortion. Thus comparison of a person’s teeth to bite mark on a bite mark on a victim’s body is prone to error lerading to gfalse implications of persons crimes they did not commit. Unlike fingerprints , which are stable for lifetime ,the dentition is capable of major changes in configuration, with and without proffessional intervention. Teeth lost due to extraction, trauma or exfoliation, changes in sizes and relationship of arches due to growth or orthodontic procedures, alterations of biting surface by restorative materials, caries and changes in position of teeth due to periodontal disease. 47

50. The uniqueness of human dentition has not been definitely established. Also a bite mark is not an overall accurate representation of teeth , tongue and jaw movements are also involved. Questions about reliability of bite mark investigations arise due to different examiners arriving at opposite conclusions. Till date there is no standard comparison procedure for bite marks . Ultimate outcome depends on an examiners objectivity and methods used. 48

51. Available softwares Bite print software : It is a semi automatic software developed. Materials and Methods : Each tooth mark was approximated as an ellipse and the dental arch as a semi circumference to represent the bite mark as a set of geometric coefficients for comparison with the biting edges of the dental casts. The procedure is briefly described below. Software implimentation : Developed by a computer program in C++ with the microsoft visual studio 2005 professional edition using the Qt 4.3.0 library,libtiff , QGL viewer, openGL graphics library. The software was successfully tested inMicrosoft Windows XP Professional version2002 and in Windows 7,8 and 10 operating systems using a PC with Intel Pentium Dual Core. 49

52. Photograph of bite marks on the skin : Development of BitePrint software was based on bite mark photographs of the skin of victims in real forensic cases with the court’s decision as gold standard, although the possibility of error can never be completely ruled out. Photographic distortion of the bite marks was corrected according to the Johansen and Bower method4. Bite Print software approximates each tooth mark in the bite mark as an ellipse, using the ABFO No. 2 scale as the coordinate system. First, the expert draws the two axes ( mesiodistal length and bucco -lingual width)of each tooth mark, with the software ensuring that both are perpendicular and displaying the initial ellipse. Second, the software automatically adjusts the initial ellipse to the tooth mark by computing the image. The software measures the colour inside the ellipse and also in the closest surrounding area. For each point of the mentioned areas, the software tests whether the colour corresponds to the tooth mark or not. 50

53. Once the software computes the image, it runs an algorithm to fit the ellipse to the tooth mark (the algorithm is available from the authors on request). Figure 1 depicts ellipses calculated by BitePrint for the tooth marks of a human bite mark. The dental arch is represented by automatically fitting a semi-circumference to the tooth marks, depicted by the ellipses (see Figure 2). A minimum of three non-aligned ellipses is needed for the determination of the semicircle. The software establishes the circumference that best fits all calculated ellipses, using an algorithm to determine the circumference that passes through the centres of the ellipses with the minimum error. 51

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55. Once the circumference is determined, the expert marks a point between the central incisor marks, and the software, then draws a line from this point to the centre of the circumference. This line is used to calculate the angular position. The software automatically computes the following parameters to characterize the bite mark (see Figure 3): (a) Distance to the arch (mm): the distance from the centre of the circumference (the arch of the dentition) to the centre of the ellipse (the tooth). (b) Angular position (°): the angle between the centre of the circumference and the radius from the centre of the circumference to the centre of the ellipse. (c) Eccentricity: the relationship between the major and minor axes of the ellipse. (d) Rotation (°): the angle between the major axis of the ellipse and the tangent of the circumference that passes through the centre of the ellipse. The rotation ranges between –90 and 90 degrees 53

56. (e) Inter canine distance (mm): each ellipse is tagged as Unknown by default, but the user can identify it as an incisor, canine, premolar or molar tooth. If the user has chosen two canine labels, the program automatically calculates the inter canine distance as that between the centres of the two ellipses corresponding to the canines. The maxillary inter canine distance has proven to be a highly reliable parameter for the identification of human bite marks. The user can save all calculated parameters for further comparisons 54

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58. Biting edges from 3D-images of dental casts obtained with Dental Print : Quantitative comparison of tooth marks on a photograph with biting edges taken from a dental cast requires that the same procedure is used to compare both images. Biting edges from 3D-images of dental casts (see Figure 4) were generated with Dental Print software, as described There is no difference in the application of Bite Print between a bite mark photograph and the image of biting edges obtained with Dental Print. Bite Print adjusts ellipses to the biting edges and a semi-circumference to the dental arch, yielding the same variables from dental casts, i.e. distance to the arch, angular position, eccentricity, rotation and inter canine distance 56

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60. Other available softwares : B) Adobe photoshop software : This softwares includes Scanning of the bite marks : Photograph of bite mark is scanned and resized to lifesized photograph . The impressions of the suspects dentition is obtained and cast are poured . Casts are applied with seperating media and allowed to dry , the casts are pressed moderately into stamp pad such that the occlusal plane is parallel to the surface of the pad to select the incisal edges . Then the casts are scanned along with ABFO scale no.2 placed beside it 58

61. The scanned image is transferred to adobe photoshop . The magic wand tool cursor is clicked on the blue coloured incisal edges of the teeth . This tool selects an area of similar pixel tool . Construction of the overlay : Since the overlay will be on a layer separated from the background a new layer is created. The selected edges are outlined by clicking edit > stroke> dialogue box > stroke width>1>location>inside>ok> ctrl+D . Non-metric analysis of bite mark and suspect dentition : After completion of bite mark image and overlay a non metric analysis is undertaken this involves a super imposing the overlay over the bite mark injury and investigation point of concordance or discrepancy . 59

62. C) 3D Imaging for bite analysis : It is similar to that of bite print software . CONCLUSION : Following comparison , a bite mark analysis may have one of the following concluding statements as suggested by Levine and ABFO Definite biter : There is reasonable medical certainly to indicate that the bite mark has been produced by the suspects dentition . There is concordance of sufficient distinctive, individual characteristics to confer uniqueness within the population under consideration. b) Probable biter : Bite mark shows some degree of specificity to the suspects teeth by virtue of a sufficient number of matching points including some corresponding individual characterstics . 60

63. c) Possible biter: The bite mark and suspects dentition are consistant altough the suspects teeth could have made the bite mark, there are no characteristics matches to be absolutely certain . Matching points are general or few and there are no incompitable in consistencies . d) Not a biter : The bite mark and suspects dentition are not consistent –features on the bite mark indicate that the suspects teeth have definitely not caused them . Analysis of bite mark evidence has been assisting the judiciary to answer crucial questions about interactions between people at the seen of a crime. The shape of the bite mark can give useful clues about the person who caused it and may lead to the implication or exclusion of an individual under investigation. 61

64. Refferences Shafer’s textbook of oral pathology- 8 th edition Text book of oral medicine by Anil Ghom Journal of Indian academy of Forensic Medicine ., July- sept 2014 Review article on Bitemarks as a physical Evidence from the crime scenes by Dr Kapil verma , Bhavana Joshi. Journal of Forensic Sciences and criminology Volume 4 (ISSN:2348-9804) Review article on Analysis and Identification of Bite marks in forensic dentistry by Dr Sandeep Kaur . Research article on 3D imaging for bite mark analysis by Dr Sam T Evans , Carl D Jones. Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences. 62

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