Human-Development-03032024-070502pm.pptx

Human Development theory

1. Human Development Theory Cognitive & Linguistic Development

2. What is Development & Why Study Development ? Development is a long-term personal change that has multiple sources and multiple effects. It is the pattern of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Most development involves growth, although it also eventually involves decay (dying). As a teacher or an educational psychologist, you will be responsible for a new wave of students in each class, every year. The more you learn about children’s development, the more you can understand at what level it is appropriate to teach them.

3. Biological processes produce changes in the child’s body and underlie brain development - height and weight gains, motor skills, and puberty’s hormonal changes. Genetic inheritance plays a large part. Cognitive processes involve changes in the child’s thinking, intelligence, and language. Cognitive developmental processes enable a growing child to memorize a poem, imagine how to solve a math problem, come up with a creative strategy, or speak meaningfully connected sentences. Socioemotional processes involve changes in the child’s relationships with other people, changes in emotion, and changes in personality . Parents’ nurturance toward their child, a boy’s aggressive attack on a peer, a girl’s development of assertiveness, and an adolescent’s feelings of joy after getting good grades all reflect socioemotional processes in development.

4. Periods Of Development Infancy Birth to 18 to 24 months. Extreme dependence Beginning, of language development, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination, and social learning. Early childhood Infancy to about 5 years Preschool years More self-sufficient, develop school readiness skills , spend many hours with peers. First grade typically marks the end of early childhood.

5. Middle and Late Childhood

6. Adolescence

7. Adulthood At this point in their development, many individuals are still exploring which career path they want to follow, what they want their identity to be, and which lifestyle they want to adopt (for example, being single, cohabiting, or getting married).

8. Developmental Issues The d ebate continues about the relative importance of factors that influence the developmental processes and about how the periods of development are related. The most important issues in the study of children’s development include Nature and nurture In reality, we are both the creatures and creators of our worlds. We are . . . the products of our genes and environments. Nevertheless, . . . the stream of causation that shapes the future runs through our present choices. . . . Mind matters. . . . Our hopes, goals, and expectations influence our future. (Myers, 2010, p. 168) Continuity and discontinuity The continuity view says that change is gradual. Children become more skillful in thinking, talking or acting much the same way as they get taller. The discontinuity view sees development as more abrupt-a succession of changes that produce different behaviors in different age-specific life periods called stages. Early and later experience If infants experience harmful circumstances, can those experiences be overcome by later, positive ones? Or are the early experiences so critical—possibly because they are the infant’s first, prototypical experiences—that they cannot be overridden by a later, better environment?

9. Development and Education

10. Development And Education Splintered development refers to the circumstances in which development is uneven across domains One student may have excellent math skills but poor writing skills. Within the area of language, another student may have excellent verbal language skills but not have good reading and writing skills. Yet another student may do well in science but lack social skills

11. Cognitively Advanced Students

12. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget was a Swiss psychologist with a background in biology. He noticed age-related similarities in how children attempted to solve certain tasks. He saw that within specific age ranges there were specific types of deficits and specific types of strengths in problem-solving skills.

13. Basic Assumptions of Piaget’s Theory Children are active and motivated learners. Children construct knowledge from their experiences. Children learn through assimilation and accommodation . Interaction with one’s physical and social environments is essential for cognitive development. The process of equilibration promotes progression toward increasingly complex thought. Cognitive development is stage-like in nature.

14. Assimilation and Accommodation Assimilation entails dealing with a new object or event in a way that is consistent with a currently existing scheme. Accommodation occurs when new information doesn’t fit into existing schemes; the schemes must be adjusted or accommodated.

15. Equilibration Equilibration is the movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium and back to equilibrium, a process that promotes development of more complex thought and understanding. Students move back and forth between a state of balance and imbalance. It is the desire for balance that forces students to construct new schemes or accommodate existing schemes. A state of cognitive balance between individuals’ understanding of the world and their experiences .

16. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget proposed that children move through four stages. Periods of time are consistent in age and developmental sequence. Age ranges are averages. Some children are in transition from one stage to the next.

17. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 Years) Characterized by infants using senses and motor skills to explore world Begins with reflexes and ends with a complex combination of sensory and motor skill combinations Major cognitive developmental milestones include object permanence and an understanding of cause-effect relationships Symbolic thought, the ability to represent and think about external objects and events, emerges toward the end of second year.

18. Preoperational Stage (2 Years – 6 or 7 Years) Characterized by the rapid development of language which allows for more social interaction Limitations of preoperational thought include: Egocentrism: Inability to view situations from another’s perspective Lack of conservation: Inability to realize that if nothing is added or taken away, the amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or appearance Transductive reasoning (lack of logic): Inference of a cause-effect relationship simply because two events occur close together in time and space

19. Concrete Operations (6 or 7 Years – 11 or 12 Years) Children begin to think more logically and demonstrate deductive reasoning. Conservation of liquid is evident by 7; conservation of substance is evident by 8; conservation of area is mastered by 9 or 10. Children are able to learn classification, seriation, and are able to reverse operations which allows for the teaching of mathematics. However, children cannot apply newfound logic to non-concrete items (abstract concepts).

20. Formal Operations (11 or 12 and Beyond) Children are now able to reason logically about abstract and hypothetical ideas. Can formulate and test multiple hypothesis Limitations include excessive idealism. May reflect formal operational egocentrism, the inability to separate one’s own logical abstractions from the perspectives of others and from practical considerations

21. Current Perspectives on Piaget’s Theory Sequence of the stages is supported, but the ages coinciding with each stage is debated. Piaget may have under estimated young children’s cognitive capabilities, but over estimated those of adolescents. Piaget may have overemphasized the importance of interaction with the physical environment. Social interaction may be more influential than realized.

22. Applying Piaget’s Theory Provide hands-on experience with physical objects, particularly at the elementary level When students show signs of egocentric thought, express confusion or explain that others think differently Ask students to explain their reasoning and challenge illogical explanations Be sure that students have adequate knowledge and skills before moving on to more complex topics and activities Relate abstract and hypothetical ideas to concrete objects and/or observable events

23. A Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment (2001)

24. Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s ideas are evident in our current views of child development, learning, and instructional practice. His theory is sometimes referred to as the sociocultural perspective because of its emphasis on the impact of society and culture on cognitive development.

25. Vygotsky’s Basic Assumptions Through both informal conversations and formal schooling, adults convey to children ways in which their culture interprets and responds to the world. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent in the first few years of life. Complex mental processes begin as social activities and then progress to internalized processes. Cognitive tools

26. Vygotsky’s Basic Assumptions Children can perform more challenging tasks when assisted. Actual developmental level vs. level of potential development Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth. Zone of proximal development Play allows children to stretch themselves cognitively.

27. The Zone of Proximal Development The range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently Students working on challenging tasks in collaboration with a more competent partner

28. Current Perspectives on Vygotsky’s Theory Educators embrace Vygotsky’s ideas on the role of culture in cognitive development. Research supports Vygotsky’s beliefs about the importance of language in cognitive development. Vygotsky’s theory introduces the well-supported concepts of mediated learning , scaffolding , and cognitive tools.

29. Scaffolding ( adult assistance)

30. Applying Vygotsky’s Theory Encourage students to talk themselves through difficult tasks Provide cognitive tools that students can use to make difficult tasks easier Present some tasks that students can perform successfully only with assistance Provide sufficient scaffolding to enable students to attempt to perform challenging tasks Have students work in small groups on complex tasks Provide opportunities to engage in adult-like activities Give young children time to practice adult roles and behaviors through play

31. Linguistic Development Humans are born with a predisposition to learn language Developmental pattern of language development Most first words occur around the 1 st birthday. Sentences are usually evident by age 2 and become more complex during the preschool years. By age 5 or 6 most children’s language skills are almost completely adult-like

32. Development of Vocabulary Children learn semantics, the meanings of words and word combinations, through direct vocabulary instruction at school and by inferring meaning from the contexts in which they hear the words. Common errors include undergeneralization and overgeneralization . Teachers can promote semantic development by having students define new vocabulary in their own words.

33. Over-generalization , also often named as over-extension, occurs when the children refer to too wide a category of things (Wray, Trot, and Bloomer, 1998). Saidan (2011) in Matiini (2016) further stated that over-generalization is the phenomenon when one overextends one rule to cover instances. This situation may also occur when the children mention the things with their first known-utterances. The children may name orange to refer to all fruits, or book to refer to all printed materials, for example. Under-generalization or under-extension occurs when the children use a word to refer to too small a category of things (Wray, Trot, and Bloomer, 1998). This also may occur since the children difficult to understand complex words. The example can be seen when the children call cat for his family pet, but not for his neighbor’s .

34. Development of Syntax Syntax is the set of rules that one uses to put words together into sentences (often unconsciously). Syntax becomes more complex during the later elementary years.

35. Development of Listening Comprehension During later elementary school, children learn that good listening requires understanding. Listening comprehension is influenced by context.

36. Development of Oral Communication Skills Pragmatics is knowledge about culture-specific social conventions guiding verbal interactions. Both correct pronunciation and pragmatics are necessary oral communication skills. Pragmatics may not be mastered until high school or beyond.

37. Development of Metalinguistic Awareness Metalinguistic awareness is the extent to which one can think about the nature of language. It involves understanding the literal and nonliteral meanings of words. It emerges slowly over time. High school work enhances metalinguistic awareness via the study of literature and second languages.

38. BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES Chomsky (1957) argued that humans are prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way Social Vacuum Interactionist View - contributions of both biology and experience in language development. Language development is not simply a matter of being rewarded for saying things correctly and imitating a speaker

39. Language Development and Literacy

40. Learning a Second Language Early exposure to a second language may be important for mastering pronunciation and complex grammatical constructions. Bilingualism is correlated with increased cognitive abilities. It results in superior problem-solving skills, creativity, and cognitive flexibility. Metalinguistic awareness may happen at an earlier age, and, therefore, bilingual students’ syntax may be superior as well.

41. Bilingual Education vs. Immersion Bilingual education Students are instructed in academic subjects in their native language while simultaneously being taught to speak and write in the second language. Immersion Students hear and speak the second language almost exclusively in the classroom. Which one is “better?” There is no clear and easy answer. Some students benefit from bilingual education, while others from immersion. It may have to do with the available opportunities to speak the second language.

42. Considering Diversity in Cognitive and Linguistic Development The rate of cognitive and linguistic development can vary from child to child. Cognitive development may differ somewhat depending on the culture. Students will vary in the size of their vocabulary and knowledge of complex syntactical structures. Some students will be advanced cognitively while others will not yet have acquired the skills common to their age group.

43. Addressing the Unique Needs of English Language Learners Bilingual education programs are more effective than immersion programs. Transition to instruction only in English should be gradual. Adequate mastery of English can take five to seven years.

44. The Big Picture Children tend to think in qualitatively different ways at different ages. Children actively construct their knowledge. Development builds upon prior acquisitions. Challenging situations and tasks promote development. Social interaction is critical for development.

45. If your friend came up to you with a copy of this semester’s Psychology examination would you take a peak?  Why or why not? Let's say you are guaranteed not to get caught; would you cheat?  Why or why not? You are an eyewitness to a crime: A man has robbed a bank, but instead of keeping the money for himself, he donates it to a poor orphanage that can now afford to feed, clothe, and care for its children. You know who committed the crime. If you go to the authorities with the information, there's a good chance the money will be returned to the bank, leaving a lot of kids in need. What do you do?  Turn the robbers in to the authorities, right is right Say nothing since the money went to what you deem a good cause Here’s a simple one: Grandma asked me if I like the sweater, she gave me. It’s ugly. Should I tell her the truth (and hurt her feelings) or lie to her (and deceive her). Both options seem wrong, ethically. Would you kill one person in order to save 5 other people? (Killing is wrong…but isn’t it better for 1 person to die rather than 5?) Moral Development

46. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development

47. 6 Stages Level 1: Pre-conventional morality Stage 1. Punishment - obedience orientation Stage 2. Personal reward orientation Level 2: Conventional morality Stage 3. “Good Boy/Nice Girl” orientation Stage 4. “Law and Order” orientation Level 3: Post-conventional morality Stage 5. Social contract orientation Stage 6. Universal Ethics orientation

48. Stage I: Punishment Avoidance Acts to avoid pain or punishment Wants to not get spanked or get a “time out”

49. Stage II: You Scratch My Back; I’ll Scratch Yours Acts to get a reward Wants to get a hug or a piece of candy or back scratch

50. Stage III: Approval of Others Acts to gain approval Conforms Wants to be a “good girl/boy” Wants others to see as nice

51. Stage IV: Law & Order Acts because of belief in the law and order Wants society to be orderly and understands duty/respect for authority

52. Stage V: Social Principles Contract Acts for the welfare of others Wants other people to be safe and happy; willing to change law if necessary

53. Stage VI: Universal Principles of Conscious Acts because of her/his own conscience/set of beliefs Wants all human beings to be respected for their dignity, believes in justice and equality; will disregard law if necessary

54. Practice Directions: Choose the correct level of moral reasoning for each example.

55. Example #1 If I make my neighbor a present and give it to her, she’ll be very happy. Stage 1: Punishment Avoidance Stage 2: You scratch my back; I’ll scratch yours Stage 3: Approval of others Stage 4: Law and Order Stage 5: Social Principles Contract Stage 6: Universal Principles of Conscious

56. Example #2 If I leave my bicycle in the middle of the front yard, I will be punished. Stage 1: Punishment Avoidance Stage 2: You scratch my back; I’ll scratch yours Stage 3: Approval of others Stage 4: Law and Order Stage 5: Social Principles Contract Stage 6: Universal Principles of Conscious

57. Example #3 In order to stay true to my personal code of morals, I need to protest the dictatorship of the government. Stage 1: Punishment Avoidance Stage 2: You scratch my back; I’ll scratch yours Stage 3: Approval of others Stage 4: Law and Order Stage 5: Social Principles Contract Stage 6: Universal Principles of Conscious

58. Example #4 If I obey the speed limit, the roads will be safer for everyone. Stage 1: Punishment Avoidance Stage 2: You scratch my back; I’ll scratch yours Stage 3: Approval of others Stage 4: Law and Order Stage 5: Social Principles Contract Stage 6: Universal Principles of Conscious

59. Example #5 If I want to protest a government policy or action, the Bill of Rights guarantees my freedom to do so. Stage 1: Punishment Avoidance Stage 2: You scratch my back; I’ll scratch yours Stage 3: Approval of others Stage 4: Law and Order Stage 5: Social Principles Contract Stage 6: Universal Principles of Conscious

60. Example #6 If I do the dishes for my father, he will take me to the baseball game. Stage 1: Punishment Avoidance Stage 2: You scratch my back; I’ll scratch yours Stage 3: Approval of others Stage 4: Law and Order Stage 5: Social Principles Contract Stage 6: Universal Principles of Conscious

61. Implications Cheating Prosocial Behaviour Moral Education Character Education Values Clarification Cognitive Moral Education Service Learning

62. Gilligan’s Morality of Care One such framework has been developed by Carol Gilligan, whose ideas center on a morality of care, or system of beliefs about human responsibilities, care, and consideration for others.