Human movement

Chapter 2 of Therapeutic exercise handout
https://www.slideshare.net/RijwanBhuiyan/therapeutic-exercise-handout
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6349232

1. CHAPTER- 2



Introduction to
Movement

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THE STUDY OF HUMAN MOVEMENT

Movement is a vital part of Human being. In our every day activity we can’t go forward
without movement. Basically we move our all body part in every day activities. The
movements that originate from our body are complex in nature.

Before studying about Human Movement, at first we have to face a question like, why should
we need to study it? Actually there are two fascinating factors which lead us to study about
Human movement. Firstly, the vast range of functional movement in our daily living
activities & Secondly, the complexity of our movements and the challenges that arise from
that complex movement.

To begin to understand how the systems of the body interact to produce finely controlled
and purposeful movement it is essential to know some introductory information about
Human Movement like how human movement is initiated, per-formed and controlled.

THE ASPECTS OF HUMAN MOVEMENT

Human movement can be viewed from a number of different standpoints:

1. Anatomical: Describing the structure of the body, the relationship between the
various parts and its potential for movement. Incorrect alignment or disruption of
anatomical structures will clearly affect movement.
2. Physiological: Concerned with the way in which the systems of the human body
function and the initiation and control of movement. In many cases incorrect
functioning or failure of integration between systems will lead to movement
abnormalities.
3. Mechanical: Involving the force, time and distance relationships in movement.
4. Psychological: Examining the sensations, perceptions and motivations that stimulate
movement and the neurological and chemical/ hormonal mechanisms which control
them.
5. Sociological: Considering the meanings given to various movements in different
human settings and the influence of social settings on the movements produced.
6. Environmental: Considering the influence of the environment on the way in which
movement occurs.
(Human movement, pp 1-4)

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It is obvious that each of these aspects is interrelated and that between them they give a
framework and a direction for the study of movement.


[Figure: 1, there are a number of ways in which the study of human movement can be approached; each approach
is valid in its own right but, on its own, limited. For a holistic understanding of how the human body moves and
component parts work as they do, a multidimensional approach has to be taken.]

HUMAN LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM

Definition: Locomotion is the act or power of moving from place to place by means of one’s
own mechanisms or power. All four limbs are responsible for locomotion
(Luttgens, K & Hamilton, N, p519)
The human locomotor system (also known as the musculoskeletal system) is an organ
system that gives humans the ability to move using the muscular and skeletal systems. The
musculoskeletal system provides form, stability, and movement to the human body.
Components of Human Locomotor system:
1. The cells & Basic tissues
2. Connective tissues in Musculoskeletal system
3. Articulation
4. Skeletal muscle
5. Nervous tissue
6. The myotatic unit

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MECHANICS OF HUMAN MOVEMENT

Every human movement is based on some basic mechanical principles. In the study of
therapeutic exercise it is necessary to understand the basic mechanical principles of human
movement. Here the mechanical principles of movement are described in details.

Axis
Definition: An axis is a line about which movement takes place.
Types:
There are three types of axis
 Sagital Axis
 Frontal Axis
 Vertical Axis

Sagital Axis:
Sagital axis lies parallel to the Sagital suture of the skull. The direction of this axis is
posterior to anterior direction. Movement about this axis is in frontal plane.

Frontal Axis:
Frontal Axis lies transverse to the suture of the skull. The direction of this axis is side to side
direction. Movement about this axis is in Sagital plane.

Vertical Axis:
This axis lies parallel to the line of gravity; the direction of this axis is up to down direction.
Movement about this axis is in transverse plane.

Plane
Definition: It is a surface which lies the right angle to the line in which movement takes
place.

Types:
There are three traditional planes corresponding to the three dimensions of space. Each
plane is perpendicular to each of the other two. The planes of the body are:
 Sagital or Anterior posterior or median plane
 Frontal or Lateral or Coronal plane
 Transverse or horizontal plane

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Sagital or Anterior posterior or median plane:
It is a vertical plane passing through the body from front to back, dividing the body into
right & left haves.

Frontal or Lateral or Coronal plane:
It is a vertical plane passing through the body from side to side, dividing the body in to
anterior & posterior haves.

Transverse or horizontal plane:
It is a plane that passes through horizontally through the body, dividing the body into upper
& lower haves.


N.B: Q: Write down the 6 (six) aspects of Human movement.
Q: What is Human Locomotor system? Write down the component of Human
Locomotor system
Q: Define & classify Axis & Plane

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Movements in the body according to Axis & Plane (Axis vs. Plane)

Movement in the Sagital plane about a frontal axis:
 Flexion
 Extension
 Planter flexion
 Dorsi flexion

Movement in the Frontal plane about a Sagital axis:
 Abduction
 Adduction
 Ulnar deviation
 Redial deviation
 Lateral flexion

Movement in the Horizontal plane about a Vertical axis:
 Medial rotation
 Lateral rotation
 Supination
 Pronation



N.B: Q: Write down the movement in the body according to Axis & Plane

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Speed
Definition: The rate at which a body moves & takes no account of direction

Types:

1. Speed of relaxed passive movement: The speed at which passive movement is
performed. It is a slow & uniform movement so that relaxation can be maintained.

2. Speed of active movement:
 Natural speed: This is the speed at which normal exercise is done.
 Reduced speed: Exercise done more slowly require greater muscular effort &
more control.
 Increased speed: For increase muscular effort & increase joint range

Work:
Work is defined as the product of force & the distance through which the force acts. It is
measured as joules or erg.

Energy:
It is the capacity of a body for doing work.

Power:
Power is the rate of doing work. It is measured in joules per second. (J/s)

Acceleration:
Acceleration is the rate of change the velocity.

Momentum:
The momentum of a body is the quantity of motion it possesses, and it is represented by the
product of mass and velocity. The force responsible for the momentum will generate
movement slowly in a relatively heavy body and more rapidly in a lighter body (Gardiner.
MD, p 9)

Inertia:
Inertia is the resistance of a body to any change in its state of rest or motion.

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MUSCULOSKELETAL BASIS FOR HUMAN MOVEMENT

In the human body, every movement is performed by interaction between muscular &
skeletal system. In order to be able to analyze movement it is essential to have a good
understanding of muscle function, anatomy and biomechanics. In this section we will
discuss about the muscular & skeletal action during performing movement.

There are three major types of muscle: skeletal (striated), cardiac and smooth muscle. The
latter is found in the walls of blood vessels and gut. Skeletal muscle is that which enables the
maintenance of posture and movement and will be considered in this section.

MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Basically muscle contraction means shortening the muscle. The word 'contraction' literally
means to 'draw together' or shorten.
But the nature of muscular contraction may cause some initial confusion. According to
‘sliding filament theory’ of muscle contraction - an active muscle will attempt to shorten. But
the length may be change or not. It is totally depends on the external resistance offered.

Actually a muscle contraction occurs whenever the muscle fibers generate tension in
themselves, a situation that may exist when the muscle is actually shortening, remaining the
same length, or lengthening

So it is important to realize the term 'contraction', is used to describe an active muscle &
relays on information about whether or not it changes length during activity.
(Luttgens, K & Hamilton, N, pp, 57-59) & (Lippert, L.S, p 42)
Types of muscle contraction:
 Static/Isometric
 Dynamic

Static/Isometric:
Isometric means 'Equal length'. An isometric contraction occurs when there is no external
movement, because the internal tension generated by the muscle is equal to the external
force.
Hislop and Perrine (1967) described isometric exercise as muscular contractions against a
load which is fixed or immovable or is simply too much to overcome.

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To demonstrate this action, in the sitting position place your Rt. hand under your thigh &
place your Lt Hand on your Rt. biceps muscle. Now pull up with your Rt. hand or in other
words, attempt to flex your Rt. elbow. Note that there was no real motion at the elbow joint,
but you did feel the muscle contraction. This is an isometric contraction of your Rt. biceps
muscle. (Lippert, L.S, 2002, p 42)

Isometric contraction is likely to occur under two different conditions:
1. Muscles that are antagonistic to each other contract with equal strength, & in this way
they balance each other. Figure- A
For example: Flex the elbow in 90 degree, and then keep it in that position actively. In
this situation, the biceps is in isometric position, because it has to hold the elbow in 90
degree position against gravity by the both action of agonist & antagonist (Triceps).
Here the isometric position is maintained by the person himself.
2. Another one- here the isometric position is maintained by the external force. Figure-B
(Luttgens, K & Hamilton, N, pp, 57-59)
(Figure: A & B)
Dynamic:
Dynamic muscle contraction can be categorized in to two ways. That is:
1. Isotonic
2. Isokinetic

1. Isotonic: Isotonic means ‘equal tension’. Isotonic contraction is a contraction in which
the tension remains constant as the muscle shortens or lengthens.
(Luttgens, K & Hamilton, N, pp, 57-59)
Example: Hold a weight in your hand while flexing your elbow to bring the weight up
toward your shoulder. You will feel the biceps muscle contract, but this time there is joint
motion. This is an isotonic contraction occurs when a muscles contracts, the muscle length
changes, & the joint angle changes.

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Other examples of isotonic exercise are....
 lifting objects above the head - front shoulder (anterior deltoid) shortens
 lifting object up from lying position - chest muscle shortens
 lifting body up from squat position - quadriceps muscle shortens as legs extend
 doing a sit up
 throwing a ball
 swinging a bat
Isotonic muscle contraction can be classified in to two types:
a) Concentric or isotonic shortening:
In which the inner force is greater than
the external force applied. So the muscle
actively short. When a muscle performs
a contraction & its two attachments are
approximating to one another, the
contraction is known as an isotonic
shortening.
b) Eccentric or isotonic lengthening:
In which the external force generated is
greater than the internal force applied.
So the muscle actively lengthens. When
the attachment of a muscle move slowly
away from one another & the muscles
allows this movement to occur in a
controlled manner this muscles action is
called isotonic lengthening.
(Lippert, L.S, 2002 p 42) & (Hollis, M 1989, pp 2-3)
2. Isokinetic: Literally Isokinetic means
‘equal or same motion’. Through the use of
special equipment, it is possible to have
maximum muscle effort at the same speed
throughout the entire range of motion of
the related lever.
Example: Exercise in Cybax machine.
(Luttgens, K & Hamilton, N, pp, 57-59)

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THE GROUP ACTION OF MUCLES

Muscles can’t work individually. To do any movement they need to work in together. Under
the smooth co-ordination among the muscle group, a movement is performed. This
combined action of muscles is called ‘Group action of muscles’ or ‘Role of muscles’.

Prime mover or Agonist:
Agonist means where the muscles are the major muscle involve in initiating, carrying out &
maintaining a particular movement.
Example: During knee extension quadriceps muscles are the agonist.

Antagonist:
Antagonist means where the muscle works wholly oppose the prime mover or agonist.
Antagonist relaxes reciprocally during the contraction of the agonist through the process of
reciprocal innervations.
Example: During knee extension hamstring is antagonist.

Fixator or Stabilizer:
The muscle which contract to position a bone to keep it a controlled steady base, from which
a prime mover can act. Thus the stabilizer acts to provide the fixed attachment of other
muscles.
Example: During knee extension Sartorius acts as Fixator.

Helper or Synergist:
Where a muscle team up with another muscle in the production of a movement neither
could perform alone.
Example: during extension of knee Sartorius muscles are synergist.

N.B:
Q: Define speed. Write down its types
Q: Define & Classify muscle contraction in details with examples
Q: Write down the two different conditions of isometric muscle contraction
Q: What are the group actions or Role of muscles?
Q: Write down the difference between: Dynamic & Static muscle contraction, Isotonic &
Isokinetic muscle contraction, Isotonic shortening & isotonic lengthening

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Muscle contraction and movement matrix

Definitive and
descriptive
factors
Types of contraction Movement without
contraction
Isometric Isotonic
Concentric Eccentric
Agonist muscle
length
No appreciable
change
Shortening

Lengthening

Dictated solely by gravity
and/or external forces
Antagonist
muscle length
No appreciable
change
Lengthening

Shortening

Dictated solely by-gravity
and/or external forces
Joint angle
changes
No appreciable
change
In direction of
force
In direction of
external force
(resistance)
Dictated solely by gravity
and/or external forces
Direction of
body part
Against
immovable object
or matched
external force
(resistance)
Against
gravity
and/or other
external force
(resistance)
With gravity
and/or other
external force
(resistance)
Consistent with gravity
and/or other external
forces
Motion Pressure (force)
applied, but no
resulting motion
Causes
motion
Controls motion Either no motion or
passive motion occurs as a
result of gravity and/or
other external forces
Description Static Fixating Dynamic
shortening
Positive work
Dynamic
lengthening
Negative work
Passive Relaxation
Applied muscle
force versus
resistance
Force =
resistance
Force >
resistance
Force < resistance No force, all resistance
Speed relative
to gravity or
applied
resistance
including
inertial forces
Equal to speed of
applied
resistance
Faster than
the inertia of
the resistance
Slower than the
speed of gravity or
applied inertial
forces
Consistent with inertia of
applied external forces or
the speed of gravity
Acceleration/
deceleration
Zero acceleration Acceleration Deceleration Either zero or acceleration
consistent with applied
external forces
Descriptive
symbol
( = ) ( + ) (-) (0)
(Floyd, R.T & Thompson, W.C, 2004, p 29)

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JOINT RANGE OF MOTION (ROM)

RANGE
Range may be used in two senses. First, it may refer to the amount of movement which
occurs to the joint. Secondly, it may refer to the amount of shortening or lengthening of a
muscle as it acts to produce or control movement. (Hollis, M 1989, pp 5-6)

RANGE OF MOTION (ROM)

Definition:
The Range of motion is the maximum amount of displacement at any joint.
OR
This is the total quantity of movement when a joint is moved to its full extent
OR
The full motion possible is called ROM (Kisner, C, 1998, p)
OR
The amount of motion available at a synovial joint is called the joint Range of motion.
Normal ROM varies among individuals & is influenced by age, gender, body, habits &
whether motion is performed actively or passively (Huber, F.E & Wells, C.L, 2006, p 63)

Types of ROM:

Full ROM:
When a muscle is fully stretched & contracts to the limit of its normal capacity it is called full
ROM.

Outer ROM:
Contraction is from full stretched of the muscles to mid point of the full range.

Inner ROM:
Contraction is from the above mentioned mud pint to full contraction.

Middle ROM:
Contraction is any distance between the middle of the outer range & the middle of the inner
range. Middle ROM is that in which many muscles work most of the time when they are
producing movement. (Hollis, M 1989, pp 2-3)

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Figure: In the movement from A-B the elbow
flexors are working in isotonic lengthening in outer
range (pulled by gravity). In the movement from D-
E the elbow extensors are working in isotonic
shortening in outer range (resisted by gravity);
from B-C the elbow extensors are working in
isotonic lengthening in outer range (pulled by
gravity). In the movement from D-E the elbow
extensors are working in isotonic shortening in
outer range (resisted by gravity); from E-F the
elbow flexors are working in isotonic lengthening in
outer range (pulled by gravity).


N.B: Q: What is Range of motion (ROM)? Write down the types of ROM with picture.

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ROM depends on:
1. Shape of articular surface
2. The effects of the ligaments & muscles
3. Overlying skin & soft tissue over the joint
4. The balk of tissue in the adjacent joint

Why do we measure joint ROM?
1. Stabilize a record of active & passive ROM.
2. Find out the occurrence of pain
3. Guide the treatment
4. Evaluate the treatment
5. Analysis the treatment
6. Patient’s motivation

Methods of measuring joint ROM:
1. Goniometry
2. Tape measurement
3. Tracing
4. Flexible weir
5. Video
6. Computer
7. Photography

Normal ROM is affected by:
1. Injury
2. Age
3. Sex
4. Body type
5. Genetic make up
6. Level of activity

N.B:
Q: Why do we measure ROM?
Q: Write down some methods of measuring joint ROM
Q: Write down the factors that affects normal ROM

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Common conditions that affects joint range of motion (ROM):

Adaptive muscles shortening:
1. Tight hamstring associated with posterior pelvic tilt.
2. Tight trunk extensors associated with increased lordosis & anterior pelvic tilt
3. Hip & knee flexion contractures with tight hip adductors flexors & hamstrings
Periarticular disease:
1. Adhesive capsulitis
2. Systemic lupus erythematosus
3. RA
Skin:
1. Burns
2. Scleroderma
(Huber, F.E & Wells, C.L, 2006, p 69)

Neuro muscular co-ordination of muscles