IMP TABLES FOR GPAT.MOST FAQ AND PYQ TABLES OF GPAT.TOPPERS SECRET FOR PHARMACY COMPETETIVE EXAMS.pptx

IMP TABLES
TOP MCQ FOR PHARMACY
PHARMACY COMPETETIVE EXAMS

1. IMP 40 TABLES FOR GPAT By Payaam Vohra GPAT AIR 43 NIPER AIR 11 IIT BHU AIR 07 MANIPAL AIR 08 ICT MTECH SCORE RANK 01 CUET-PG SCORE RANK 01 GATE AND BITS HD QUALIFIED MOST IMPORTANT TOPICS FOR GPAT

2. Test Purpose Examples Gram Stain Differentiates Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria Identification of bacterial species Culture Grow microorganisms for identification Blood culture, urine culture PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) Amplify DNA/RNA sequences Detection of viral and bacterial pathogens ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) Detect antigens or antibodies HIV, Hepatitis B and C testing Western Blot Detect specific proteins Confirmatory test for HIV Microscopy Direct visualization of microorganisms Malaria, Giardia, Fungi

3. Pathway Location Key Enzymes Purpose Glycolysis Cytoplasm Hexokinase, Phosphofructokinase, Pyruvate kinase Glucose breakdown to pyruvate, ATP production Citric Acid Cycle Mitochondrial matrix Citrate synthase, Aconitase, Isocitrate dehydrogenase Oxidation of acetyl-CoA to CO2, NADH, FADH2 generation Oxidative Phosphorylation Inner mitochondrial membrane ATP synthase, Cytochrome c oxidase ATP production from NADH and FADH2 Gluconeogenesis Cytoplasm and mitochondria Pyruvate carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase, Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase Glucose synthesis from non-carbohydrate sources Glycogenesis Cytoplasm Glycogen synthase, Branching enzyme Glycogen synthesis Glycogenolysis Cytoplasm Glycogen phosphorylase, Debranching enzyme Glycogen breakdown Pentose Phosphate Pathway Cytoplasm Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate production

4. Technique Principle Application PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) Amplification of DNA sequences Genetic testing, forensic analysis Gel Electrophoresis Separation of DNA/RNA/proteins based on size/charge DNA profiling, RNA analysis, protein separation Recombinant DNA Technology Combining DNA from different sources Gene cloning, protein production CRISPR-Cas9 Genome editing Gene therapy, genetic research DNA Sequencing Determining the sequence of nucleotides in DNA Genomics, personalized medicine Northern Blotting Detection of specific RNA sequences Gene expression studies Southern Blotting Detection of specific DNA sequences Genetic fingerprinting, gene mapping Western Blotting Detection of specific proteins Protein identification, disease diagnosis ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) Detection of antigens or antibodies Diagnostics, immunology research Flow Cytometry Analysis of physical and chemical properties of cells Cell sorting, biomarker detection

5. Technique Principle Application Agrobacterium-mediated Transformation Transfer of T-DNA into plant genome Creation of GM plants Gene Gun/Biolistics Physical delivery of DNA into plant cells Transformation of monocots CRISPR-Cas9 Targeted genome editing Trait improvement, disease resistance RNA Interference (RNAi) Gene silencing via double-stranded RNA Pest resistance, stress tolerance Protoplast Fusion Fusion of plant protoplasts to create hybrid cells Somatic hybridization

6. Vector Type Characteristics Examples Plasmids Circular DNA, replicates independently pBR322, pUC19 Bacteriophages Virus that infects bacteria Lambda phage, M13 phage Cosmids Plasmid-phage hybrid Cosmid vectors BACs (Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes) Large insert capacity BAC vectors YACs (Yeast Artificial Chromosomes) Very large insert capacity YAC vectors Ti Plasmid Plant transformation Agrobacterium tumefaciens Ti plasmid

7. Enzyme Source Application Taq Polymerase Thermus aquaticus PCR Reverse Transcriptase Retroviruses cDNA synthesis Restriction Endonucleases Bacteria DNA cutting DNA Ligase Bacteria DNA joining Cellulase Fungi, bacteria Biomass conversion, textile industry Amylase Fungi, bacteria Starch breakdown, brewing Protease Fungi, bacteria Protein degradation, detergents Lipase Fungi, bacteria Fat breakdown, biodiesel production

8. Microorganism Application Product Escherichia coli Gene cloning, protein expression Insulin, growth hormones Saccharomyces cerevisiae Fermentation Ethanol, recombinant proteins Bacillus thuringiensis Biopesticides Bt toxin Pseudomonas putida Bioremediation Degradation of pollutants Streptomyces spp. Antibiotic production Streptomycin, tetracycline

9. Technique Principle Application Cloning Creating identical copies of DNA Gene cloning, therapeutic cloning Transformation Introducing foreign DNA into cells Genetic modification, recombinant protein production Transfection Introducing nucleic acids into eukaryotic cells Gene expression studies, gene therapy Electroporation Using electric pulses to introduce DNA into cells Bacterial transformation, mammalian cell transfection Gene Knockout Disruption of specific genes Functional genomics, disease models

10. Act/Law Key Areas Covered Importance for Pharmacists Drugs and Cosmetics Act (DCA), 1940 * Regulation of import, manufacture, sale, and distribution of drugs and cosmetics. * Drug standards and quality control. * Labeling and packaging requirements. * Prohibition of adulteration and misbranding. Ensures patient safety by guaranteeing drug quality, proper labeling, and discourages unethical practices. Pharmacy Act, 1948 * Regulation of pharmacy profession. * Qualifications and registration of pharmacists. * Establishment and functioning of State Pharmacy Councils. * Ethical conduct of pharmacists. Defines the scope of pharmacy practice, ensures qualified professionals dispense medication, and promotes ethical behavior. Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS), 1985 * Regulation of narcotic and psychotropic drugs. * Controls cultivation, possession, manufacture, sale, distribution, and consumption. * Special licenses required for handling scheduled drugs. Protects public health from the misuse and dependence on controlled substances. The Medicinal and Toilet Preparations (Excise Duties) Act, 1955 * Levies excise duty on medicinal and toilet preparations. Pharmacists need to be aware of the tax implications on these products. Patents Act, 1970 * Grants exclusive rights to inventors for a limited period. Understanding intellectual property rights is crucial for pharmacists dealing with patented drugs.

11. Act/Rule Year Purpose Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940 Regulates import, manufacture, distribution, and sale of drugs and cosmetics Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act 1954 Prohibits misleading advertisements for drugs and remedies Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act 1985 Controls and regulates operations related to narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances Pharmacy Act 1948 Regulates the profession of pharmacy in India Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971 Provides for the conditions under which a pregnancy may be terminated by a registered medical practitioner Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954 Ensures the prevention of adulteration in food products Patents Act 1970 Governs the laws related to patents in India Consumer Protection Act 1986 Protects the interests of consumers Drug Price Control Order (DPCO) 1995 Controls the prices of essential drugs in India Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998 Provides guidelines for management and handling of biomedical waste

12. Authority Function Examples Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) Regulates the safety, efficacy, and quality of drugs in India Approval of new drugs, clinical trials oversight Pharmacy Council of India (PCI) Regulates pharmacy education and profession in India Accreditation of pharmacy colleges, registration of pharmacists National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA) Fixes/revises prices of controlled bulk drugs and formulations Implementation of Drug Price Control Order Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) Heads CDSCO, ensures quality of drugs and cosmetics in India Approval of new drugs, regulation of clinical trials Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC) Sets standards for drugs in India Publication of Indian Pharmacopoeia

13. Receptor Type Function Example Ligands G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) Activate intracellular signaling pathways through G-proteins Epinephrine (beta-adrenergic receptor), dopamine (D2 receptor) Ion Channel Receptors Allow ions to pass through cell membrane Nicotine (nicotinic acetylcholine receptor), GABA (GABA_A receptor) Enzyme-Linked Receptors Trigger enzyme activity inside the cell upon ligand binding Insulin (insulin receptor), EGF (EGFR) Intracellular Receptors Regulate gene expression upon ligand binding Cortisol (glucocorticoid receptor), thyroid hormone (thyroid hormone receptor)

14. Type of Isomerism Description Example (Molecular Formula: C4H10) Structural Isomers (Constitutional Isomers) Differ in the way atoms are connected within the molecule (connectivity of the carbon skeleton or functional group placement). * Butane (CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3) * 2-Methylpropane (CH3-C(CH3)2-CH3) Chain Isomers Vary in the branching of the carbon skeleton. * Butane (straight chain) * 2-Methylpropane (branched chain) Positional Isomers Functional groups are attached at different positions in the carbon chain. * 1-Butanol (CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH) * 2-Butanol (CH3-CH2-CH(OH)-CH3) Functional Group Isomers Have the same number and kind of atoms but arranged differently to form different functional groups. * Butane (CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3) * Ethyl methyl ether (CH3-CH2-O-CH3) Stereoisomers Have the same molecular formula and connectivity but differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms around a chiral center or double bond. * Not applicable for C4H10 (no chiral centers) Geometrical Isomers* (Cis/Trans Isomers) Restricted rotation around a double bond leads to cis (same side) and trans (opposite side) isomers. * (Not applicable for C4H10 - no double bonds) * But-2-ene (cis and trans isomers exist) Optical Isomers* (Enantiomers and Diastereomers) Molecules with a non-superimposable mirror image due to the presence of one or more chiral centers. * (Not applicable for C4H10 - no chiral centers) * Lactic Acid (two enantiomers) :

15. Examples Dose Calculations Determination of individual dosage amounts based on patient factors Pediatric dosing, Renal dosing Percentage Strength Calculation of drug concentration in formulations % w/w, % v/v Alligation Mixing solutions of different strengths to obtain a desired concentration Pharmacy compounding Dilution Preparation of solutions of lower concentration from a stock solution Serial dilutions, Infusion preparations Extraction Yield Calculation of efficiency in extracting active constituents from natural sources Herbal extraction processes Common Pharmaceutical Calculations

16. System Description Components Skeletal System Framework of bones and cartilage providing support and protection Axial skeleton, Appendicular skeleton Muscular System Tissues responsible for movement, posture, and heat production Skeletal muscle, Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle Nervous System Coordinates body activities through electrical impulses Central nervous system (CNS), Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Cardiovascular System Transport system for nutrients, gases, and wastes Heart, Blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries) Respiratory System Exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between blood and air Lungs, Trachea, Bronchi, Alveoli Digestive System Breakdown and absorption of nutrients from food Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine, Large intestine Endocrine System Glands producing hormones regulating various body functions Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Pancreas Urinary System Regulation of fluid balance, electrolyte balance, and removal of metabolic wastes Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Urethra Reproductive System Production of gametes (sperm and eggs) and hormones influencing sexual functions Male: Testes, Female: Ovaries, Uterus

17. Flow of Fluids - Types of manometers, Reynolds number, Bernoulli’s theorem, and applications. - Instruments: Orifice meter, Venturimeter, Pitot tube, and Rotometer. Size Reduction - Mechanisms, laws, and factors affecting size reduction. - Equipment: Hammer mill, ball mill, fluid energy mill, and others. Size Separation - Mechanism, official standards of powders, and equipment like sieve shaker, cyclone separator, etc. Heat Transfer - Fourier’s law, conduction, convection, and radiation. - Heat exchangers and evaporators. Distillation - Simple distillation, fractional distillation, steam distillation, and molecular distillation. Drying - Mechanism, equilibrium moisture content, rate of drying curve. - Equipment: Tray dryer, drum dryer, spray dryer, vacuum dryer, and more. Mixing - Factors affecting mixing, solid, liquid, and semisolid mixing. - Equipment: Double cone blender, twin shell blender, ribbon blender, and Sigma blade mixer. Centrifuation and filter Super semicontinuous,perforated , Seizt ,Asbestos Table R

18. Parameter Description Importance Specificity Ability of the method to measure only the desired analyte. Ensures accurate results without interference from other components. Accuracy Closeness of the measured value to the true value. Guarantees reliable quantitation of the drug. Precision Repeatability and reproducibility of the analytical method. Provides consistent and reliable results. Linearity Proportional relationship between the analytical signal and the concentration of the analyte. Ensures accurate quantitation across a range of concentrations. Sensitivity Ability of the method to detect small changes in the analyte concentration. Crucial for analyzing drugs present in low quantities. LOD AND LOQ SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO Lowest concentration of analyte detectable with acceptable certainty REPRODUCIBILITY AND ROBUSTNESS

19. Technique Description Applications Chromatography Separation technique based on differential partitioning between mobile and stationary phases HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography), GC (Gas Chromatography) Spectroscopy Study of interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation UV-Vis (Ultraviolet-Visible) Spectroscopy, IR (Infrared) Spectroscopy Titration Quantitative analysis based on reaction between analyte and titrant Acid-base titrations, Complexometric titrations Electrophoresis Separation of charged molecules under an electric field SDS-PAGE (Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis) Mass Spectrometry Technique for determining molecular weight and structure of compounds LC-MS (Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry), MALDI-TOF (Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight) Spectrophotometry Measurement of absorbance or emission of light by substances Fluorescence spectroscopy, Atomic absorption spectroscopy Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis of molecular structure based on magnetic properties 1H-NMR (Proton NMR), 13C-NMR (Carbon TITRATIONS

20. PTC FLOOR STOCK UNIT DOSE DISPENSING SYSTEM

21. Parameters Tablets Capsules Parenterals Aerosols Evaluation Hardness Uniformity of wt , Uniformity of content Dissolution Wt variation Disintegration Friability Morphological,Bloom strength,Iron content-(15PPm), Viscosity(25-45 mp),Base adsorption, MC,Content uniformi , Wt variation Sterility Pyrogenicity Leakage (1% Methyelene blue), Clarity,Particulate matter Particle size distrbituion,Identifciation,MC,Flash point Flame , Vap pree,foam stability ,Spray pattern,Density Method Dry Wet Direct slugging Chilsonator roller compa Aseptic area Clean area Cold,Pressure Vaccum filling Excipients Binder 10-20% glidant diluents disintegrants 5% Super disintegrant adherants antiadherant Lubricants Colouring , flavouring sweetening Gelatin , HPMC, Opacifying , Diluents, Plasticizer, Absorbents vehicles/solvents, tonicity agents, buffers, solubilizing agents (such co-solvents, surfactants, complexing agents), bulking agents,osmotic agent antimicrobials/preservatives, Viscosity modfifer , antioxidants, chelating agents Cryoprotectans Lyoprotectants Propellant,Wetting,Humectant , Antifoaming Equipments Multipunch rotary die press Zanasi Eli lily, Rotosort Rotofill,Accogel, Accogil Dip tube Actuator Canister Gasket Miscellaneous Tablet defects,Sugar and Enteric coated polymer Type a and b gelatin , Glcyerin :gelatin Preformulation consideration 140-180 psi pressure at 130 F/ 70 degree

22. Schedule Description Schedule A Forms and applications Schedule B Fees for tests and analysis Schedule C Biological and special products Schedule D Exemptions Schedule E1 List of poisonous substances Schedule F Vaccines, Sera, and other biological products Schedule G List of substances required to be used under medical supervision Schedule H Prescription drugs Schedule H1 Prescription drugs with additional regulations Schedule J Diseases and ailments that cannot be claimed to be cured by drugs Schedule M Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) requirements Schedule P Life period of drugs Schedule Q List of dyes, colors, and pigments permitted to be used in cosmetics Schedule R Standards for condoms Schedule S Standards for cosmetics Schedule X Narcotic and psychotropic substances Schedule Y Requirements and guidelines for clinical trials

23. Pathway Location Key Enzymes Purpose Glycolysis Cytoplasm Hexokinase, Phosphofructokinase, Pyruvate kinase Breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, ATP production Gluconeogenesis Cytoplasm and mitochondria Pyruvate carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources Glycogenesis Cytoplasm Glycogen synthase, Branching enzyme Synthesis of glycogen from glucose Glycogenolysis Cytoplasm Glycogen phosphorylase, Debranching enzyme Breakdown of glycogen to glucose Pentose Phosphate Pathway Cytoplasm Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase Production of NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate

24. Hormone Source Function Regulation Insulin Pancreas (beta cells) Lowers blood glucose, promotes glycogen storage Blood glucose levels Glucagon Pancreas (alpha cells) Raises blood glucose, promotes glycogen breakdown Blood glucose levels Thyroxine (T4) Thyroid gland Regulates metabolism, growth and development TSH from pituitary gland Cortisol Adrenal cortex Stress response, increases blood glucose ACTH from pituitary gland Epinephrine Adrenal medulla Fight or flight response, increases blood glucose Nervous system Growth Hormone (GH) Pituitary gland Stimulates growth, protein synthesis GHRH from hypothalamus Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Parathyroid glands Increases blood calcium levels Blood calcium levels Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) Pituitary gland Promotes water retention in kidneys Blood osmolality

25. Pathway Location Key Enzymes Purpose Fatty Acid Synthesis Cytoplasm Acetyl-CoA carboxylase, Fatty acid synthase Synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA Beta-Oxidation Mitochondrial matrix Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, Enoyl-CoA hydratase Breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA Cholesterol Synthesis Cytoplasm (liver cells) HMG-CoA reductase Synthesis of cholesterol Ketogenesis Mitochondrial matrix (liver) HMG-CoA synthase, HMG-CoA lyase Production of ketone bodies from acetyl-CoA Lipolysis Cytoplasm Hormone-sensitive lipase Breakdown of triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerol

26. Component Structure/Function Examples DNA Double helix, genetic blueprint Human genome, bacterial chromosomes RNA Single-stranded, protein synthesis mRNA, tRNA, rRNA Nucleotide Building block of nucleic acids ATP, GTP, CTP, TTP Base Pairing Hydrogen bonds between bases A-T (DNA), A-U (RNA), G-C Replication DNA synthesis DNA polymerase, helicase Transcription RNA synthesis from DNA template RNA polymerase, transcription factors Translation Protein synthesis from mRNA Ribosomes, tRNA

27. Vitamin Type Function Deficiency Disease Vitamin A Fat-soluble Vision, immune function, cell growth Night blindness, xerophthalmia Vitamin D Fat-soluble Calcium absorption, bone health Rickets, osteomalacia Vitamin E Fat-soluble Antioxidant Hemolytic anemia Vitamin K Fat-soluble Blood clotting Bleeding disorders Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Water-soluble Carbohydrate metabolism Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Water-soluble Energy production, redox reactions Ariboflavinosis Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Water-soluble NAD/NADP synthesis Pellagra Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Water-soluble Amino acid metabolism Dermatitis, anemia Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid) Water-soluble DNA synthesis, repair Megaloblastic anemia Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Water-soluble Nerve function, red blood cell production Pernicious anemia Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) Water-soluble Collagen synthesis, antioxidant Scurvy

28. Topic Description Carbohydrates Structure, classification, function, metabolism (glycolysis, TCA cycle) Proteins Structure, function, amino acids, protein synthesis Lipids Structure, classification, function, metabolism (beta-oxidation) Enzymes Kinetics, mechanism of action, regulation Vitamins and Coenzymes Their role in metabolism, deficiency diseases Nucleic Acids Structure, function, DNA replication, transcription, translation Biomembranes Structure, function, transport processes Metabolism Integration of metabolic pathways, regulation Inborn Errors of Metabolism Genetic disorders affecting metabolism ENZYMES INHIBTION,TYPES

29. Medicinal Plant Family/BIOLOGICAL SOURCE Active Constituents Uses Aloe vera Asphodelaceae Aloin, mannitol Wound healing, laxative Digitalis purpurea Plantaginaceae Digoxin Heart failure Cinchona officinalis Rubiaceae Quinine Malaria Papaver somniferum Papaveraceae Morphine, codeine Analgesia Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) Solanaceae Withanolides Adaptogenic, stress relief

30. Term Definition Bioavailability The fraction of an administered dose that reaches systemic circulation Half-Life The time required for the concentration of a drug to reduce to half its initial value Therapeutic Index Ratio between the toxic dose and the therapeutic dose of a drug Agonist A substance that activates a receptor to produce a biological response Antagonist A substance that blocks or reduces the action of an agonist Partial Agonist A substance that activates a receptor but produces a weaker response than a full agonist-BUPRENORPHINE BUSPIRONE Inverse Agonist Beta Carboline.

31. Reaction Type Description Examples Substitution Reactions Replacement of one functional group by another Nucleophilic substitution, Electrophilic substitution Addition Reactions Addition of atoms or groups to double or triple bonds Hydrogenation, Halogenation Elimination Reactions Removal of atoms or groups to form double bonds Dehydration, Dehydrohalogenation Oxidation Reactions Increase in oxidation state of a molecule Oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes/ketones, oxidation of alkenes to diols Reduction Reactions Decrease in oxidation state of a molecule Reduction of ketones to alcohols, reduction of nitro compounds to amines Esterification Formation of esters Acetic acid + Ethanol → Ethyl acetate Amination Introduction of an amino group Ammonia + Alkyl halide → Primary amine Hydrolysis Breaking of a chemical bond using water Hydrolysis of esters to carboxylic acids

32. Starting Functional Group Intermediate(s) Product Functional Group Alcohol Tosylate, Mesylate Alkyl halide, Alkene Aldehyde/Ketone Oxime, Hydrazone Amine, Alkane Carboxylic Acid Acid chloride, Ester Amide, Alcohol Ester Grignard reagent Alcohol, Ketone

33. Mechanism Type Description Examples Nucleophilic Substitution Substitution at an electrophilic center by a nucleophile SN1, SN2 reactions Electrophilic Addition Addition of an electrophile to a double bond Addition of HBr to propene, Halogenation of alkenes Elimination Reactions Formation of a double bond from adjacent atoms E1, E2 reactions Radical Reactions Reactions involving free radicals Chlorination of methane, Polymerization of ethylene Oxidation-Reduction Transfer of electrons between reactants Oxidation of alcohols, Reduction of aldehydes

34. Drug Class Key Synthetic Steps Examples Beta-Lactam Antibiotics Penicillin and cephalosporin synthesis Penicillin G, Cephalexin Steroids Biosynthesis and synthetic modifications Testosterone, Cortisol Anticancer Agents Design and synthesis of targeted therapies Taxol (Paclitaxel), Methotrexate Anti-inflammatory Drugs Synthesis of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs Aspirin, Ibuprofen Vitamins Organic synthesis and functional group modifications Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid), Vitamin B12

35. Principle Description Examples Stereochemistry Study of the spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules Chirality, enantiomers, diastereomers Resonance Delocalization of electrons within conjugated systems Benzene ring, resonance stabilization Acidity and Basicity Ability of a compound to donate or accept a proton pKa values, acidic and basic functional groups Electrophilic/Substitution Reactions Reactions where an electrophile reacts with a nucleophile Nitration, Friedel-Crafts alkylation Nucleophilic Addition Addition of a nucleophile to an electrophilic substrate Addition of Grignard reagents to carbonyl compounds Aromaticity Stability and reactivity of aromatic compounds Benzene, aromatic substitution reactions

36. Reaction Name Description Examples Grignard Reaction Formation of carbon-carbon bonds using Grignard reagents Grignard reagent + Carbonyl compound → Alcohol or hydrocarbon Friedel-Crafts Acylation Introduction of an acyl group into an aromatic ring using a Lewis acid catalyst Benzene + Acyl chloride → Acylbenzene (acetophenone) Diels-Alder Reaction Formation of cyclohexene derivatives from a diene and a dienophile Butadiene + Ethene → Cyclohexene Hofmann Rearrangement Conversion of primary amides to primary amines Acetamide → Methylamine

37. Type of Bond Description Examples Covalent Bonding Sharing of electron pairs between atoms C-C bonds, C-H bonds Pi and Sigma Bonds Types of covalent bonds Double and triple bonds in alkenes and alkynes Hydrogen Bonding Attraction between a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom Water molecules, DNA base pairing Van der Waals Forces Weak attractive forces between molecules or atoms London dispersion forces Dipole-Dipole Interactions Interactions between polar molecules Acetone, Water interactions

38. Drug Class Mechanism of Action Therapeutic Uses Side Effects NSAIDs (e.g., Ibuprofen) Inhibition of COX enzymes Pain, inflammation, fever Gastric ulcers, kidney problems ACE inhibitors (e.g., Lisinopril) Inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme Hypertension, heart failure Cough, dizziness Beta-blockers (e.g., Propranolol) Blockade of beta-adrenergic receptors Hypertension, angina pectoris Bradycardia, fatigue Diuretics (e.g., Furosemide) Increase urine output Hypertension, heart failure Electrolyte imbalance, dehydration Statins (e.g., Atorvastatin) Inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase enzyme Lower blood cholesterol Muscle pain, liver problems

39. Subject Key Topics Pharmacology - Drug classifications and mechanisms of action<br>- Adverse effects and interactions Physical Pharmacy - Solubility and dissolution<br>- Micromeritics and rheology Pharmaceutical Jurisprudence - Pharmacy Act and regulations<br>- Intellectual property rights Pharmaceutical Management - Marketing and sales management<br>- Inventory control and supply chain Pharmaceutics - Dosage forms (tablets, capsules, etc.)<br>- Excipients and formulation techniques Pharmaceutical Engineering - Size reduction and mixing processes<br>- Heat transfer and sterilization Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics - Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion<br>- Bioavailability and bioequivalence Biotechnology - Recombinant DNA technology<br>- Monoclonal antibodies Pathophysiology - Disease mechanisms and pathogenesis<br>- Clinical manifestations Physical Chemistry - Colligative properties<br>- Phase equilibria and solutions Biochemistry - Enzymes and metabolic pathways<br>- Biomolecules and their functions Organic Chemistry - Reaction mechanisms and functional groups< br >- Stereochemistry