Indv asesmen dan metode riset psikologi.pptx

individual asesmen

1. Assessment Individual Dyan evita santi , SPsi ., MSi

2. Asesmen psikologi adalah bidang ilmu perilaku yang berkaitan dengan metode untuk mengidentifikasi adanya kesamaan dan perbedaan di antara orang-orang dalam hal karakteristik dan kapasitas pribadi mereka . Dengan demikian, asesmen psikologi terdiri dari berbagai prosedur yang dapat dilakukan dengan berbagai macam cara untuk mencapai berbagai macam tujuan.

3. Asesmen psikologi melibatkan penggabungan informasi yang diperoleh tidak hanya dari tes, tetapi juga dari wawancara, observasi perilaku, laporan jaminan ( collateral reports), dan historical documents. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing ( American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association , and National Council on Measurement in Education , 1999) specify in this regard that :

4. …the use of tests provides one method of collecting information within the larger framework of a psychological assessment of an individual . . . . A psychological assessment is a comprehensive examination undertaken to answer specific questions about a client’s psychological functioning during a particular time interval or to predict a client’s psychological functioning in the future. (p. 119 )…

5. Prosedur asesmen ini menggunakan banyak pendekatan alternatif untuk mendapatkan dan menggabungkan informasi dari sumber yang berbeda yang dapat digunakan untuk menjawab pertanyaan dari berbagai macam bidang seperti clinical , educational, health, forensic, and industrial organizational psychology.

6. Tujuan Assessment Test Methodology Purposes of Assessment Group Assessment Programmatic decision-making Individual Assessment Screening Diagnosis, intervention Placement or selection

7. Theories of Individual Differences

8. 1. Social Learning theory Merupakan model behaviorist yang d ikembangkan oleh Bandura (1977) Berasumsi bahwa apapun yang dilakukan oleh individu tergantung dari rewards dan punishment yang berlaku di lingkungan tsb Teori ini memiliki 4 konsep dasar asesmen :

9. Pertama, teori ini fokus pada efek kelompok, dan perbedaan individu sebagian besar dianggap sebagai varians kesalahan. Kedua, behaviorisme sebagian besar mengabaikan teori evolusioner; teori evolusioner memberikan informasi tentang dimensi kunci dari kemampuan manusia dan perilaku interpersonal. Ketiga , t eori behavioris menyangkut bagaimana perilaku diperoleh atau dipelihara, bukan apa maksud/tujuannya , terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa perilaku sosial pasti memiliki makna. Orang biasanya lebih peduli tentang bagaimana sesuatu dilakukan daripada tentang apa yang dilakukan Keempat, behaviorisme mengasumsikan bahwa setiap perilaku bisa dinilai, artinya setiap orang berbeda dgn yang lain, dengan cara yang tidak terbatas; oleh karena itu asesmen adalah suatu tugas yang sangat sulit.

10. 2. Trait Theory Trait theory begins with Allport's ( Allport & Odbert , 1936 ) trait list; it extends through Cattell's research with the 16 PF and Five Factor Model; the variants propose that there are more than five but usually fewer than twelve basic traits (Block, 1995) .

11. Menurut teori sifat , orang berbeda satu sama lain terutama dalam hal profil mereka pada daftar sifat yang dimiliki seorang teoretikus Tujuan asesmen dari perspektif ini adalah untuk menciptakan sebuah profil sifat untuk setiap orang yang dinilai dan membangun korelasi antara score trait dengan non test performance

12. 3. Psychoanalysis Seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Freud, psikoanalisis membuat tiga hal menarik. Yang pertama adalah bahwa berdasarkan sejarah evolusioner, kita semua membutuhkan (dengan cara yang dalam dan tidak sadar) cinta ( seks, afiliasi , kedekatan) dan kesempatan untuk mengarahkan orang lain sesuai keinginan kita (dominan, power, destruction)

13. Kedua , peristiwa yang paling penting bagi setiap perkembangan individu adalah terkait dengan proses belajar bagaimana menghadapi otorita - specifically, learning to deal with parental rules for suppressing , repressing, or expressing sexual and aggressive impulses Ketiga adalah bahwa orang berbeda satu sama lain terutama tentang bagaimana menghadapi rasa bersalah yang timbul dari tugas ( yang tidak mungkin ) menekan dorongan seksual dan agresif mereka . Jadi perbedaan individu menyangkut bagaimana orang mempertahankan diri terhadap perasaan rasa bersalah dan kecemasan . Beberapa orang akan melampiaskan impuls mereka kepada orang lain, beberapa akan mengontrol kecemasan dengan perilaku ritualistik , dan sebagainya .

14. Tujuan asesmen dari perspektif ini adalah untuk mengidentifikasi adanya perasaan bersalah dan kecemasan dalam diri seseorang , dan bagaimana mereka melindungi diri dari perasaan bersalah dan cemas tsb .

15. 4. Interpersonal Theory Dikembangkan oleh Adler dan Horney, dengan 2 kontribusi : Pertama , di wilayah dimana umumnya didominasi oleh pria, tapi ada lebih dari separuh peserta adalah wanita , Adler dan Horney menekanan feminis sebagaimana pada teori performasi sosial

16. Kedua , mereka menggeser fokus teoritis dari peristiwa yang bersifat pribadi pada perilaku publik yang diperkirakan dapat mengganggu interaksi sosial . Argumen dasar mereka adalah s elama masa kanak-kanak , setiap orang memiliki pengalaman yang menyebabkan perasaan tidak nyaman atau inferioritas terhadap suatu hal

17. M isalnya tata bahasa, warna rambut , penglihatan , berat badan , koordinasi , kemampuan akademis , dimana perasaan ini terus berlanjut hingga masa dewasa . Individu percaya bahwa orang lain akan mengkritik kekurangan tsb ; Untuk menghindari kritik , indvidu mengembangkan cara untuk memberi kompensasi guna mengurangi apa yang dirasakannya . Upaya mengkompensasikan ketidaknyamanan tsbadl dengan menguras energi pada kegiatan yang lebih produktif . Intinya di sini adalah orang berbeda satu sama lain terutama dalam hal apa yang mereka rasa tidak aman dan bagaimana mereka mengatasi ketidakamanan mereka .

18. Horney developed an interesting taxonomy of strategies for dealing with insecurity. She argued that these strategies fall into three categories: a. subordinating oneself to the wishes of others , b. avoiding becoming involved with others, c. and competing with and dominating others . The goals of assessment from this perspective are to identify the methods that people use to compensate for their feelings of inadequacy.

19. Although we generally agree with Adler and Horney’s orientation , it has two major shortcomings : like psychoanalysis, it is a theory of incompetence, not effectiveness. like the social learning theorists, Adler and Horney believe social circumstances determine individuals' lives, and they ignore biology and evolutionary theory.

20. 5. Jungian and Humanistic Psychology CarI Jung argued that people have an innate biological tendency toward growth and wholeness and become whole by committing themselves to a grand and powerful myth. Religion used to provide such a myth, but no longer; thus, for most people, the process of personal growth is blocked, and the solution is to develop a compelling personal vision and system of beliefs.

21. Maslow (1943) mengadopsi dua tema utama Jung: orang memiliki kecenderungan bawaan untuk tumbuh dan berkembang (aktualisasi diri), dan bagi kebanyakan orang proses ini diblokir oleh peristiwa2 di lingkungan. Jung mendefinisikan pertumbuhan dalam hal peningkatan tingkat self-understanding; Maslow mendefinisikan pertumbuhan dalam hal kemampuan untuk hidup sesuai dengan nilai pribadi dan pilihan yang dipilih secara pribadi, yang menjadi mungkin setelah seseorang memenuhi kebutuhan duniawi akan makanan, penerimaan, keamanan , dan prestasi.

22. The bottom line here is that people differ from one another primarily in terms of their levels of self actualization . Few people in the normal population become self -actualized; Maslow's list primarily contained cultural and artistic celebrities: Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, and himself. Today's list might include Mother Teresa and Timothy Leary. The goals of assessment therefore are to establish where each person is in, his or her quest for self-actualization.

23. A da tiga masalah dengan teori ini : Pertama , konsep aktualisasi diri tidak bisa dimengerti dari perspektif teori evolusi ; belum ada bukti apa untungnya menjadi pribadi yang bisa mengaktualisasikan diri. Apalagi beberapa tokoh yang menurut Maslow mampu mengaktualisasikan diri adalah individu yang penyendiri dengan sedikit teman ataju keluarga . Kedua , upaya untuk mengukur perbedaan individual dalam self- actualization sebagian besar tidak berhasil , yang menunjukkan k onsepnya tak bisa digambarkan ( Wahba & Bridwell , 1983). Ketiga , pencarian a ktualisasi diri adalah kegiatan yang bersifat self- centered , bahkan narsistik. Masyarakat akan collapse jika semua orang mengikuti model Maslow .

24. 6. Personal Construct Theory George Kelly's Psychology of Personal Constructs ( 1955) brought the " cognitive revolution" to personality psychology . Kelly berpendapat setiap orang mengembangkan teori tentang apa yang orang lain harapkan dari mereka selama interaksi sosial dan menggunakan teori-teori ini untuk membimbing dan menafsirkan hubungan mereka dengan orang lain

25. Orang yang kompeten memiliki teori yang relatif valid dan bersedia untuk menguji dan merevisi teorinya tsb; orang yang tidak kompeten cenderung memiliki teori yang salah yang tidak akan mereka evaluasi atau modifikasi . Sebagai contoh; manajer yang baik secara berkala meminta bawahan mereka untuk mengevaluasi praktik manajemen mereka dan kemudian akan bertindak sesuai informasi tsb. In this view, people differ from one another primarily in terms of the validity of their theories and their willingness to verify them.

26. Kelly's theory concerns competence and seems sensible as far as it goes, but it suffers from two shortcomings. Pertama , Kelly mengabaikan teori evolusi , yang menunjukkan bahwa tema tertentu akan lebih sering muncul dalam teori kita daripada yang lain; contoh adalah keinginan untuk kekuasaan dan cinta . In Kelly's model, however, the content of people's theories is free to vary almost infinitely. S econd problem: the theory presents serious obstacles to assessment. How can we compare people on the basis of their theories of social interaction when each theory is, by definition, idiosyncratic and unique?

27. 7. Socioanalytic Theory Perspektif ini adl sintesis dari bbrp teori sebelumnya Darwin : performa sosial tergantung pada pemahaman thd apa yg dilakukan org utk berkembang . Freud , J ung, and Maslow : perilaku ditentukan oleh sebagian kecil dorongan biologis yang tidak disadari atau kebutuhan . Adler and Horney: individu sangat menekankan interaksi sosial ; kemampuan membangun relasi dg org lain merupakan elemen kunci bertahan hidup .

28. Along with social learning theory, we believe that experience, especially early experience, shapes behavior into characteristic channels. And finally, we agree with Kelly that what people do depends to a large degree on their theory about the person with whom they are interacting. This theory viewpoint can be summarized as follows :

29. Evidence from many sources indicates that humans have always lived in groups, that every group has a status hierarchy, and that interaction within the group is regulated by local culture- but local cultures have some universal features. This suggests that people are social animals , primarily motivated by needs for ( 1 ) status and the control of resources ; ( 2) acceptance and positive regard; and (3) predictability , structure, and order.

30. Social life consists of efforts to acquire more status or to avoid losing status, to acquire more respect and affection or to avoid losing respect and affection , and to gain some understanding of, and the ability to predict, social reality. In this view , people differ from one another in terms of their relative success in achieving power and status, respect and affection, and accurate understanding of their social worlds. From the perspective of socioanalytic theory, the goals of assessment are to measure factors associated with individual differences in status and power , in acceptance and respect, and in a valid understanding of social reality.

31. The mayor problem with this model is that, by relying on observers ' ratings, it tends to ignore internal affective states, such as emotions , which many psychologists (Tompkins, 1962, 1963) consider to be crucial aspects of personality.

32. Ethical Principles to Individual Assessment 1. Competence Psychologist have appropriate education, training and experience to conduct assessments; they update their knowledge in assessment practices 2. Integrity . Psychologists provide truthful information and deal fairly with others; they clarify their roles and relationships; and they avoid conflicts of interest related to assessment practices. 3. Professional and scientific responsibility. Psychologists accept responsibility for the influences of assessment results; they confer, refer, or cooperate with other psychologists when appropriate; they do not promote the practice of assessment by unqualified individuals; and they do not use instruments that scientific research has found not to meet professionally accepted standards.

33. 4. Respect for people's rights and dignity. Psychologists recognize the rights of assessees to privacy, confidentiality, self-determination, and autonomy; they are respectful of individual differences and the diversity of others; they realize that individuals' participation in assessment is voluntary; and they understand that assesses have a right to receive feedback about their assessment results. 5. Concern for others' welfare. Psychologists are sensitive to the welfare and needs of assessees ; they attempt to avoid or minimize any harm that might result because of the assessment process; and they are cognizant of the individual's well-being when interpreting assessment results. 6. Social responsibility. Psychologists comply with the law and maintain awareness of social conditions that might influence how they conduct assessments.

34. How to improve assessment knowledge and skill : 1 . Learning in some detail about the developmental and psychometric characteristics of assessment instruments and procedures, especially the relevant theory underlying each instrument and also its reliability, validity (both construct and criterion related) , and fairness . 3. Learning how to interpret the test results and profiles, including interpretations within and across test constructs being measured. 2. Understanding how the instruments are scored, the characteristics of normative sources, corrections for faking when appropriate, and other mechanisms associated with the derivation of test results and profiles.

35. 5 . Learning how to integrate all the assessment information and make predictions about assessee behavior. 4. Learning how to conduct an assessment interview. 6. Learning how to communicate (orally and in writing) the assessment results to the client and the assessee .

36. Assessment Design Assembling elements into a complete assessment design requires the consideration of four categories of variables: The components , such as tests and other measures of assessee performance. The components emphasize the utility of using multiple measures with some ·overlap (at least two measures per competency), multiple methods (such as tests, simulations, and interview) , and multiple assessor input for each assessee . This multimeasure , multimethod , multirater process is most often associated with assessment centers.

37. The primary assessor, needs to make two types of evaluations for each assessee . He or she needs to ( l) integrate ratings across each competency, considering the relative ' contribution of each data source, to arrive at final competency ratings, and ( 2) interpret information from each method to arrive at behavioral themes that describe the assessee's strengths and developmental needs.

38. Sample Assessment Integration Form Competence Interview Tests 360 profile LGD Thinking Skills 1. Seasoned judgment 2. Visionary thinking 3. Global perspective Strategic management 4. Strategic business planning 5. Managing execution Leadership 6. Developing talent 7. Empowering others Interpersonal skills 8. Influencing and negotiating 9. Building relationships

39. (2) the structure of the process and the sequence of the components; The flow of the events in an assessment needs to be considered as part of its design. Every effort should be made to construct a process that is sensitive to the needs of assessees and consistent with professional treatment. Another general guideline is to place the cognitive testing as early as possible in the process, when assessees are likely to be most alert. Simulations (ex: in-basket simulation) when used, are quite engaging and therefore can be arranged more flexibly .

40. Sample Selection Assessment Schedule. Time Session 9:00-10:45 Interview 10:45-11 :00 Break 11 :00-12:00 Cognitive testing 12:00-1:00 Lunch 1:00-3:00 In-basket simulation 3:00-3:15 Break 3:15-4: 15 Direct report simulation: preparation and meeting 4:15-5: 15 Peer meeting simulation: preparation and meeting 5:30 Departure

41. (3) the work product outcomes that emanate from the assessment process; After assessments are conducted the assembled data about assesses must be interpreted or integrated. Assessors evolve their own process for integrating the data, some choosing to focus on more free-form interpretations of strengths and developmental needs, others using a more structured or competency-based process. Reports come in both oral and written forms, and the time when assessees and organizational sponsors will receive them should be understood from the beginning of an assessment process.

42. (4) the follow-up steps that should be considered. After an assessment is complete, reports delivered, and feedback given, there are subsequent steps that should be built into the process from the start.

43. Individual Assessment Framework Considering assessment and purpose Identifying assessment focus D esigning assessment process Collecting data Interpreting and integrating data Communicating results Reaching conclusions Facilitating impact and change Following up on outcome Understanding the context

44. Understanding Organizational Context Most assessors initiate the individual assessment process by receiving a request for an assessment from a client. This historical approach often places the assessor in a reactive and order-taking role. Assessor psychologists need to be partners with their clients in recognizing the setting context issues and responding with alternative solutions that will influence the assessment process and outcomes.

45. Considering Assessment and Purpose After gaining an understanding of the setting context, psychologists need to be involved in discussing the appropriateness of assessment and articulating its purpose.

46. Identifying Assessment Focus   Once individual assessment has been selected as a course of action, the key issues surrounding the assessment need to be identified. If the purpose of the assessment focuses on selecting or matching individuals to particular job or career opportunities, then a pre-assessment analysis seeks to identify the requirements, success factors, or performance expectations associated with those job or career opportunities. If the assessment is for the purpose of developing personal skills and changing behavior, then the skills, abilities, or competencies to be evaluated need to be specified.

47. The focus of an assessment may involve one or more measurement constructs: • Integrated personality: attempts to understand the assessee in a holistic way • Aptitudes or cognitive abilities: those most frequently measured are verbal, numerical, and abstract reasoning • Traits: dispositions to behave in certain ways • Skills: abilities learned from experiences • Behavioral responses: descriptions or actual samples of behavior

48. Designing the Assessment Process The assessment process should be planned to collect the information needed to evaluate the competencies that are the focus of the assessment. A variety of assessment tools can be included in the process. Assessments that only use a single assessment tool such as an assessment interview or a battery of cognitive tests significantly limit the validity of the assessment.

49. Collecting Data   The basic data collection process follows some fairly clear principles of standardized administration. The most challenging aspect of this step is for assessors to be well trained not only in the exercises, tools, and competencies but also in the ability to create and test hypotheses about the individual during the interview.

50. Interpreting and Integrating Data Once assessment data are collected, they must undergo interpretation by the psychologist. The interpretation process includes understanding the meaning of test scores or individual responses, integrating the information from the various data sources, and organizing the information in a manner that will lead to useful predictions .

51. Reaching Conclusions Reaching conclusions is a complex challenge of considering not only the integrated assessment results but also the organizational context. It produces predictions of performance effectiveness or future behavior

52. Communicating Results Meyer has explored a broad range of issues related to communicating assessment results to individuals and the client. Certainly assessors need not only to be aware of their professional and ethical responsibilities but also to work toward understanding how the communication process affects both the individual and the client.

53. Facilitating Impact and Change There is a widespread movement toward using individual assessment as a foundation for individual development and behavioral change. This outcome will become even more prominent in the future as many organizations insist on leveraging the data for specific individual development benefits.

54. Following Up on Outcomes Clearly this step is the one that is rarely taken but critically needed. For many years, the clinical research literature has demonstrated the importance of validating assessment predictions. T he assessors , particularly those doing large numbers of assessments , have to design validation projects and follow up on them to strengthen their understanding of the relationship between assessment results and job performance.

55. Assessing the Quality of a Psychological Testing Report Item to be Included Comments in Report Should Address Referral information Who referred the person? What questions are to be addressed? Informed consent Was the person (or parent or guardian) advised about the nature and purpose of the evaluation, as well as who is to pay, what charges are anticipated, who will have access to the data, and what feedback will be provided? Contextual issues What is the relevant psychosocial ecology (e.g., school failure, recent divorce, criminal charges, etc.)? Third-party involvement Is a statement about any third party obligations or entitlements (e.g., responsibility for payment or access to findings ) noted ?

56. Item to be Included Comments in Report Should Address Current status observations What behaviors were observed during the interview (e.g., mood, rapport, concentration, language barriers, physical handicaps, etc.)? Deviations from standard practice Were any deviations from standard practice in test administration needed to accommodate the client? Listing of instruments used Is a complete list of the tests administered provided? Does the list specify the full names of the instruments and version or form used? Does the report provide descriptive information or references for any unusual instruments or techniques used? If more than one set of norms exist, are the norms used in evaluating the particular client reported on specified? Reliability and validity Are the test results obtained deemed reliable and valid, or should they be considered in light of any mediating factors?

57. Item to be Included Comments in Report Should Address Data presentation Are scores for each instrument administered presented and explained? Are the meanings of the data discussed in the context of the referral questions ? Are homogeinity , variability, or scatter in patterns of scores discussed? Are technical terms and jargon avoided? Summary If a summary is provided, does it err by mentioning material not addressed in the body of the report? Recommendations If recommendations are made, is it evident how these flow from the data? Do recommendations relate cogently to the referral questions? Diagnosis If a diagnosis is requested or if differential diagnosis was a referral question, does the report address this issue? Authentication Is the report signed by the person who conducted the evaluation? Are the degree(s) and title of the person signing provided? If the signer is unlicensed or a trainee, has a licensed supervisor countersigned the report?

58. Techniques for Assesing Category Characteristics Examples Background or historical data Data at least partially verifiable through an examination of an assessee's life and work history Formal education Work history and experience Specific technical knowledge Biographical information Reference checks Training experiences Behavioral observations Data obtained by observations of the assessee in real work settings or assessment simulations Observed work behaviors Performance appraisals 360° multirater feedback Assessment centers or simulations Competencies Self report Oral or written data provided by the assessee Paper-and-pencil tests Traits or characteristics Targeted and structured interviews Self-descriptions

59. Methods Biographical data Structured interviewing Performance assessment Personality inventories Abilities test Simulation exercise

60. Types of Tests Individual Tests vs. Group Tests Individual tests: test administrator gives a test to a single person e.g . WAIS-III, MMPI-2 Group tests: single examiner gives a test to a group of people e.g . SAT, GRE

61. (Human) Ability Tests * Achievement Tests evaluates what an individual has learned measures prior activity * Aptitude Tests evaluates what an individual is capable of learning measures capacity or future potential * Intelligence Tests Measures a person’s general potential to solve problems , adapt to novel situations and profit from experience

62. Personality Tests: Objective & Projective * Objective Personality Tests present specific stimuli and ask for specific responses (e.g. true /false questions ) . * Projective Personality Tests present more ambiguous stimuli and ask for less specific responses ( e.g . inkblots , drawings , photographs , Rorschach, TAT)

63. Percentage of Assessors Using Assessment Methods and Specific Tests Assessment Personal history form 81.9 methods Ability tests 74.3 Personality inventories 78.9 Projective tests 41.7 Simulation exercises 28.8 Interview 95.5

64. Specific tests WAIS-R 18.0 Wonderlic 6.3 Watson Glaser-CTA 19.6 EAS 9.8 Wesman PCT 9.2 GZTS 18.4 MMPI 24.4 MBTI 14.9 16 PF 26.9 EPPS 8.2 CPI 19.3 TAT 20.9 Rorschach 14.2 Sentence completion 8.9

65. Malingering and Defensiveness Malingering and defensiveness consist of conscious and deliberate attempts by persons being examined to falsify the information they are giving and thereby to mislead the examiner. Malingering involves intent to present oneself as being worse off psychologically than is actually the case and is commonly referred to as faking bad. Defensiveness involves seeking to convey an impression of being better off than one actually is and is commonly called faking good. Both faking bad and faking good can range in degree from slight exaggeration of problems and concerns or of assets and capabilities, to total fabrication of difficulties never experienced or accomplishments never achieved. These two types of efforts to mislead examiners arise from different kinds of motivation, but both of them can usually be detected from patterns of inconsistency that appear in the assessment data unless respondents have been carefully coached to avoid them.

66. Detecting malingering and defensiveness First , malingerers often produce inconsistent data within individual assessment measures. Usually referred to as intratest scatter, this form of inconsistency involves failing relatively easy items on intelligence or ability tests while succeeding on much more difficult items of the same kind, or responding within the normal range on some portions of a personality test but in an extremely deviant manner on other portions of the same test.

67. A second, form of inconsistency frequently found in the assessment data of malingerers occurs between test results and the examiner’s behavioral observations. In some instances , for example, people who appear calm and relaxed during an interview , talk clearly and sensibly about a variety of matters , and conduct themselves in a socially appropriate fashion then produce test protocols similar to those seen in people who are extremely anxious or emotionally upset, incapable of thinking logically and coherently, out of touch with reality, and unable to participate comfortably in interpersonal relationships. Such discrepancies between test and interview data strongly suggest the deployment of deceptive tactics to create a false impression of disturbance.

68. The third form of inconsistency that proves helpful in detecting malingering consists of a sharp discrepancy between the interview and test data collected by the examiner and the respondent’s actual circumstances and past history as reported by collateral sources or recorded in formal documents. In these instances, the person being evaluated may talk and act strangely during an interview and give test responses strongly suggestive of serious psychological disturbance, but never previously have seen a mental health professional, received counseling or psychotherapy, been prescribed psychotropic medication , or been considered by friends, relatives, teachers , or employers to have any emotional problems. Such contrasts between serious impairments or limitations suggested by the results of an examination and a life history containing little or no evidence of these impairments or limitations provide good reason to suspect malingering.