information processing theory

Theories and concept 1

1. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY Prepared by: Iris E. Israel

2. is a "group of theoretical frameworks that address how human beings receive, mentally modify, remember information, On how such cognitive processes change over the course of development" ( McDevitt & Ormrod , 2004) INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

3. theory that attempts to categorize the way information is recognized, utilized, and stored in the memory. This theory recognizes the ability for a person to control what information is processed and the changes and developments of these abilities INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY CONT’D

4. Thinking Analysis of stimuli Situational modification Obstacle evaluation THE FOUR PILLARS OF THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

5. Thinking The process of thinking includes the activities of perception of external stimuli, encoding the same and storing the data so perceived and encoded in one's mental recesses

6. Analysis of stimuli This is the process by which the encoded stimuli are altered to suit the brain's cognition and interpretation process to enable decision making. There are four distinct sub-processes that form a favourable alliance to make the brain arrive at a conclusion regarding the encoded stimuli it has received and kept stored. These four sub-processes are encoding, strategization , generalization and automatization .

7. Situational modification This is the process by which an individual uses his experience, which is nothing other than a collection of stored memories, to handle a similar situation in future. In case of certain differences in both situations, the individual modifies the decisions they took during their previous experience to come up with solutions for the somewhat different problem.

8. Obstacle evaluation This step maintains that besides the subject's individual development level, the nature of the obstacle or problem should also be taken into consideration while evaluating the subject's intellectual, problem solving and cognitive acumen. Sometimes, unnecessary and misleading information can confuse the subject and he / she may show signs of confusion while dealing with a situation which is similar to one he / she was exposed to before, which he / she was able to handle successfully.

9. Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Structure of the information-processing system :

10. Information is received through a person's senses, it comes from the environment around you ( McDevitt & Ormrod , 2004) Sensory Memory

11. holds information associated with the senses (e.g., vision, hearing) just long enough for the information to be processed further (mere seconds). Sensory Memory Cont’d

12. Sensory Register   detects visual, auditory, haptic (touch), smell, taste, temperature, pain, body position information filters out much of the world's potential information limited capacity seconds before decay unconscious

13. STM functions as a temporary working memory, whereby further processing is carried out to make information ready for long-term storage or for a response. Working memory holds information for a limited amount of time and holds a limited amount of information. Working Memory

14. WORKING MEMORY CONT’D Where information is processed and "problem solving" occurs; the working memory usually only processes things for a short period of time. The working memory will process information for longer periods of time if the person is actively concentrating on the information

15. B. Working memory   Encoding: recasts sensory information into meaningful representations suitable for manipulation, using strategies like rehearsal organization elaboration Limited in capacity

16. Encoding/Learning Strategies Rehearsal – attempting to learn something by repeating it over and over; repetition Organization – attempting to learn something by identifying relationships among pieces of information as a way of categorizing them Elaboration – embellishing on new information based on what you already know (using prior knowledge) Environmental factors, e.g., culture, affect the kinds of strategies that children develop Children are more likely to use effective learning strategies when teachers and other adults encourage their use, or when it is culturally meaningful Teresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Child Development and Education, third edition Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

17. where the information remembered over time is kept; there are many ways that information is moved from working memory into long term memory represents our permanent storehouse of information, capable of retaining an unlimited amount and variety of information. Long-term Memory

18. C. Long-Term Memory (LTM) The ability to remember information in LTM appears very early and improves with age Children increasingly have conscious awareness of the past Infantile amnesia – general inability to recall past events during the early years of life The amount of knowledge stored in LTM increases many times over Knowledge base – one’s knowledge about specific topics and the world in general Teresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Child Development and Education, third edition Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

19. Children’s knowledge about the world becomes increasingly integrated Schemas – tightly integrated set of ideas about a specific object or situation Scripts – schema that involves a predictable sequence of events related to a common activity Children’s growing knowledge base facilitates learning

20. Thinking and Reasoning Thought increasingly makes use of symbols Symbols – mental entity that represents an external object or event, often without reflecting its perceptual and behavioral qualities Logical thinking abilities improve with age Some logical thinking is evident in infancy Perceive cause and effect relationships as young as 6 months old Reasoning is still influenced by personal motives and biases Gestures Sometimes foreshadow the emergence of more sophisticated thinking and reasoning (e.g., Conservation task) Appear to provide a way for children to experiment with cognitive ideas Teresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Child Development and Education, third edition Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

21. Explicit Memory (declarative memory) Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Autobiographical Memory Implicit Memory (Procedural memory) Priming Divisions of Long Term Memory

22. includes all of the memories that are available in consciousness. These are encoded by the hippocampus , entorhinal cortex , and perirhinal cortex , but consolidated and stored elsewhere Explicit Memory (declarative)

23. Episodic memory refers to memory for specific events in time, as well as supporting their formation and retrieval. Some examples of episodic memory would be remembering someone's name and what happened at your last interaction with each other. Episodic Memory

24. Semantic Memory Semantic memory refers to knowledge about factual information, such as the meaning of words. Semantic memory is independent information such as information remembered for a test

25. Semantic Memory-- facts and generalized information ( concepts , principles, rules; problem-solving strategies; learning strategies) Schema / Schemata -- networks of connected ideas or relationships; data structures or procedures for organizing the parts of a specific experience into a meaningful system (like a standard or stereotype) Proposition -- interconnected set of concepts and relationships; if/then statements (smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false) Script -- "declarative knowledge structure that captures general information about a routine series of events or a recurrent type of social event, such as eating in a restaurant or visiting the doctor" ( Stillings et al., 1987) Frame -- complex organization including concepts and visualizations that provide a reference within which stimuli and actions are judged (also called "Frame of Reference") Scheme -- an organization of concepts, principles, rules, etc. that define a perspective and presents specific action patterns to follow Program -- set of rules that define what to do in a particular situation Paradigm -- the basic way of perceiving, thinking, valuing, and doing associated with a particular vision of reality (Harman, 1970) Model -- a set of propositions or equations describing in simplified form some aspects of our experience. Every model is based upon a theory or paradigm, but the theory or paradigm may not be stated in concise form. ( Umpleby in Principia Cybernetica Web, no date)

26. Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical memory refers to knowledge about events and personal experiences from an individual's own life

27. Procedural memory involves memories of body movement and how to use objects in the environment. How to drive a car or use a computer are examples of procedural memories Implicit Memory (Procedural Memory)

28. Implicit Memory Cont’d Implicit memory - refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is encoded and it is presumed stored by the striatum and other parts of the basal ganglia . The basal ganglia is believed to mediate procedural memory and other brain structures and is largely independent of the hippocampus.Research by Manelis , Hanson, and Hanson (2011) found that the reactivation of the parietal and occipital regions was associated with implicit memory. Procedural memory is considered non-declarative memory or unconscious memory which includes priming and non-associative learning

29. Priming Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus. It can occur following perceptual , semantic , or conceptual stimulus repetition. For example, if a person reads a list of words including the word table , and is later asked to complete a word starting with tab , the probability that he or she will answer table is greater than if they are not primed. Another example is if people see an incomplete sketch they are unable to identify and they are shown more of the sketch until they recognize the picture, later they will identify the sketch at an earlier stage than was possible for them the first time.

30. Attention; Rehearsal; Chunking; Encoding; Retrieval. Processes that keep information "alive" or help transfer it from one memory stage to the next:

31. Selective attention refers to the learner's ability to select and process certain information while simultaneously ignoring other information. Several factors influence attention: The meaning that the task or information holds for the individual Similarity between competing tasks or sources of information Task complexity or difficulty (influenced also by prior knowledge) Ability to control attention (which differs with age, hyperactivity, intelligence, and learning disabilities) Attention

32. Rehearsal is the process where information is kept in short-term memory by mentally repeating it. When the information is repeated each time, that information is reentered into the short-term memory, thus keeping that information for another 15 to 20 seconds (the average storage time for short-term memory) Rehearsal

33. Chunking is the process by which one can expand his/her ability to remember things in the short term. Chunking is also a process by which a person organizes material into meaningful groups. Chunking

34. refers to the process of relating incoming information to concepts and ideas already in memory in such a way that the new material is more memorable. Various encoding schemes include: Organization, e.g.: -grouping information into categories -outlines -hierarchies -concept trees Mnemonics Imagery Encoding

35. Retrieval of Information from Long-Term Memory The process of retrieval from LTM involves bringing to mind previously learned information, to either (a) understand some new input or (b) make a response. Making a response may involve either recall or recognition. Retrieval

36. Recall or Recognition. Recall In free recall situations, learners must retrieve previously stored information with no cues or hints to help them remember. Cued recall tasks are those in which a hint or cue is provided to help learners remember the desired information. Recognition involves a set of pregenerated stimuli (e.g., multiple-choice questions) presented to learners for a decision or judgment.

37. Environment and heredity Factors that can influence intelligence and the processing of information