introduction and scope of psychology and applied areas of psychology
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Feb 04, 2019
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About This Presentation
definition and scope of psychology
aims of psychology
history of psychology
scope of psychology in world and Pakistan
scope of applied areas of psychology
aims of applied areas
scope of applied areas in Pakistan and world
Slide Content
INTRODUCTION OF PSYC HOLOGY
“Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.”
“Psychology is the field of science dedicated to understanding human motivations, behavior, and the mind.”
“Psychology is the mental characteristics or attitude of a person or a group.”
SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The field of psychology can be understood by various subfields of psychology making an attempt in meeting the goals
of the psychology.
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
Clinical psychology is a broad branch of psychology that focuses on diagnosing and treating mental, emotional, and
behavioral disorders. Some of the more common disorders that might be treated include learning disabilities,
MODELS:
The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models. A popular model is the
Cognitive-Behavioral therapy (CBT) framework. One of the most famous CBT therapies is cognitive therapy.
Cognitive therapy
It is focused on depression and developed a list of "errors" in thinking that he proposed could cause or maintain
depression, including arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, over-generalization, and magnification (of negatives)
and minimization (of positives). Cognitive therapy seeks to identify and change "distorted" or "unrealistic" ways of
thinking, and therefore to influence emotion and behavior.
HISTORY:
EARLY CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:
By the second half of the 1800s , the scientific study of psychology was becoming well established in university
laboratories. Although there were a few scattered voices calling for an applied psychology, the general field looked
down upon this idea and insisted on “pure” science as the only respectable practice.
The field of psychology became more recognized during the second half of the 19
th
century, although clinical
psychology wasn’t recognized until the end of the 19
th
century. It was around this time that “Lightner Witmer” first
helped treat a boy with a learning disability. In 1907 , he coined the phrase “clinical psychology” in his new
psychology journal , called the psychology clinic.
Even as clinical psychology was growing , working with issues of serious mental distress remained the domain of
psychiatrists and neurologists. However, clinical psychologists continued to make inroads into this area due to their
increasing skill at psychological assessment. Psychologist’s reputation as assessment experts became solidified during
World War 1with the development of two intelligence tests, Army Alpha and Army Beta (testing verbal and nonverbal
skills respectively), which could be used with large groups of recruits.
EARLY PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:
The field began to organize under the name "clinical psychology" in 1917 with the founding of the American
Association of Clinical Psychology. This only lasted until 1919, after which the American Psychological Association
“Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.”
“Psychology is the field of science dedicated to understanding human motivations, behavior, and the mind.”
“Psychology is the mental characteristics or attitude of a person or a group.”
SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The field of psychology can be understood by various subfields of psychology making an attempt in meeting the goals
of the psychology.
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
Clinical psychology is a broad branch of psychology that focuses on diagnosing and treating mental, emotional, and
behavioral disorders. Some of the more common disorders that might be treated include learning disabilities,
MODELS:
The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models. A popular model is the
Cognitive-Behavioral therapy (CBT) framework. One of the most famous CBT therapies is cognitive therapy.
Cognitive therapy
It is focused on depression and developed a list of "errors" in thinking that he proposed could cause or maintain
depression, including arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, over-generalization, and magnification (of negatives)
and minimization (of positives). Cognitive therapy seeks to identify and change "distorted" or "unrealistic" ways of
thinking, and therefore to influence emotion and behavior.
HISTORY:
EARLY CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:
By the second half of the 1800s , the scientific study of psychology was becoming well established in university
laboratories. Although there were a few scattered voices calling for an applied psychology, the general field looked
down upon this idea and insisted on “pure” science as the only respectable practice.
The field of psychology became more recognized during the second half of the 19
th
century, although clinical
psychology wasn’t recognized until the end of the 19
th
century. It was around this time that “Lightner Witmer” first
helped treat a boy with a learning disability. In 1907 , he coined the phrase “clinical psychology” in his new
psychology journal , called the psychology clinic.
Even as clinical psychology was growing , working with issues of serious mental distress remained the domain of
psychiatrists and neurologists. However, clinical psychologists continued to make inroads into this area due to their
increasing skill at psychological assessment. Psychologist’s reputation as assessment experts became solidified during
World War 1with the development of two intelligence tests, Army Alpha and Army Beta (testing verbal and nonverbal
skills respectively), which could be used with large groups of recruits.
EARLY PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:
The field began to organize under the name "clinical psychology" in 1917 with the founding of the American
Association of Clinical Psychology. This only lasted until 1919, after which the American Psychological Association
(founded by G. Stanley Hall in 1892) developed a section on Clinical Psychology, which offered certification until
1927. Growth in the field was slow for the next few years when various unconnected psychological organizations
came together as the American Association of Applied Psychology in 1930, which would act as the primary forum for
psychologists until after World War II when the APA reorganized. In 1945, the APA created what is now called
Division 12, its division of clinical psychology, which remains a leading organization in the field. Psychological
societies and associations in other English-speaking countries developed similar divisions, including in Britain,
Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
World War II and the integration of treatment:
When World War II broke out, the military once again called upon clinical psychologists. As soldiers began to return
from combat, psychologists started to notice symptoms of psychological trauma labeled "shell shock" (eventually to
be termed posttraumatic stress disorder) that were best treated as soon as possible. Because physicians (including
psychiatrists) were over-extended in treating bodily injuries, psychologists were called to help treat this condition.At
the same time, female psychologists (who were excluded from the war effort) formed the National Council of Women
Psychologists with the purpose of helping communities deal with the stresses of war and giving young mothers advice
on child rearing.
OBJECTIVES:
Clinical psychologists work in many areas, depending on the population they choose to treat. A psychologist can
specialize in chronic illness like diabetes or obesity, mental problems like depression and anxiety, and psychological
problems like bipolar or schizophrenia.
They work with children and adults with ADD or Asperger's Syndrome.
In a school setting, they can help children with learning disabilities. At a university, they can help students make
career decisions, stay emotionally healthy and achieve success academically. In community-based facilities, they can
help culturally diverse and economically disadvantaged populations. As the country ages, many are working with
seniors. Others do research into mental health issues, policies and training, represented by the Society for a Science of
Clinical Psychology.
SCOPE:
Individuals pursuing clinical psychology careers will often find that they will be able to secure employment in a
number of different healthcare facilities, such as hospitals and mental health facilities.
Depending on their specialties, clinical psychologists might also be able to find employment with a number of other
private and government run organizations. Universities often employ clinical psychologists, for example, to perform
research and help steer eager young minds toward clinical psychology careers. Schools, police departments, and
military branches are also usually in need of professional psychologists as well.
Many clinical psychologists also choose to open their own private practices and work for no other boss but
themselves. Opening a private psychology practice can often be expensive and difficult but can also be very rewarding
and lucrative as well.
PROCEDURES:
Assessment: Diagnostic interviewing ,behavioral assessment, administration and interpretation of psychological
test measures.
Intervention: Clinical services to individuals, families and groups.
Consultation: Inter and intra-professional practice with other health and behavioral health professionals and
organizations.
Research: Engagement with specific research and critical review of science, knowledge and methods pertaining to
clinical psychology.
AVERAGE ANNUAL SALARY:
The average clinical psychologist salary in Pakistan is Rs 1,428,049 or an equivalent hourly rate of Rs 687. In
addition, they can earn average bonus of Rs 43,698. Salary estimates based on salary survey data collected directly
from employers and anonymous employees in Pakistan.
Salary by experience:
Entry Average Senior
PKR 1,021,722 PKR 1,428,049 PKR 1,799,825
An entry level clinical psychologist ( 3 years of experience) earns an average salary of Rs 1,021,722. On the other
end a senior level clinical psychologist (8+ years of experience) earns an average salary of Rs 1,799,825.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
Psychology is a vast field in which you will find a number of other areas on which you can focus and specialize.
Forensic have also gained importance but the status of clinical psychology has gained over the years is tremendous
number of universities are offerening MSc. , MS and PhD degree in clinical psychology.
1927. Growth in the field was slow for the next few years when various unconnected psychological organizations
came together as the American Association of Applied Psychology in 1930, which would act as the primary forum for
psychologists until after World War II when the APA reorganized. In 1945, the APA created what is now called
Division 12, its division of clinical psychology, which remains a leading organization in the field. Psychological
societies and associations in other English-speaking countries developed similar divisions, including in Britain,
Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
World War II and the integration of treatment:
When World War II broke out, the military once again called upon clinical psychologists. As soldiers began to return
from combat, psychologists started to notice symptoms of psychological trauma labeled "shell shock" (eventually to
be termed posttraumatic stress disorder) that were best treated as soon as possible. Because physicians (including
psychiatrists) were over-extended in treating bodily injuries, psychologists were called to help treat this condition.At
the same time, female psychologists (who were excluded from the war effort) formed the National Council of Women
Psychologists with the purpose of helping communities deal with the stresses of war and giving young mothers advice
on child rearing.
OBJECTIVES:
Clinical psychologists work in many areas, depending on the population they choose to treat. A psychologist can
specialize in chronic illness like diabetes or obesity, mental problems like depression and anxiety, and psychological
problems like bipolar or schizophrenia.
They work with children and adults with ADD or Asperger's Syndrome.
In a school setting, they can help children with learning disabilities. At a university, they can help students make
career decisions, stay emotionally healthy and achieve success academically. In community-based facilities, they can
help culturally diverse and economically disadvantaged populations. As the country ages, many are working with
seniors. Others do research into mental health issues, policies and training, represented by the Society for a Science of
Clinical Psychology.
SCOPE:
Individuals pursuing clinical psychology careers will often find that they will be able to secure employment in a
number of different healthcare facilities, such as hospitals and mental health facilities.
Depending on their specialties, clinical psychologists might also be able to find employment with a number of other
private and government run organizations. Universities often employ clinical psychologists, for example, to perform
research and help steer eager young minds toward clinical psychology careers. Schools, police departments, and
military branches are also usually in need of professional psychologists as well.
Many clinical psychologists also choose to open their own private practices and work for no other boss but
themselves. Opening a private psychology practice can often be expensive and difficult but can also be very rewarding
and lucrative as well.
PROCEDURES:
Assessment: Diagnostic interviewing ,behavioral assessment, administration and interpretation of psychological
test measures.
Intervention: Clinical services to individuals, families and groups.
Consultation: Inter and intra-professional practice with other health and behavioral health professionals and
organizations.
Research: Engagement with specific research and critical review of science, knowledge and methods pertaining to
clinical psychology.
AVERAGE ANNUAL SALARY:
The average clinical psychologist salary in Pakistan is Rs 1,428,049 or an equivalent hourly rate of Rs 687. In
addition, they can earn average bonus of Rs 43,698. Salary estimates based on salary survey data collected directly
from employers and anonymous employees in Pakistan.
Salary by experience:
Entry Average Senior
PKR 1,021,722 PKR 1,428,049 PKR 1,799,825
An entry level clinical psychologist ( 3 years of experience) earns an average salary of Rs 1,021,722. On the other
end a senior level clinical psychologist (8+ years of experience) earns an average salary of Rs 1,799,825.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
Psychology is a vast field in which you will find a number of other areas on which you can focus and specialize.
Forensic have also gained importance but the status of clinical psychology has gained over the years is tremendous
number of universities are offerening MSc. , MS and PhD degree in clinical psychology.
Major cities where these courses are degree in clinical psychology helps the students to get detailed knowledge
regarding this domain.
It makes the students eligible enough to recognize the psychological disorders in clients and patients by knowing
about their symptoms they can also apply their symptoms they can also apply in Pakistan army, air force and Nawy.
They can also apply in different institutes and universities and works by showing some teaching skills.
COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
“Counseling psychology is a speciality within professional psychology that maintains a focus on facilitating personal
and interpersonal functioning across the life span. The speciality pays particular attention to emotional, social,
vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns.”
“counseling psychology is an applied specialization within psychology , which involves both researches and practice
in a number of different areas and domains”
HISTORY:
Most of the psychologists and historians will agree that counseling psychology has been around for a very long time.
Sigmund Freud opened his private practice in 1886, treating his patients with counseling and therapy. Lighter
Witmer opened one of the first psychological clinics a short time later, in 1896.
POPULATION SERVED:
Clients served by counseling psychologists include individuals, groups (including couples and families) and
organizations. Counseling psychologists work with individual clients of all ages, such as children who have behavioral
problems; late adolescents with educational and career concerns or substance abuse problems; adults facing marital or
family difficulties, career changes, or overcoming disabilities; and older adults facing retirement. They work with
groups to assist them in finding solutions to many of these same problems, as well as to improve the personal and
interpersonal functioning of group members. Counseling psychologists also consult with organizations (e.g.,
businesses) and work groups to help provide a work environment in which people can succeed, and to enhance the
ability of organizations to increase productivity and effectiveness.
SPEACIALIZED KNOWLEDGE :.
Across all stages of development (i.e., childhood, adolescence, adulthood and older age), counseling psychologists
focus on:
Healthy aspects and strengths of clients (whether being seen as individuals, couples, families, groups or
organizations.
Environmental/situational influences (how cultural, gender and lifestyle issues shape people’s experiences and
concerns).
Issues of diversity and social justice (e.g., advocacy).
The role of career and work in peoples’ lives.
OBJECTIVES:
A cognitive psychologist's goal is often to help his patients overcome their negative thoughts and emotions. In general,
a psychologist will try to treat patients with a variety of different problems, including depression and anxiety. Those
looking to pursue counseling psychology careers, however, can also choose to specialize in certain areas, like grief
counseling or vocational stress. The number of patients that a counseling psychologist works with at one time can also
vary. Some only work with their patients on a one-on-one situation, while others may work with small groups of
people. The majority of counseling psychologists interact with their patients each and every day. They are often
presented with a wide range of mental and emotional problems that people face every day. In order to treat their
patients, counseling psychologists will typically create a comfortable and inviting atmosphere. They should also be
understanding and non-judgmental, so that patients will open up to them. Cognitive psychologists will then encourage
their patients to talk about their feelings and behaviors, possibly asking questions occasionally. By getting to know
their patients, cognitive psychologists can then work to help them deal with and remedy their problems.
SCOPE:
A counseling psychology career can often lead a person in several different directions. In general, counseling
psychologists should have no trouble finding work. For example, they can often find employment in places like mental
health clinics, hospitals, psychiatric hospitals, and schools.
For those looking for a little more control over their counseling psychology careers, opening their own practice is
another option.
regarding this domain.
It makes the students eligible enough to recognize the psychological disorders in clients and patients by knowing
about their symptoms they can also apply their symptoms they can also apply in Pakistan army, air force and Nawy.
They can also apply in different institutes and universities and works by showing some teaching skills.
COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
“Counseling psychology is a speciality within professional psychology that maintains a focus on facilitating personal
and interpersonal functioning across the life span. The speciality pays particular attention to emotional, social,
vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns.”
“counseling psychology is an applied specialization within psychology , which involves both researches and practice
in a number of different areas and domains”
HISTORY:
Most of the psychologists and historians will agree that counseling psychology has been around for a very long time.
Sigmund Freud opened his private practice in 1886, treating his patients with counseling and therapy. Lighter
Witmer opened one of the first psychological clinics a short time later, in 1896.
POPULATION SERVED:
Clients served by counseling psychologists include individuals, groups (including couples and families) and
organizations. Counseling psychologists work with individual clients of all ages, such as children who have behavioral
problems; late adolescents with educational and career concerns or substance abuse problems; adults facing marital or
family difficulties, career changes, or overcoming disabilities; and older adults facing retirement. They work with
groups to assist them in finding solutions to many of these same problems, as well as to improve the personal and
interpersonal functioning of group members. Counseling psychologists also consult with organizations (e.g.,
businesses) and work groups to help provide a work environment in which people can succeed, and to enhance the
ability of organizations to increase productivity and effectiveness.
SPEACIALIZED KNOWLEDGE :.
Across all stages of development (i.e., childhood, adolescence, adulthood and older age), counseling psychologists
focus on:
Healthy aspects and strengths of clients (whether being seen as individuals, couples, families, groups or
organizations.
Environmental/situational influences (how cultural, gender and lifestyle issues shape people’s experiences and
concerns).
Issues of diversity and social justice (e.g., advocacy).
The role of career and work in peoples’ lives.
OBJECTIVES:
A cognitive psychologist's goal is often to help his patients overcome their negative thoughts and emotions. In general,
a psychologist will try to treat patients with a variety of different problems, including depression and anxiety. Those
looking to pursue counseling psychology careers, however, can also choose to specialize in certain areas, like grief
counseling or vocational stress. The number of patients that a counseling psychologist works with at one time can also
vary. Some only work with their patients on a one-on-one situation, while others may work with small groups of
people. The majority of counseling psychologists interact with their patients each and every day. They are often
presented with a wide range of mental and emotional problems that people face every day. In order to treat their
patients, counseling psychologists will typically create a comfortable and inviting atmosphere. They should also be
understanding and non-judgmental, so that patients will open up to them. Cognitive psychologists will then encourage
their patients to talk about their feelings and behaviors, possibly asking questions occasionally. By getting to know
their patients, cognitive psychologists can then work to help them deal with and remedy their problems.
SCOPE:
A counseling psychology career can often lead a person in several different directions. In general, counseling
psychologists should have no trouble finding work. For example, they can often find employment in places like mental
health clinics, hospitals, psychiatric hospitals, and schools.
For those looking for a little more control over their counseling psychology careers, opening their own practice is
another option.
PROCEDURES :
The procedures and techniques used within counseling psychology include, but are not limited to:
Individual, family and group counseling and psychotherapy.
Crisis intervention, disaster and trauma management.
Assessment techniques for the diagnosis of psychological disorders.
Programs/workshops that educate and inform the public about mental health, school, family,
relationship and workplace issues so that problems can be prevented before they start or reduced
before they get worse.
Consulting with organizations.
Program evaluation and treatment outcome (e.g., client progress).
Training.
Clinical supervision.
Test construction and validation.
Research methodologies for scientific investigations.
AVERAGE ANNUAL SALARY:
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual salary of clinical and counseling psychologists was
$72,540.
Salaries are highly dependent on the counseling psychologist's area of specialization, which may push their salary up
or down.
For example, those that worked in health practice offices earned a median salary of $86,700, while those that worked
in employmentservices earned a median salary of $96,700. Individuals working in educational support services made a
median salary of $66,420, which represents the low-end of salaries for counseling psychologists.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
Pakistan is increasingly becoming more interconnected. This globalization highlights the need for highly trained
mental health professionals to address trauma , addiction, depression, academia and career concerns in clinics,
hospitals, schools, and universities. It depends upon what are of counseling you are considering. In Pakistan, people
have a huge taboo about going to a counselor and we see that everywhere around us.
SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise, and physical
activity. Some sports psychologists work with professional athletes and coaches to improve performance and increase
motivation.
Other professionals utilize exercise and sports to enhance people’s lives and well-being
Throughout the entire lifespan.
.HISTORY:
Sports psychology is a relatively young discipline within psychology. In 1920, Carl Diem founded the world’s first
sports psychology laboratory at the Deutsche Sporthochschule in Berlin, Germany. In 1925, two more sports
psychology labs were established – one by A.Z. Puni at the Institute of Physical Culture in Leningrad and the other
by Coleman Griffith at the University of Illinois.
Griffith began opening the first course in sports psychology in 1923, and later published the first book on the subject
titled The Psychology of Coaching (1926). Unfortunately, Griffith’s lab was closed in 1932 due to lack of funds.
After the lab was shut down, there was very little research on sports psychology until the subject experienced a revival
of interest during the 1960s. Ferruccio Antonelli established the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP)
in 1965 and by the 1970s sports psychology had been introduced to university course
openings throughout North America.
The first academic journal, the International Journal of Sport Psychology, was introduced in 1970, which was then
followed by the establishment of the Journal of Sport Psychology in 1979. By the 1980s, sports psychology became
the subject of a more rigorous scientific focus as researchers began to explore how psychology could be used to
improve athletic performance, as well as how exercise could be utilized to improve mental well-being and
lower stress levels.
Sports Psychology Today:
Contemporary sports psychology is a diverse field. While finding ways to help athletes is certainly an important part
of sports psychology, the application of exercise and physical activity for improving the lives of non-athletes is also a
major focus.
The procedures and techniques used within counseling psychology include, but are not limited to:
Individual, family and group counseling and psychotherapy.
Crisis intervention, disaster and trauma management.
Assessment techniques for the diagnosis of psychological disorders.
Programs/workshops that educate and inform the public about mental health, school, family,
relationship and workplace issues so that problems can be prevented before they start or reduced
before they get worse.
Consulting with organizations.
Program evaluation and treatment outcome (e.g., client progress).
Training.
Clinical supervision.
Test construction and validation.
Research methodologies for scientific investigations.
AVERAGE ANNUAL SALARY:
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual salary of clinical and counseling psychologists was
$72,540.
Salaries are highly dependent on the counseling psychologist's area of specialization, which may push their salary up
or down.
For example, those that worked in health practice offices earned a median salary of $86,700, while those that worked
in employmentservices earned a median salary of $96,700. Individuals working in educational support services made a
median salary of $66,420, which represents the low-end of salaries for counseling psychologists.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
Pakistan is increasingly becoming more interconnected. This globalization highlights the need for highly trained
mental health professionals to address trauma , addiction, depression, academia and career concerns in clinics,
hospitals, schools, and universities. It depends upon what are of counseling you are considering. In Pakistan, people
have a huge taboo about going to a counselor and we see that everywhere around us.
SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise, and physical
activity. Some sports psychologists work with professional athletes and coaches to improve performance and increase
motivation.
Other professionals utilize exercise and sports to enhance people’s lives and well-being
Throughout the entire lifespan.
.HISTORY:
Sports psychology is a relatively young discipline within psychology. In 1920, Carl Diem founded the world’s first
sports psychology laboratory at the Deutsche Sporthochschule in Berlin, Germany. In 1925, two more sports
psychology labs were established – one by A.Z. Puni at the Institute of Physical Culture in Leningrad and the other
by Coleman Griffith at the University of Illinois.
Griffith began opening the first course in sports psychology in 1923, and later published the first book on the subject
titled The Psychology of Coaching (1926). Unfortunately, Griffith’s lab was closed in 1932 due to lack of funds.
After the lab was shut down, there was very little research on sports psychology until the subject experienced a revival
of interest during the 1960s. Ferruccio Antonelli established the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP)
in 1965 and by the 1970s sports psychology had been introduced to university course
openings throughout North America.
The first academic journal, the International Journal of Sport Psychology, was introduced in 1970, which was then
followed by the establishment of the Journal of Sport Psychology in 1979. By the 1980s, sports psychology became
the subject of a more rigorous scientific focus as researchers began to explore how psychology could be used to
improve athletic performance, as well as how exercise could be utilized to improve mental well-being and
lower stress levels.
Sports Psychology Today:
Contemporary sports psychology is a diverse field. While finding ways to help athletes is certainly an important part
of sports psychology, the application of exercise and physical activity for improving the lives of non-athletes is also a
major focus.
OBJECTIVE:
Professional sports psychologists often help athletes cope with the intense pressure that comes from competition and
overcome problems with focus and motivation. They also work with athletes to improve performance and recover
from injuries. But sports psychologists do not just work with elite and professional athletes. They also help regular
people learn how to enjoy sports and learn to stick to an exercise program
Major Topics Within Sports Psychology:
There are a number of different topics that are of special interest to sports psychologists. Some professionals focus on
a specific area, while others study a wide range of techniques.
Imagery: Involves visualizing performing a task, such as participating in an athletic event or successfully
performing a particular skill.
Motivation: A major subject within sports psychology, the study of motivation looks at both extrinsic and
intrinsic motivators. Extrinsic motivators are external rewards, such as trophies, money, medals or social
recognition. Intrinsic motivators arise from within, such as a personal desire to win or the sense of pride that
comes from performing a skill.
Attentional Focus: Involves the ability to tune out distractions, such as a crowd of screaming fans, and focus
attention on the task at hand.
SCOPE:
Becoming a sports psychologist could be an exciting career choice for many psychology students, especially those
who have a strong interest in sports and physical activity. The American Psychological Association describes sports
psychology as a "hot career,".
SALARY:
Those who are working in university athletic departments earn around $60,000 to $80,000 per year. If you are
interested in this career, learn more about the educational requirements, job duties, salaries and other considerations in
this profile of careers in sports psychology.
TREATMENT PROCEDURES:
Below are five of the more common techniques or skills sport psychologists teach to athletes for improving their
performance.
Arousal regulation
Arousal regulation refers to entering into and maintaining an optimal level of cognitive and physiological activation in
to maximize performance. This may include relaxation if one becomes too anxious through methods such as
progressive muscle relaxation, breathing exercises, and meditation, or the use of energizing techniques (e.g., listening
to music, energizing cues) if one is not alert enough. The use of meditation and specifically, mindfulness, is a growing
practice in the field of arousal recognition.
The Mindfulness-Acceptance- Commitment (MAC) Theory is the most common form of mindfulness in sport and
was formed in 2001. The aim of MAC is to maximize human potential for a rich, full and meaningful life. It includes
specific protocol that involve meditation and acceptance practices on a regular basis as
well as before and during competition. These protocol have been tested various times using NCAA men's and
women's basketball players. In a study done by Frank L. Gardner, an NCAA women's basketball player increased
her personal satisfaction in her performances from 2.4 out of 10 to 9.2 out of 10 after performing the specific MAC
protocol for several weeks. Also, the effect of mental barriers on her game decreased from 8 out of 8 to 2.2 out of 8
during that same time period as a result of the MAC protocol. Another study of the MAC protocol performed by
Frank Gardner and Zella Moore on an adolescent competitive diver showed that when the MAC protocol is tailored to
a specific population, it has the potential to provide performance enhancement. In this case, the vocabulary and
examples in the protocol were tailored to be more practical for a 12-year-old. After performed the MAC protocol for
several weeks, the diver showed between a 13 to 14 percent increase in his diving scores. This finding is important
because previously the majority of tests performed using the MAC protocol had been on world class athletes.
Goal setting
Goal setting is the process of systematically planning ways to achieve specific accomplishments within a certain
amount of time. Research suggests that goals should be specific, measurable, difficult but attainable, time-based,
written down, and a combination of short-term and long-term goals. A meta-analysis of goal setting in sport suggests
that when compared to setting no goals or "do your best" goals, setting the above types of goals is an effective method
for improving performance. According to Dr. Eva V. Monsma, short-term goals should be used to help achieve long-
term goals. Dr. Monsma also states that it is important to "set goals in positive terms by focusing on behaviors that
should be present rather than those that should be absent. Each long-term goal should also have a series of short-term
goals that progress in difficulty. For instance, short-term goals should progress from those that are easy to achieve to
those that are more challenging. Having challenging short term goals will remove the repetitiveness of easy goals and
will give one an edge when striving for their long-term goals.
Professional sports psychologists often help athletes cope with the intense pressure that comes from competition and
overcome problems with focus and motivation. They also work with athletes to improve performance and recover
from injuries. But sports psychologists do not just work with elite and professional athletes. They also help regular
people learn how to enjoy sports and learn to stick to an exercise program
Major Topics Within Sports Psychology:
There are a number of different topics that are of special interest to sports psychologists. Some professionals focus on
a specific area, while others study a wide range of techniques.
Imagery: Involves visualizing performing a task, such as participating in an athletic event or successfully
performing a particular skill.
Motivation: A major subject within sports psychology, the study of motivation looks at both extrinsic and
intrinsic motivators. Extrinsic motivators are external rewards, such as trophies, money, medals or social
recognition. Intrinsic motivators arise from within, such as a personal desire to win or the sense of pride that
comes from performing a skill.
Attentional Focus: Involves the ability to tune out distractions, such as a crowd of screaming fans, and focus
attention on the task at hand.
SCOPE:
Becoming a sports psychologist could be an exciting career choice for many psychology students, especially those
who have a strong interest in sports and physical activity. The American Psychological Association describes sports
psychology as a "hot career,".
SALARY:
Those who are working in university athletic departments earn around $60,000 to $80,000 per year. If you are
interested in this career, learn more about the educational requirements, job duties, salaries and other considerations in
this profile of careers in sports psychology.
TREATMENT PROCEDURES:
Below are five of the more common techniques or skills sport psychologists teach to athletes for improving their
performance.
Arousal regulation
Arousal regulation refers to entering into and maintaining an optimal level of cognitive and physiological activation in
to maximize performance. This may include relaxation if one becomes too anxious through methods such as
progressive muscle relaxation, breathing exercises, and meditation, or the use of energizing techniques (e.g., listening
to music, energizing cues) if one is not alert enough. The use of meditation and specifically, mindfulness, is a growing
practice in the field of arousal recognition.
The Mindfulness-Acceptance- Commitment (MAC) Theory is the most common form of mindfulness in sport and
was formed in 2001. The aim of MAC is to maximize human potential for a rich, full and meaningful life. It includes
specific protocol that involve meditation and acceptance practices on a regular basis as
well as before and during competition. These protocol have been tested various times using NCAA men's and
women's basketball players. In a study done by Frank L. Gardner, an NCAA women's basketball player increased
her personal satisfaction in her performances from 2.4 out of 10 to 9.2 out of 10 after performing the specific MAC
protocol for several weeks. Also, the effect of mental barriers on her game decreased from 8 out of 8 to 2.2 out of 8
during that same time period as a result of the MAC protocol. Another study of the MAC protocol performed by
Frank Gardner and Zella Moore on an adolescent competitive diver showed that when the MAC protocol is tailored to
a specific population, it has the potential to provide performance enhancement. In this case, the vocabulary and
examples in the protocol were tailored to be more practical for a 12-year-old. After performed the MAC protocol for
several weeks, the diver showed between a 13 to 14 percent increase in his diving scores. This finding is important
because previously the majority of tests performed using the MAC protocol had been on world class athletes.
Goal setting
Goal setting is the process of systematically planning ways to achieve specific accomplishments within a certain
amount of time. Research suggests that goals should be specific, measurable, difficult but attainable, time-based,
written down, and a combination of short-term and long-term goals. A meta-analysis of goal setting in sport suggests
that when compared to setting no goals or "do your best" goals, setting the above types of goals is an effective method
for improving performance. According to Dr. Eva V. Monsma, short-term goals should be used to help achieve long-
term goals. Dr. Monsma also states that it is important to "set goals in positive terms by focusing on behaviors that
should be present rather than those that should be absent. Each long-term goal should also have a series of short-term
goals that progress in difficulty. For instance, short-term goals should progress from those that are easy to achieve to
those that are more challenging. Having challenging short term goals will remove the repetitiveness of easy goals and
will give one an edge when striving for their long-term goals.
Imagery
Imagery (or motor imagery) can be defined as using multiple senses to create or recreate experiences in one's mind.
Additionally, the more vivid images are, the more likely they are to be interpreted by the brain as identical to the
actual event, which increases the effectiveness of mental practice with imagery. Good imagery, therefore, attempts to
create as lifelike an image as possible through the use of multiple senses (e.g., sight, smell,
kinesthetic), proper timing, perspective, and accurate portrayal of the task. Both anecdotal evidence from athletes and
research findings suggest imagery is an effective tool to enhance performance and psychological states relevant to
performance (e.g., confidence).This is a concept commonly used by coaches and athletes the day before an event.
Performance routines
Performance routines refer to the actions and behaviors athletes use to prepare for a game or performance. This
includes pregame routines, warm up routines, and actions an athlete will regularly do, mentally and physically, before
they execute the performance. Frequently, these will incorporate other commonly used techniques, such as imagery or
self-talk. Examples would be visualizations done by skiers, dribbling by basketball players at the foul line, and preshot
routines golfers or baseball players use prior to a shot or pitch. These routines help to develop consistency and
predictability for the player. This allows the muscles and mind to develop better motor control.
Self-talk
Self-talk refers to the thoughts and words athletes and performers say to themselves, usually in their minds. Selftalk
phrases (or cues) are used to direct attention towards a particular thing in order to improve focus or are used along side
other techniques to facilitate their effectiveness. For example, a softball player may think "release point" when at bat
to direct her attention to the point where the pitcher releases the ball, while a golfer may say "smooth stroke" before
putting to stay relaxed. Research suggests either positive or negative selftalk may improve performance, suggesting
the effectiveness of self-talk phrases depends on how the phrase is interpreted by the individual.However, the use of
positive self-talk is considered to be more efficacious and is consistent with the associative network theory of Gordon
Bower and the self-efficacy tenet within the broader Social Cognitive Theory of Albert Bandura. The use of words in
sport has been widely utilized. The ability to bombard the unconscious mind with one single positive phrase, is one of
the most effective and easy to use psychological skills available to any athlete.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
Sport psychology is a proficiency that uses psychological knowledge and skills to address optimal performance and
well-being of athletes, developmental and social aspects of sports participation, and systemic issues associated with
sports settings. Further it is important to know that countries like Australia, England, India and South Africa realize
the importance of mental training along with physical and skill training which is evident from their team performance.
It is my strong belief that psychological interventions to achieve mental toughness are must haves for the players’
successful careers and for the Pakistan Cricket as well. In other words, Psychology is another weapon in achieving the
winning advantage.
Therefore, as per my understanding the Sports Psychologists can better teach skills to help cricketers improve their
learning process and boost skills to bear game pressure, perfect the level of mindfulness needed for optimal
performance, and stay focused among the many interruptions of team travel and in the competitive atmosphere.
Psychological training should be an essential part of cricket’s full training process, carried out in combination with
other training fundamentals.
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
“Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life.
Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development,
aging, and the entire lifespan”
“Developmental psychology includes the study of changes in human development across the lifespan, including
physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth.”
OBJECTIVE:
Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling and behaviour change throughout
life. This field examines change across Piaget's test for Conservation. One of the many experiments used for children.
Developmental psychologists can provide support to individuals at all points of life who may be facing developmental
issues or problems related to aging. These professionals often evaluate children to determine if a developmental delay
might be present, or they might work with elderly patients who are facing health concerns associated with old age
such as cognitive declines, physical struggles, emotional diffculties, or degenerativebrain disorders.
Three major dimensions:
Physical development, cognitive development, and socio emotional development. Within these three dimensions are a
broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social
change, personality, emotional development, self-concept and identity formation.
Imagery (or motor imagery) can be defined as using multiple senses to create or recreate experiences in one's mind.
Additionally, the more vivid images are, the more likely they are to be interpreted by the brain as identical to the
actual event, which increases the effectiveness of mental practice with imagery. Good imagery, therefore, attempts to
create as lifelike an image as possible through the use of multiple senses (e.g., sight, smell,
kinesthetic), proper timing, perspective, and accurate portrayal of the task. Both anecdotal evidence from athletes and
research findings suggest imagery is an effective tool to enhance performance and psychological states relevant to
performance (e.g., confidence).This is a concept commonly used by coaches and athletes the day before an event.
Performance routines
Performance routines refer to the actions and behaviors athletes use to prepare for a game or performance. This
includes pregame routines, warm up routines, and actions an athlete will regularly do, mentally and physically, before
they execute the performance. Frequently, these will incorporate other commonly used techniques, such as imagery or
self-talk. Examples would be visualizations done by skiers, dribbling by basketball players at the foul line, and preshot
routines golfers or baseball players use prior to a shot or pitch. These routines help to develop consistency and
predictability for the player. This allows the muscles and mind to develop better motor control.
Self-talk
Self-talk refers to the thoughts and words athletes and performers say to themselves, usually in their minds. Selftalk
phrases (or cues) are used to direct attention towards a particular thing in order to improve focus or are used along side
other techniques to facilitate their effectiveness. For example, a softball player may think "release point" when at bat
to direct her attention to the point where the pitcher releases the ball, while a golfer may say "smooth stroke" before
putting to stay relaxed. Research suggests either positive or negative selftalk may improve performance, suggesting
the effectiveness of self-talk phrases depends on how the phrase is interpreted by the individual.However, the use of
positive self-talk is considered to be more efficacious and is consistent with the associative network theory of Gordon
Bower and the self-efficacy tenet within the broader Social Cognitive Theory of Albert Bandura. The use of words in
sport has been widely utilized. The ability to bombard the unconscious mind with one single positive phrase, is one of
the most effective and easy to use psychological skills available to any athlete.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
Sport psychology is a proficiency that uses psychological knowledge and skills to address optimal performance and
well-being of athletes, developmental and social aspects of sports participation, and systemic issues associated with
sports settings. Further it is important to know that countries like Australia, England, India and South Africa realize
the importance of mental training along with physical and skill training which is evident from their team performance.
It is my strong belief that psychological interventions to achieve mental toughness are must haves for the players’
successful careers and for the Pakistan Cricket as well. In other words, Psychology is another weapon in achieving the
winning advantage.
Therefore, as per my understanding the Sports Psychologists can better teach skills to help cricketers improve their
learning process and boost skills to bear game pressure, perfect the level of mindfulness needed for optimal
performance, and stay focused among the many interruptions of team travel and in the competitive atmosphere.
Psychological training should be an essential part of cricket’s full training process, carried out in combination with
other training fundamentals.
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
“Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life.
Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development,
aging, and the entire lifespan”
“Developmental psychology includes the study of changes in human development across the lifespan, including
physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth.”
OBJECTIVE:
Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling and behaviour change throughout
life. This field examines change across Piaget's test for Conservation. One of the many experiments used for children.
Developmental psychologists can provide support to individuals at all points of life who may be facing developmental
issues or problems related to aging. These professionals often evaluate children to determine if a developmental delay
might be present, or they might work with elderly patients who are facing health concerns associated with old age
such as cognitive declines, physical struggles, emotional diffculties, or degenerativebrain disorders.
Three major dimensions:
Physical development, cognitive development, and socio emotional development. Within these three dimensions are a
broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social
change, personality, emotional development, self-concept and identity formation.
HISTORY:
John B. Watson and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are typically cited as providing the foundations for modern developmental
psychology. In the mid-18th century Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development: infants (infancy),
puer (childhood) and adolescence in Emile: Or, On Education. Rousseau's ideas were taken up strongly by educators
at the time.
Historical antecedents:
It generally focuses on how and why certain modifications throughout an individual’s life-cycle (cognitive, social,
intellectual, personality) and human growth change over time. There are many theorists that have made a profound
contribution to this area of psychology. For example, Erik Erikson developed a model of eight stages of
psychological development. He believed that humans developed in stages throughout their lifetimes and this would
have an impact on their behaviors (Similar ideas to Sigmund Freud). In the late 19th century, psychologists familiar
with the evolutionary theory of Darwin began seeking an evolutionary description of psychological development
prominent here was the pioneering psychologist G. Stanley Hall, who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with
previous ages of mankind. James Mark Baldwin who wrote essays on topics that included Imitation: A Chapter in
the Natural History of Consciousness and Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes.
Baldwin was heavily involved in the theory of developmental psychology. Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were
developmental, had a significant impact on public perceptions.
THEORIES:
Stages of moral development:
Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work, Lawrence
Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it
continued throughout the individual's lifetime. He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional moral
reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and post-conventional moral reasoning. The pre-conventional moral
reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated
with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is
characterized by reasoning based on rules and conventions of society. Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a
stage during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as
authoritative.
Stages of psychosocial development:
German-American psychologist Erik Erikson and his collaborator and wife, Joan Erikson, conceptualized eight stages
of psychosocial development that they theorized healthy individuals pass through as they develop from infancy to
adulthood. The first stage is called "Trust vs. Mistrust" takes place in infancy. The best virtue for the first stage is
hope, in the infant learning who to trust and having hope for a supportive group of people to be there for him/her. The
second stage is "Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt" with the best virtue being will. This takes place in early
childhood where the child learns to become more independent by discovering what they are capable of where if the
child is overly controlled, they believe to feel inadequate on surviving by themselves, which can lead to low
selfesteem and doubt. The third stage is "Initiative vs. Guilt". The basic virtue that would be gained is the purpose
and takes place in the play age. This is the stage where the child will be curious and have many interactions with other
kids. They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows. If too much guilt is present, the child may have a slower
and harder time interacting with other children. The fourth stage is "Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority". The
basic virtue for this stage is competency which happens at the school age. This stage is when the child will try to win
the approval of others and fit in and understand the value of their accomplishments. The fifth stage is "Identity vs.
Role Confusion".
Theories of cognitive development:
Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through hands-on
experience. He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials that the
child can interact with and use to construct. He used Socratic questioning to get children to reflect on what they were
doing, and he tried to get them to see contradictions in their explanations. Piaget believed that intellectual
development takes place through a series of stages, which he described in his theory on cognitive development. Each
stage consists of steps the child must master before moving to the next step. He believed that these stages are not
separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He
proposed four stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Though he did not
believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should
take place. these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as
part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood.
SCOPE:
Developmental psychologists work in a variety of settings, including academia, government agencies, health care
facilities and schools. Those working in colleges and universities tend to focus primarily on research or teaching.
John B. Watson and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are typically cited as providing the foundations for modern developmental
psychology. In the mid-18th century Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development: infants (infancy),
puer (childhood) and adolescence in Emile: Or, On Education. Rousseau's ideas were taken up strongly by educators
at the time.
Historical antecedents:
It generally focuses on how and why certain modifications throughout an individual’s life-cycle (cognitive, social,
intellectual, personality) and human growth change over time. There are many theorists that have made a profound
contribution to this area of psychology. For example, Erik Erikson developed a model of eight stages of
psychological development. He believed that humans developed in stages throughout their lifetimes and this would
have an impact on their behaviors (Similar ideas to Sigmund Freud). In the late 19th century, psychologists familiar
with the evolutionary theory of Darwin began seeking an evolutionary description of psychological development
prominent here was the pioneering psychologist G. Stanley Hall, who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with
previous ages of mankind. James Mark Baldwin who wrote essays on topics that included Imitation: A Chapter in
the Natural History of Consciousness and Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes.
Baldwin was heavily involved in the theory of developmental psychology. Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were
developmental, had a significant impact on public perceptions.
THEORIES:
Stages of moral development:
Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work, Lawrence
Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it
continued throughout the individual's lifetime. He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional moral
reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and post-conventional moral reasoning. The pre-conventional moral
reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated
with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is
characterized by reasoning based on rules and conventions of society. Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a
stage during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as
authoritative.
Stages of psychosocial development:
German-American psychologist Erik Erikson and his collaborator and wife, Joan Erikson, conceptualized eight stages
of psychosocial development that they theorized healthy individuals pass through as they develop from infancy to
adulthood. The first stage is called "Trust vs. Mistrust" takes place in infancy. The best virtue for the first stage is
hope, in the infant learning who to trust and having hope for a supportive group of people to be there for him/her. The
second stage is "Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt" with the best virtue being will. This takes place in early
childhood where the child learns to become more independent by discovering what they are capable of where if the
child is overly controlled, they believe to feel inadequate on surviving by themselves, which can lead to low
selfesteem and doubt. The third stage is "Initiative vs. Guilt". The basic virtue that would be gained is the purpose
and takes place in the play age. This is the stage where the child will be curious and have many interactions with other
kids. They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows. If too much guilt is present, the child may have a slower
and harder time interacting with other children. The fourth stage is "Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority". The
basic virtue for this stage is competency which happens at the school age. This stage is when the child will try to win
the approval of others and fit in and understand the value of their accomplishments. The fifth stage is "Identity vs.
Role Confusion".
Theories of cognitive development:
Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through hands-on
experience. He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials that the
child can interact with and use to construct. He used Socratic questioning to get children to reflect on what they were
doing, and he tried to get them to see contradictions in their explanations. Piaget believed that intellectual
development takes place through a series of stages, which he described in his theory on cognitive development. Each
stage consists of steps the child must master before moving to the next step. He believed that these stages are not
separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He
proposed four stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Though he did not
believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should
take place. these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as
part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood.
SCOPE:
Developmental psychologists work in a variety of settings, including academia, government agencies, health care
facilities and schools. Those working in colleges and universities tend to focus primarily on research or teaching.
Others working in applied settings, such as health care facilities or clinics, help to assess, evaluate and treat people
living with developmental disabilities. Developmental psychologists may also work in assisted living homes for the
elderly, hospitals, mental health clinics and centers for the homeless.
SALARY:
Salaries for developmental psychologists depend upon geographic location, work setting and job experience. the
median annual earnings for developmental psychologists in 2009 ranged from $69,000 to $91,000. The highest 10
percent of earners made more than $100,000 per year.
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
School psychologists are uniquely qualified members of school teams that support students' ability to learn and
teachers' ability to teach.
They apply expertise in mental health, learning, and behavior, to help children and youth succeed academically,
socially, behaviorally, and emotionally. School psychologists partner with families, teachers, school administrators,
and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments that strengthen
connections between home, school, and the community.
HISTORY:
School psychologists field emerge is emerging field. In 1918, attending school became mandatory in the United
States. Prior to this ruling, it was up to the parents if they wanted their child to be educated in school. As a result of
this law, schools were called with many students of different backgrounds and skill levels. Some students really
struggled and seemed unable to keep up.
Teachers and administrators were left with a big problem. How do you educate students who struggle to learn in the
traditional classroom? The first step is to figure out what the problem is. Therefore, school offcials began testing
struggling students in an effort to get to the root of the problem. By this time, standardized testing had become a
relatively common method used to screen men prior to placing them in the Army.
Schools began using standardized tests to figure out where students were academically in relation to other students.
They believed that this information would make it easier to help everyone learn. Specific school employees were
usually in charge of administering these tests and designing a program to help struggling learners. These individuals
were the earliest school psychologists.
Modern School Psychology
Now that we know why school psychology developed, let's take a closer look at how the profession of school
psychology progressed. As we mentioned, the earliest school psychologists were the people who were responsible for
testing and assessing students, but the job of identifying students with special needs or students who had not had much
previous schooling did not end there. These individuals also had to figure out ways to educate these students. They
counseled the students and their families and advocated for special programs for them.
Initially, these professionals were educators who were more or less appointed to the position. However, it quickly
became apparent that special training was needed beyond that of a traditional educator. In 1925 New York University
formed the first program designed to train people in school psychology.
Reform
Special
Education
Begins WWI
First T raining
Program
First
Doctorate
Program,
APA &
AAAP formed
Division 16 of
APA NASP formed
Public Law
94-142 in
place
National
Certification
formed
T rend moving
from treatment
to intervention
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 200
0
T he “Hybrid Years T he “T horoughbred Years”
SCOPE:
The vast majority of school psychologists work in K-12 public schools. They also provide services in a variety of
other settings, including:
Private schools
Preschools
School district administration offices
Universities
School-based health and mental health centers
Community-based day treatment or residential clinics and hospitals
Juvenile justice programs
Independent private practice
living with developmental disabilities. Developmental psychologists may also work in assisted living homes for the
elderly, hospitals, mental health clinics and centers for the homeless.
SALARY:
Salaries for developmental psychologists depend upon geographic location, work setting and job experience. the
median annual earnings for developmental psychologists in 2009 ranged from $69,000 to $91,000. The highest 10
percent of earners made more than $100,000 per year.
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
School psychologists are uniquely qualified members of school teams that support students' ability to learn and
teachers' ability to teach.
They apply expertise in mental health, learning, and behavior, to help children and youth succeed academically,
socially, behaviorally, and emotionally. School psychologists partner with families, teachers, school administrators,
and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments that strengthen
connections between home, school, and the community.
HISTORY:
School psychologists field emerge is emerging field. In 1918, attending school became mandatory in the United
States. Prior to this ruling, it was up to the parents if they wanted their child to be educated in school. As a result of
this law, schools were called with many students of different backgrounds and skill levels. Some students really
struggled and seemed unable to keep up.
Teachers and administrators were left with a big problem. How do you educate students who struggle to learn in the
traditional classroom? The first step is to figure out what the problem is. Therefore, school offcials began testing
struggling students in an effort to get to the root of the problem. By this time, standardized testing had become a
relatively common method used to screen men prior to placing them in the Army.
Schools began using standardized tests to figure out where students were academically in relation to other students.
They believed that this information would make it easier to help everyone learn. Specific school employees were
usually in charge of administering these tests and designing a program to help struggling learners. These individuals
were the earliest school psychologists.
Modern School Psychology
Now that we know why school psychology developed, let's take a closer look at how the profession of school
psychology progressed. As we mentioned, the earliest school psychologists were the people who were responsible for
testing and assessing students, but the job of identifying students with special needs or students who had not had much
previous schooling did not end there. These individuals also had to figure out ways to educate these students. They
counseled the students and their families and advocated for special programs for them.
Initially, these professionals were educators who were more or less appointed to the position. However, it quickly
became apparent that special training was needed beyond that of a traditional educator. In 1925 New York University
formed the first program designed to train people in school psychology.
Reform
Special
Education
Begins WWI
First T raining
Program
First
Doctorate
Program,
APA &
AAAP formed
Division 16 of
APA NASP formed
Public Law
94-142 in
place
National
Certification
formed
T rend moving
from treatment
to intervention
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 200
0
T he “Hybrid Years T he “T horoughbred Years”
SCOPE:
The vast majority of school psychologists work in K-12 public schools. They also provide services in a variety of
other settings, including:
Private schools
Preschools
School district administration offices
Universities
School-based health and mental health centers
Community-based day treatment or residential clinics and hospitals
Juvenile justice programs
Independent private practice
OBJECTIVES:
School psychologists provide direct support and interventions to students, consult with teachers, families, and other
school-employed mental health professionals (i.e., school counselors, school social workers) to improve support
strategies, work with school administrators to improve school-wide practices and policies, and collaborate with
community providers to coordinate needed services.
They help schools successfully:
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES:
Assessment plans should be developed thoroughly with the parent present in order for informed consent to be
obtained. Informed consent means that the parent understands what is being tested, what questions are being asked,
how those questions will be answered, and how the results will be used
• Adding psychological tools after assessment has begun should be avoided unless the parent has prior knowledge.
If it is deemed necessary, additional consent must be documented on the original consent and initialed by the
parent.
• The parent must be informed of the rationale for theadditional assessment and how it will be used
TREATMENT PROCEDURES:
Improve Academic Achievement
Promote student motivation and engagement
Conduct psychological and academic assessments
Individualize instruction and interventions
Manage student and classroom behavior
Monitor student progress
Collect and interpret student and classroom data
Reduce inappropriate referrals to special education.
Promote Positive Behavior and Mental Health
Improve students communication and social skills
Assess student emotional and behavioral needs
Provide individual and group counseling
Promote problem solving, anger management and conflict resolution
Reinforce positive coping skills and resilience
Promote positive peer relationships and social problem solving
Make referrals to and help coordinate community services provided in schools
Support Diverse Learners
Assess diverse learning needs
Provide culturally responsive services to students and families from diverse backgrounds
Plan appropriate Individualized Education Programs for students with disabilities
Modify and adapt curricula and instruction
Adjust classroom facilities and routines to improve student engagement and learning
Monitor and effectively communicate with parents about student progress
Create Safe, Positive School Climates
Prevent bullying and other forms of violence
Support social-emotional learning
Assess school climate and improve school connectedness
Implement and promote positive discipline and restorative justice
Implement school-wide positive behavioral supports
Identify at risk students and school vulnerabilities
Provide crisis prevention and intervention services
Strengthen Family-School Partnerships
Help families understand their child's learning and mental health needs
Assist in navigating special education processes
Connect families with community service providers when necessary
Help effectively engage families with teachers and other school staff
Enhance staff understanding and responsiveness to diverse cultures and backgrounds
Help students transition between school and community learning environments, such as residential
treatment or juvenile justice programs
SALARY:
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, clinical, counseling, and school psychologists earned a median salary of
$73,090 in 2010. General psychologists who worked in elementary and secondary schools made a median salary of
$89,570 in that same year.
School psychologists provide direct support and interventions to students, consult with teachers, families, and other
school-employed mental health professionals (i.e., school counselors, school social workers) to improve support
strategies, work with school administrators to improve school-wide practices and policies, and collaborate with
community providers to coordinate needed services.
They help schools successfully:
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES:
Assessment plans should be developed thoroughly with the parent present in order for informed consent to be
obtained. Informed consent means that the parent understands what is being tested, what questions are being asked,
how those questions will be answered, and how the results will be used
• Adding psychological tools after assessment has begun should be avoided unless the parent has prior knowledge.
If it is deemed necessary, additional consent must be documented on the original consent and initialed by the
parent.
• The parent must be informed of the rationale for theadditional assessment and how it will be used
TREATMENT PROCEDURES:
Improve Academic Achievement
Promote student motivation and engagement
Conduct psychological and academic assessments
Individualize instruction and interventions
Manage student and classroom behavior
Monitor student progress
Collect and interpret student and classroom data
Reduce inappropriate referrals to special education.
Promote Positive Behavior and Mental Health
Improve students communication and social skills
Assess student emotional and behavioral needs
Provide individual and group counseling
Promote problem solving, anger management and conflict resolution
Reinforce positive coping skills and resilience
Promote positive peer relationships and social problem solving
Make referrals to and help coordinate community services provided in schools
Support Diverse Learners
Assess diverse learning needs
Provide culturally responsive services to students and families from diverse backgrounds
Plan appropriate Individualized Education Programs for students with disabilities
Modify and adapt curricula and instruction
Adjust classroom facilities and routines to improve student engagement and learning
Monitor and effectively communicate with parents about student progress
Create Safe, Positive School Climates
Prevent bullying and other forms of violence
Support social-emotional learning
Assess school climate and improve school connectedness
Implement and promote positive discipline and restorative justice
Implement school-wide positive behavioral supports
Identify at risk students and school vulnerabilities
Provide crisis prevention and intervention services
Strengthen Family-School Partnerships
Help families understand their child's learning and mental health needs
Assist in navigating special education processes
Connect families with community service providers when necessary
Help effectively engage families with teachers and other school staff
Enhance staff understanding and responsiveness to diverse cultures and backgrounds
Help students transition between school and community learning environments, such as residential
treatment or juvenile justice programs
SALARY:
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, clinical, counseling, and school psychologists earned a median salary of
$73,090 in 2010. General psychologists who worked in elementary and secondary schools made a median salary of
$89,570 in that same year.
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
“Forensic psychology is the intersection between psychology and the justice system.It involves understanding
fundamental legel principles, particularly with regard to expert witness testimony and the specific cop ntent area of
concern.”
(According to American board of Forensic psychology)
“Forensic psychology is the application of the science and profession of psychology to questions and issues relating to
law and legal system”
“Forensic psychology is a specialized branch that deals with issues that connect psychology and the law.”
HISTORY:
Forensic is a relatively new speciality area. In fact, forensic psychology was just officially recognized as a specialty
area by the American Psychological Association in 2001. Despite this, the field of forensic psychology forensic
psychology has roots that date back to Wilhelm Wundt's first psychology lab in Leipzig, German. Today, forensic
psychologists are not only interested in understanding why such behaviors occur, but also in helping minimize and
prevent such actions.
The field has experienced dramatic growth in recent years as more and more students become interested in this applied
branch of psychology. Popular movies, television programs and books have help popularize the field, often depicting
brilliant heroes who solve vicious crimes or track down killers using psychology.
While depictions of forensic psychology in popular media are certainly dramatic and attention-grabbing, these
portrayals are not necessarily accurate. Forensic psychologists definitely play an important role in the criminal justice
system, however, and this can be an exciting career for students interested in applying psychological principles to the
legal system.
OBJECTIVE:
In many cases, people working within forensic psychology are not necessarily "forensic psychologists." These
individuals might be clinical psychologists, school psychologists, neurologists, or counselors who lend their
psychological expertise to provide testimony, analysis, or recommendations in legal or criminal cases.
For example, a clinical psychologist might provide mental health services such as assessment, diagnosis, and
treatment to individuals who have come into contact with the criminal justice system. Clinicians might be asked to
determine if a suspected criminal suffers from a mental illness, or may be asked to provide treatment to individuals
suffering from substance abuse and addiction issues.
Another example is that of a school psychologist. While people in this profession typically work with children in
school settings, a school psychologist working in forensic psychology might evaluate children in suspected abuse
cases, help prepare children to give testimony in court, or offer testimony in child custody disputes.
Some of the functions typically performed within forensic psychology include:
Competency evaluations
Sentencing recommendations
Evaluations of the risk of reoffending
Testimony as an expert witness
Child custody evaluations
SCOPE:
While forensic psychology may not be all about solving crimes and getting inside the mind's of criminals, there are
still plenty of challenges for forensic psychologists. There are a wide range of job options within the field of forensic
psychology.
For example, some forensic psychologists work directly in the criminal justice system to assess, evaluate and treat
individuals who have committed crimes or have been the victims of crimes. Other forensic psychologists investigate
cases of alleged child abuse, work with child witnesses, evaluate individuals involved in child custody disputes, and
assess mental competency.
If you are interested in a field such as forensic or criminal psychology, you might want to spend some time
researching some of the exciting career options in forensic psychology The degree you choose to pursue may depend
somewhat on what you want to do as a forensic psychologist, so figuring this out early on can be helpful in planning
your educational path.
ASSESSMENT PROCED URES:
A list of topics for assessment includes:
- Cognitive and intellectual abilities
- Neuropsychological screening
DEFINITION:
“Forensic psychology is the intersection between psychology and the justice system.It involves understanding
fundamental legel principles, particularly with regard to expert witness testimony and the specific cop ntent area of
concern.”
(According to American board of Forensic psychology)
“Forensic psychology is the application of the science and profession of psychology to questions and issues relating to
law and legal system”
“Forensic psychology is a specialized branch that deals with issues that connect psychology and the law.”
HISTORY:
Forensic is a relatively new speciality area. In fact, forensic psychology was just officially recognized as a specialty
area by the American Psychological Association in 2001. Despite this, the field of forensic psychology forensic
psychology has roots that date back to Wilhelm Wundt's first psychology lab in Leipzig, German. Today, forensic
psychologists are not only interested in understanding why such behaviors occur, but also in helping minimize and
prevent such actions.
The field has experienced dramatic growth in recent years as more and more students become interested in this applied
branch of psychology. Popular movies, television programs and books have help popularize the field, often depicting
brilliant heroes who solve vicious crimes or track down killers using psychology.
While depictions of forensic psychology in popular media are certainly dramatic and attention-grabbing, these
portrayals are not necessarily accurate. Forensic psychologists definitely play an important role in the criminal justice
system, however, and this can be an exciting career for students interested in applying psychological principles to the
legal system.
OBJECTIVE:
In many cases, people working within forensic psychology are not necessarily "forensic psychologists." These
individuals might be clinical psychologists, school psychologists, neurologists, or counselors who lend their
psychological expertise to provide testimony, analysis, or recommendations in legal or criminal cases.
For example, a clinical psychologist might provide mental health services such as assessment, diagnosis, and
treatment to individuals who have come into contact with the criminal justice system. Clinicians might be asked to
determine if a suspected criminal suffers from a mental illness, or may be asked to provide treatment to individuals
suffering from substance abuse and addiction issues.
Another example is that of a school psychologist. While people in this profession typically work with children in
school settings, a school psychologist working in forensic psychology might evaluate children in suspected abuse
cases, help prepare children to give testimony in court, or offer testimony in child custody disputes.
Some of the functions typically performed within forensic psychology include:
Competency evaluations
Sentencing recommendations
Evaluations of the risk of reoffending
Testimony as an expert witness
Child custody evaluations
SCOPE:
While forensic psychology may not be all about solving crimes and getting inside the mind's of criminals, there are
still plenty of challenges for forensic psychologists. There are a wide range of job options within the field of forensic
psychology.
For example, some forensic psychologists work directly in the criminal justice system to assess, evaluate and treat
individuals who have committed crimes or have been the victims of crimes. Other forensic psychologists investigate
cases of alleged child abuse, work with child witnesses, evaluate individuals involved in child custody disputes, and
assess mental competency.
If you are interested in a field such as forensic or criminal psychology, you might want to spend some time
researching some of the exciting career options in forensic psychology The degree you choose to pursue may depend
somewhat on what you want to do as a forensic psychologist, so figuring this out early on can be helpful in planning
your educational path.
ASSESSMENT PROCED URES:
A list of topics for assessment includes:
- Cognitive and intellectual abilities
- Neuropsychological screening
- Personality and executive functioning
- Trauma
- Violence risk appraisal
- Malingering
- Psychological competency
Typically, an assessment consists of a diagnostic interview, psychosocial history, and a comprehensive battery of
standardized tests to address a subset of the topics just listed. The diagnostic interview, which includes a mental status
examination, seeks to understand the individual's current level of overall functioning. The psychosocial history
provides a detailed description of the client's life story covering family of origin, childhood experiences, socialization,
marriage, divorce, educational, occupational and military (if applicable), history; drug and alcohol involvement, past
and current medical and psychological functioning, and past legal difficulties. Interview data provides a context in
which current issues can be positioned and understood
SALARY:
Trained forensic psychologists in HM Prison Service start on salaries in the region of £24,000. As a new entrant you'd
start at the bottom of this scale. An additional allowance may be payable for some locations depending on the category
of prison.
Fully-qualified, registered psychologists within the prison service earn between £30,000 and £45,000, while senior
registered psychologists can earn up to £95,000 a year.
Salaries for forensic psychologists within the NHS are at a similar level. Those in training are on band 6 of the Agenda
for Change (AfC) pay scale and earn £26,302 to £35,225, while fully qualified psychologists (band 7) earn £31,383 to
£41,373. With high levels of experience, salaries of more than £45,000 can be reached.
Salaries in private healthcare vary depending on the organisation but newly qualified forensic psychologists may be
offered up to £30,000 as a starting salary.
Additional benefits of working in the prison service and the NHS include competitive pensions, annual leave
entitlement and good sickness support.
Income data from HM Prison Service (HMPS) and the National Health Service (NHS). Figures are intended as a guide
only.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
The sub-speciality that deals with the interface of law and psychiatry is known as forensic psychiatry. Forensic
psychiatric services in Pakistan are almost non-existent, and the role played by judicial and medical fraternity in
managing legal cases is rare.
I/O PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
I/O psychology is a branch of psychology in which scientific method is used to understand the behaviour of members
of industry or organization so that the goals of that particular industry and organization might be achieved.
According to G.S Warren:
Industrial and Organizational Psychology is the study of those methodologies which affect the behavior of
persons/individuals in an organization.
HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY:
In the mid of 1880’s:
Wundt has trained the two psychologists who had major influence on the eventual emergence of I/O psychology:
Hugo Munsterberg and James Mckeen Cattell. Cattell was the first who recognize the differences among
individuals as a way of predicting and better understanding behaviour.
During WORLD WAR 1:
I/O psychology was crystallized durind WORLD WAR 1 response to need rapidly assign new troops to duty
stations.Scott and Bingham were volunteered to help with the testing and placement of more than a million Army
Recruits.
In 1917:
In 1917 togeather alogwith other prominent psychologists adapted a well known intelligence test(Stanford Binet
Test) to make it suitable for mass group testing. The new test form is Army Alpha.After the war ,growing industrial
base in US added impetus to I/O psychology gain prominence when Elton Mayo arrived in the United States in
1924.
The Hawthrone Studies:
Mayo was not fascinated by the efficiency of workers,but their emotions and how work may cause actors to act in
particular pathological ways.These observations of human thoughts and emotions were studied to see how prone
- Trauma
- Violence risk appraisal
- Malingering
- Psychological competency
Typically, an assessment consists of a diagnostic interview, psychosocial history, and a comprehensive battery of
standardized tests to address a subset of the topics just listed. The diagnostic interview, which includes a mental status
examination, seeks to understand the individual's current level of overall functioning. The psychosocial history
provides a detailed description of the client's life story covering family of origin, childhood experiences, socialization,
marriage, divorce, educational, occupational and military (if applicable), history; drug and alcohol involvement, past
and current medical and psychological functioning, and past legal difficulties. Interview data provides a context in
which current issues can be positioned and understood
SALARY:
Trained forensic psychologists in HM Prison Service start on salaries in the region of £24,000. As a new entrant you'd
start at the bottom of this scale. An additional allowance may be payable for some locations depending on the category
of prison.
Fully-qualified, registered psychologists within the prison service earn between £30,000 and £45,000, while senior
registered psychologists can earn up to £95,000 a year.
Salaries for forensic psychologists within the NHS are at a similar level. Those in training are on band 6 of the Agenda
for Change (AfC) pay scale and earn £26,302 to £35,225, while fully qualified psychologists (band 7) earn £31,383 to
£41,373. With high levels of experience, salaries of more than £45,000 can be reached.
Salaries in private healthcare vary depending on the organisation but newly qualified forensic psychologists may be
offered up to £30,000 as a starting salary.
Additional benefits of working in the prison service and the NHS include competitive pensions, annual leave
entitlement and good sickness support.
Income data from HM Prison Service (HMPS) and the National Health Service (NHS). Figures are intended as a guide
only.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
The sub-speciality that deals with the interface of law and psychiatry is known as forensic psychiatry. Forensic
psychiatric services in Pakistan are almost non-existent, and the role played by judicial and medical fraternity in
managing legal cases is rare.
I/O PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
I/O psychology is a branch of psychology in which scientific method is used to understand the behaviour of members
of industry or organization so that the goals of that particular industry and organization might be achieved.
According to G.S Warren:
Industrial and Organizational Psychology is the study of those methodologies which affect the behavior of
persons/individuals in an organization.
HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY:
In the mid of 1880’s:
Wundt has trained the two psychologists who had major influence on the eventual emergence of I/O psychology:
Hugo Munsterberg and James Mckeen Cattell. Cattell was the first who recognize the differences among
individuals as a way of predicting and better understanding behaviour.
During WORLD WAR 1:
I/O psychology was crystallized durind WORLD WAR 1 response to need rapidly assign new troops to duty
stations.Scott and Bingham were volunteered to help with the testing and placement of more than a million Army
Recruits.
In 1917:
In 1917 togeather alogwith other prominent psychologists adapted a well known intelligence test(Stanford Binet
Test) to make it suitable for mass group testing. The new test form is Army Alpha.After the war ,growing industrial
base in US added impetus to I/O psychology gain prominence when Elton Mayo arrived in the United States in
1924.
The Hawthrone Studies:
Mayo was not fascinated by the efficiency of workers,but their emotions and how work may cause actors to act in
particular pathological ways.These observations of human thoughts and emotions were studied to see how prone
employees would be to resist management attempts to increase the productivity and how sympathetic to labour unions
they would become. These studiews are known as Hawthrone Studies.
WORLD WAR 2 and DIVISION 14 of APA:
The emergence of world war 2 again allowed the field of industrial and organizational psychology to expand due to
the growing demand of military.World war 2 not only wided the scope of I/O psychology,it also opened the door
professionally for I/O psychologists.Before the second world war the APA was not concerned with
experimental/applied fields within psychology In response to changes occurring in psychology,at the time,APA
created DIVISION 14,industrial and business psychology.This aim of APA went through a couple of changes and
eventually evolved into society fo I/O psychology.
OBJECTIVE:
The prime objective of a organization is to run smoothly, successfully and survive perpetually While earning profits
and staying solvent. It is also aimed at the total organizational development and competencies. These objectives can be
accomplished by the services and the assistance of an organizational psychologist or a consultant whose role in the
main, is to improve and strengthen total organizational efficiency, effectiveness, productivity and competencies while
establishing better coordination amid employees.
SCOPE:
In this way, the organizational psychologist or the consultants are in high demands. The more are the expansions in
terms of industrialization, the more will be up-and-coming avenues and job opportunities for them. So long as there is
a business, the activities associated with the terms, efficiency, effectiveness,organizational competence and
organizational development will continue to be carried out. Thus, in order that the business objectives may be
accomplished; rich results in economic terms may be reaped on the basis of efficiency, effectiveness, organizational
development and competence - with effective communication, leadership style and good management practices, there
is a great need for organizational psychologists or consultants
SALARY:
Organizational psychology offers great pay potential, and an encouraging job market, despite the small size of the
field. Here are some statistics on salaries, job growth and employers.
The median national annual salary for industrial-organizational psychologists is $82,760. Actual salaries may vary
greatly based on specialization within the field, location, years of experience and a variety of other factors.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
Psychology as a subject of study was recognized in Pakistan almost five decades ago. At the time of independence
only two colleges taught psychology: the Government College (GC) and Forman Christian College, Lahore. In GC as
a common practice until the 1960s psychology was taught as part of the philosophy syllabus. It was not until 1962
under the guidance of Dr. Muhammad Ajmal as its first chair that psychology achieved an independent status at the
GC.At Karachi University the first independent psychology department was founded with Qazi Muhammad Aslam as
chair, whose academic background was in philosophy. The psychology department at the University of Sindh became
independent in 1960, with Dr. RafiaHasan(Haque 2000). In the struggle to separateits roots from philosophy, large
portion of the four decades were focused majorly on clinical psychologZS
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
Health psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on how mental, emotional, and social factors affect a
person's physical well-being. This field, also sometimes referred to as medical psychology, also focuses on a patient's
mental and emotional reaction to an illness or recovery from an illness.
HISTORY:
Health psychology has been acknowledged formally as a subdiscipline of the field of psychology Since 1978, with the
formation of the American Psychological Association’s Division of Health Psychology Division 38). Psychology’s
interest in general health and illness, however, extends to the very beginning of The discipline itself. Many of the
earliest “psychologists,” for example, Wilhelm Wundt, William James, and ermann von Helmholtz. were trained in
medicine; understandably, the study of behavior and physiology were closely linked.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, it had become evident that a more comprehensive approach to diagnosis, treatment,
and prevention would be necessary if we were to make serious progress in controlling the growing epidemic of
chronic disease and the dramatically escalating costs associated with “high-tech” medicine. Although psychologists
were employed in medical schools beginning in the early years of the twentieth century, it was not until the 1960s and
1970s that significant numbers became employed as medical school faculty
National organizations representing health psychology also have been established throughout the world (in Spain,
England, Australia, Germany, Sweden, Japan,to name but a few). An International Association of Health Psychology
they would become. These studiews are known as Hawthrone Studies.
WORLD WAR 2 and DIVISION 14 of APA:
The emergence of world war 2 again allowed the field of industrial and organizational psychology to expand due to
the growing demand of military.World war 2 not only wided the scope of I/O psychology,it also opened the door
professionally for I/O psychologists.Before the second world war the APA was not concerned with
experimental/applied fields within psychology In response to changes occurring in psychology,at the time,APA
created DIVISION 14,industrial and business psychology.This aim of APA went through a couple of changes and
eventually evolved into society fo I/O psychology.
OBJECTIVE:
The prime objective of a organization is to run smoothly, successfully and survive perpetually While earning profits
and staying solvent. It is also aimed at the total organizational development and competencies. These objectives can be
accomplished by the services and the assistance of an organizational psychologist or a consultant whose role in the
main, is to improve and strengthen total organizational efficiency, effectiveness, productivity and competencies while
establishing better coordination amid employees.
SCOPE:
In this way, the organizational psychologist or the consultants are in high demands. The more are the expansions in
terms of industrialization, the more will be up-and-coming avenues and job opportunities for them. So long as there is
a business, the activities associated with the terms, efficiency, effectiveness,organizational competence and
organizational development will continue to be carried out. Thus, in order that the business objectives may be
accomplished; rich results in economic terms may be reaped on the basis of efficiency, effectiveness, organizational
development and competence - with effective communication, leadership style and good management practices, there
is a great need for organizational psychologists or consultants
SALARY:
Organizational psychology offers great pay potential, and an encouraging job market, despite the small size of the
field. Here are some statistics on salaries, job growth and employers.
The median national annual salary for industrial-organizational psychologists is $82,760. Actual salaries may vary
greatly based on specialization within the field, location, years of experience and a variety of other factors.
STATUS IN PAKISTAN:
Psychology as a subject of study was recognized in Pakistan almost five decades ago. At the time of independence
only two colleges taught psychology: the Government College (GC) and Forman Christian College, Lahore. In GC as
a common practice until the 1960s psychology was taught as part of the philosophy syllabus. It was not until 1962
under the guidance of Dr. Muhammad Ajmal as its first chair that psychology achieved an independent status at the
GC.At Karachi University the first independent psychology department was founded with Qazi Muhammad Aslam as
chair, whose academic background was in philosophy. The psychology department at the University of Sindh became
independent in 1960, with Dr. RafiaHasan(Haque 2000). In the struggle to separateits roots from philosophy, large
portion of the four decades were focused majorly on clinical psychologZS
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
Health psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on how mental, emotional, and social factors affect a
person's physical well-being. This field, also sometimes referred to as medical psychology, also focuses on a patient's
mental and emotional reaction to an illness or recovery from an illness.
HISTORY:
Health psychology has been acknowledged formally as a subdiscipline of the field of psychology Since 1978, with the
formation of the American Psychological Association’s Division of Health Psychology Division 38). Psychology’s
interest in general health and illness, however, extends to the very beginning of The discipline itself. Many of the
earliest “psychologists,” for example, Wilhelm Wundt, William James, and ermann von Helmholtz. were trained in
medicine; understandably, the study of behavior and physiology were closely linked.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, it had become evident that a more comprehensive approach to diagnosis, treatment,
and prevention would be necessary if we were to make serious progress in controlling the growing epidemic of
chronic disease and the dramatically escalating costs associated with “high-tech” medicine. Although psychologists
were employed in medical schools beginning in the early years of the twentieth century, it was not until the 1960s and
1970s that significant numbers became employed as medical school faculty
National organizations representing health psychology also have been established throughout the world (in Spain,
England, Australia, Germany, Sweden, Japan,to name but a few). An International Association of Health Psychology
was established and the first International Congress of Health Psychology was held in Tokyo in 1993. Expanding the
mission of psychologists into the prevention and control of chronic disease and the promotion of health at the
individual, occupational, and public health levels will provide a wealth of emerging opportunities for our discipline in
the new millennium.
OBJECTIVE:
Health psychology is a rapidly growing field. As increasing numbers of people seek to take control of their own
health, more and more people are seeking health-related information and resources. Health psychologists are focused
on educating people about their own health and well-being, so they are perfectly suited to ill this rising demand.
Healthy psychology can benefit individuals in a number of different ways. Many professionals in this field work
specifically in the areas of prevention and focus on helping people prevent health problems before they start. This may
include helping people maintain a healthy weight, avoid risky or unhealthy behaviors and maintain a positive outlook
that can combat stress, depression, and anxiety.
SCOPE:
Health psychologists are scientist-practitioners and work across primary, secondary, and tertiary health care sectors.
Many are working within hospital settings such as, cardiology, heart/lung transplantation, respiratory, diabetes,
general surgery, oncology, pain, and renal services. Others work in primary healthcare organizations (PHOs), non-
government organizations (NGOs), and in private practice. There is huge scope for health psychologists working in
these areas from direct clinical delivery of psychological treatments to consultation with other colleagues in the health
care system and relevant stakeholders. Health psychologists work with individuals, groups, families/whanau in the
context of improving the health (physical and emotional) outcomes and long-term condition management of their
condition. In order to practice as a psychologist, practitioners need to be registered with the Psychologists Board.
TYPES OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGIST :
In general, there are four main types of health psychology careers - clinical health psychology, community health
psychology, occupational health psychology, and public health psychology.
Clinical health psychology is an area of health psychology that focuses on treating individuals. Professionals
pursuing clinical health psychology careers often focus on how an individual's lifestyle and behavior might affect his
overall health. Clinical health psychologists will also usually work with individuals to help change bad habits or
overcome lifestyle problems that may be affecting their physical health.
Community health psychology focuses on the health of a community as a whole. Individuals pursuing community
health psychology careers will typically study the prevalence of diseases in certain communities, and what might
cause them.
Occupational health psychologyfocuses on the individual's job and his overall state of health. Professionals working
in this area might work with companies and businesses to help create happier and healthier employees. This might
involve restructuring workplace policies or counseling individual employees.
Public health psychology is concerned with public and government health policies and programs. These types of
professionals might work with low-income individuals, influence government health policies, or help organize public
health awareness campaigns
SALARY:
In general, a health psychologist's annual salary is often influenced by a few factors. Those with more advanced
degrees, for instance, will typically be able to command higher salaries. A health psychologist's place of employment
might also have an influence on his salary as well psychologists that worked in hospitals made an average salary of
$91,810. Those that worked in clinical and counseling positions, however, made an average salary of $73,090, while
those working in the field of research and development made an average salary of $100,790.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
“Educational psychology involves the study of how people learn, including topics such as student outcomes, the
instructional process, individual differences in learning, gifted learners, and learning disabilities.”
“It is a branch of applied science as in this we apply the principles and rules of psychology in the field of education
and after applying these rules and principles we try to study the behavior of the students.”
HISTORY:
Educational psychology is a relatively young subfield that has experienced a tremendous amount of growth in recent
years. Psychology did not emerge as a separate science until the late 1800s, so educational philosophers largely fueled
prior interest in educational psychology. Many regard philosopher Johann Herbart as the "father" of educational
psychology.
mission of psychologists into the prevention and control of chronic disease and the promotion of health at the
individual, occupational, and public health levels will provide a wealth of emerging opportunities for our discipline in
the new millennium.
OBJECTIVE:
Health psychology is a rapidly growing field. As increasing numbers of people seek to take control of their own
health, more and more people are seeking health-related information and resources. Health psychologists are focused
on educating people about their own health and well-being, so they are perfectly suited to ill this rising demand.
Healthy psychology can benefit individuals in a number of different ways. Many professionals in this field work
specifically in the areas of prevention and focus on helping people prevent health problems before they start. This may
include helping people maintain a healthy weight, avoid risky or unhealthy behaviors and maintain a positive outlook
that can combat stress, depression, and anxiety.
SCOPE:
Health psychologists are scientist-practitioners and work across primary, secondary, and tertiary health care sectors.
Many are working within hospital settings such as, cardiology, heart/lung transplantation, respiratory, diabetes,
general surgery, oncology, pain, and renal services. Others work in primary healthcare organizations (PHOs), non-
government organizations (NGOs), and in private practice. There is huge scope for health psychologists working in
these areas from direct clinical delivery of psychological treatments to consultation with other colleagues in the health
care system and relevant stakeholders. Health psychologists work with individuals, groups, families/whanau in the
context of improving the health (physical and emotional) outcomes and long-term condition management of their
condition. In order to practice as a psychologist, practitioners need to be registered with the Psychologists Board.
TYPES OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGIST :
In general, there are four main types of health psychology careers - clinical health psychology, community health
psychology, occupational health psychology, and public health psychology.
Clinical health psychology is an area of health psychology that focuses on treating individuals. Professionals
pursuing clinical health psychology careers often focus on how an individual's lifestyle and behavior might affect his
overall health. Clinical health psychologists will also usually work with individuals to help change bad habits or
overcome lifestyle problems that may be affecting their physical health.
Community health psychology focuses on the health of a community as a whole. Individuals pursuing community
health psychology careers will typically study the prevalence of diseases in certain communities, and what might
cause them.
Occupational health psychologyfocuses on the individual's job and his overall state of health. Professionals working
in this area might work with companies and businesses to help create happier and healthier employees. This might
involve restructuring workplace policies or counseling individual employees.
Public health psychology is concerned with public and government health policies and programs. These types of
professionals might work with low-income individuals, influence government health policies, or help organize public
health awareness campaigns
SALARY:
In general, a health psychologist's annual salary is often influenced by a few factors. Those with more advanced
degrees, for instance, will typically be able to command higher salaries. A health psychologist's place of employment
might also have an influence on his salary as well psychologists that worked in hospitals made an average salary of
$91,810. Those that worked in clinical and counseling positions, however, made an average salary of $73,090, while
those working in the field of research and development made an average salary of $100,790.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION:
“Educational psychology involves the study of how people learn, including topics such as student outcomes, the
instructional process, individual differences in learning, gifted learners, and learning disabilities.”
“It is a branch of applied science as in this we apply the principles and rules of psychology in the field of education
and after applying these rules and principles we try to study the behavior of the students.”
HISTORY:
Educational psychology is a relatively young subfield that has experienced a tremendous amount of growth in recent
years. Psychology did not emerge as a separate science until the late 1800s, so educational philosophers largely fueled
prior interest in educational psychology. Many regard philosopher Johann Herbart as the "father" of educational
psychology.
Herbart believed that a student's interest in a topic had a tremendous influence on the learning outcome and believed
that teachers should consider this interest along with prior knowledge when deciding which type of instruction is most
appropriate.
Later, psychologist and philosopher William James made significant contributions to the field. His seminal 1899 text
Talks to Teachers on Psychology is considered the first textbook on educational psychology. Around this same period,
French psychologist Alfred Binet was developing his famous IQ tests. The tests were originally designed to help the
French government identify children who had developmental delays to create special education programs.
In the United States, John Dewey had a significant influence on education. Dewey's ideas were progressive, and he
believed that school should focus on students rather than on subjects. He advocated active learning and believed that
hands-on experience was an important part of the learning process.
More recently, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed an important taxonomy designed to categorize,
and describe different educational objectives. The three top-level domains he described were cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor learning objectives.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVES:
As with other areas of psychology, researchers within educational psychology tend to take on different perspectives
when considering a problem.
The behavioral perspective suggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning. Psychologists who take
this perspective rely firmly on the principles of operant conditioning to explain how learning happens. For example,
teachers might give out tokens that can be exchanged for desirable items such as candy and toys to reward good
behavior. While such methods can be useful in some cases, the behavioral approach has been criticized for failing to
account for such things as attitudes, cognitions, and intrinsic motivations for learning.
The developmental perspective focuses on how children acquire new skills and knowledge as they develop. Jean
Piaget's famous stages of cognitive development are one example of an important developmental theory looking at
how children grow intellectually. By understanding how children think at different stages of development, educational
psychologists can better understand what children are capable of at eachpoint of their growth. This can help educators
create instructional methods and materials best aimed at certain age groups.
The cognitive perspective has become much more widespread in recent decades, mainly because it accounts for
how things such as memories, beliefs, emotions, and motivations contribute to the learning process. Cognitive
psychology focuses on understanding how people think, learn, remember, and process information. Educational
psychologists who take a cognitive perspective are interested in understanding how kids become motivated to learn,
how they remember the things that they learn, and how they solve problems, among other things.
OBJECTIVES:
Educational psychology is considered as one of the most important part for the training ofteachers. Psychology
enhances the image of the teacher and he will be able to teach his students in a better way. If the teacher has some
knowledge of psychology he will try to create a learning atmosphere which is accepted by the students and he will
teach the students according to their mentality or their capabilities.
SCOPE:
The scope of educational psychology is ever-growing due to constantly researches in this field. The following factors
will indicate the scope of educational psychology:
1. The Learner. The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner. Therefore, the need of
knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. The topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of
the individuals, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious
behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood
to adulthood.
2. The Learning Experiences. Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable, at
what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease
and satisfaction.
3. Learning process: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be provided,
Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other items in the learning process
are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of
learning, ways and means of effective learning etc.
4. Learning Situation or Environment. Here Educational Psychology deals with the environmental factors and
learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group
dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and
counseling etc. For the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process.
5. The Teacher. The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning process. It discusses the role of
the teacher. It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing thyself’ for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of
education. His conflicts, motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential
that teachers should consider this interest along with prior knowledge when deciding which type of instruction is most
appropriate.
Later, psychologist and philosopher William James made significant contributions to the field. His seminal 1899 text
Talks to Teachers on Psychology is considered the first textbook on educational psychology. Around this same period,
French psychologist Alfred Binet was developing his famous IQ tests. The tests were originally designed to help the
French government identify children who had developmental delays to create special education programs.
In the United States, John Dewey had a significant influence on education. Dewey's ideas were progressive, and he
believed that school should focus on students rather than on subjects. He advocated active learning and believed that
hands-on experience was an important part of the learning process.
More recently, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed an important taxonomy designed to categorize,
and describe different educational objectives. The three top-level domains he described were cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor learning objectives.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVES:
As with other areas of psychology, researchers within educational psychology tend to take on different perspectives
when considering a problem.
The behavioral perspective suggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning. Psychologists who take
this perspective rely firmly on the principles of operant conditioning to explain how learning happens. For example,
teachers might give out tokens that can be exchanged for desirable items such as candy and toys to reward good
behavior. While such methods can be useful in some cases, the behavioral approach has been criticized for failing to
account for such things as attitudes, cognitions, and intrinsic motivations for learning.
The developmental perspective focuses on how children acquire new skills and knowledge as they develop. Jean
Piaget's famous stages of cognitive development are one example of an important developmental theory looking at
how children grow intellectually. By understanding how children think at different stages of development, educational
psychologists can better understand what children are capable of at eachpoint of their growth. This can help educators
create instructional methods and materials best aimed at certain age groups.
The cognitive perspective has become much more widespread in recent decades, mainly because it accounts for
how things such as memories, beliefs, emotions, and motivations contribute to the learning process. Cognitive
psychology focuses on understanding how people think, learn, remember, and process information. Educational
psychologists who take a cognitive perspective are interested in understanding how kids become motivated to learn,
how they remember the things that they learn, and how they solve problems, among other things.
OBJECTIVES:
Educational psychology is considered as one of the most important part for the training ofteachers. Psychology
enhances the image of the teacher and he will be able to teach his students in a better way. If the teacher has some
knowledge of psychology he will try to create a learning atmosphere which is accepted by the students and he will
teach the students according to their mentality or their capabilities.
SCOPE:
The scope of educational psychology is ever-growing due to constantly researches in this field. The following factors
will indicate the scope of educational psychology:
1. The Learner. The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner. Therefore, the need of
knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. The topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of
the individuals, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious
behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood
to adulthood.
2. The Learning Experiences. Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable, at
what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease
and satisfaction.
3. Learning process: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be provided,
Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other items in the learning process
are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of
learning, ways and means of effective learning etc.
4. Learning Situation or Environment. Here Educational Psychology deals with the environmental factors and
learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group
dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and
counseling etc. For the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process.
5. The Teacher. The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning process. It discusses the role of
the teacher. It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing thyself’ for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of
education. His conflicts, motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential
personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc. so as to inspire him for becoming a
successful teacher.
REFERENCES:
https://www.verywellmind.com/what is clinical psychology-279500
www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/clinical.aspx
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3745484?seq=1page
www.jibranbashir.com_blog_
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
successful teacher.
REFERENCES:
https://www.verywellmind.com/what is clinical psychology-279500
www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/clinical.aspx
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3745484?seq=1page
www.jibranbashir.com_blog_
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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