Introduction to human behaviour and psychology chapter 01

psychology

1. Chapter 01 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

2. Introduction to PSYCHOLOGY We are frequently exposed to the work of psychologists in our everyday lives; we all have an idea about what psychology is and what psychologists do. In many ways I am sure that your conceptions are correct. Psychologists do work in forensic (medical) fields, and they do provide counseling and therapy for people in distress. But there are hundreds of thousands of psychologists in the world, and most of them work in other places, doing work that you are probably not aware of. Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they study the behaviour of humans and animals. For instance, my fraternity in the Psychology Department in the Universities all over Pakistan study such diverse topics as: anxiety in children, the interpretation of dreams, the effects of caffeine on thinking, how birds recognize each other, how people from different cultures react differently in negotiation, and the factors that lead people to engage in terrorism. Other psychologists study topics such as: alcohol and drug addiction, memory, emotion, love, what makes people aggressive or helpful, and the psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and religion.

3. Psychologists also work in schools and businesses, and they use a variety of methods, including: Observation, questionnaires, interviews, and laboratory studies---to help them understand behaviour (The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and using a standardized procedure.) This Course provides an introduction to the broad field of psychology and many approaches that psychologists take to understanding human behaviour. I expect that you may find that at least some of your presumptions (preconceptions) about psychology will be challenged and changed, and you will learn that psychology is a field that will provide you with new ways of thinking about your own thoughts, feelings, and actions.

4. What Exactly is Behavior? Behavior In its broader sense includes all types of human activities i.e. Behavior is both mental and bodily Behavior has two aspects: Bodily behaviours : refers to Actions refer to what an individual does.—means the movements and actions of the body in response to a situation Motor activities (Walking, speaking, running, sleeping, eating, crawling, kneeling, jumping, dancing, swimming, smiling etc ) ƒ Mental Behaviour : are thinking, reasoning, imagination and other mental experiences or processes. Cognitive activities-- Cognitive processes refer to what an individual thinks (perceiving, remembering, thinking, reasoning, imagination, attention, language use, memory, problem solving, creativity, observing) ƒ Emotional activities---- Emotional states refer to what an individual feels, (feeling happy, sad, angry, afraid). Example The human behavior consists of physical responses, feelings, emotions and tensions, and all intellectual responses, perceiving, thinking, recalling, and reasoning.

5. Definition of Psychology Psychology is the scientific study/explanation of: how we think (thoughts), How we feel (feelings) and how we behave (behaviours). “ Psychology is the scientific study (explanation) of mind (mental processes) and behavior”. Behavior = outward or overt actions and reactions (Talking, facial expressions and movement) Mental Process = internal, covert activity Thinking, feeling and remembering What is science? What is the meaning of behaviour? What is mind and mental processes? There are three aspects to the above definition Science Behaviour And mental processes Lets examine behaviour first. Behaviour is everything we do that can be directly observed-two people staring into each other’s’ eyes, a baby crying, sneezing are examples. Mental processes are the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately, but which cannot be observed directly. As Science , psychology uses systematic methods to study behaviour and mental processes. Psychology’s methods are not casual. They are carefully planned and conducted.

6. Reasons To Study Psychology Psychology helps us understand ourselves and others better : Psychology helps to you better understand yourself and the people around you. Develops analytical skills through use of scientific methods : Psychology helps learning about research methods and statistics. Even if you don’t particularly love the research process, learning more about how to gather, organize, analyze, and interpret data can be an important skill in a wide variety of careers. Refine critical thinking : As you study psychology you will learn more about topics such as the scientific method,  decision-making , and  problem-solving , all of which might help you hone your ability to think deeply and critically about different issues.

7. Develop new perspective on mental illness: studying psychology can help you better understand how psychological conditions are diagnosed and treated. You can also discover how mental wellness can be enhanced, how to reduce stress,  how to boost memory , and how to live a happier, healthier life. Improving communication skills: Studying subjects such as  emotion , language, and  body language  can help you fine-tune your interpersonal communication skills .By learning more about these things, you can gain a greater understanding of other people and what they are trying to say.   Building self-confidence:  By understanding more about yourself and your personality, you can gain more self-confidence. You will learn more about your weaknesses and can build on them

8. Psychology as a Science Modern psychology is considered a science (qualifies as a science) because it bases its conclusions on data, information obtained by systematic observations. Psychology as a scientific study deals systematically with human behavior, motives, feelings, emotions, thoughts and actions of men and women using Scientific Method to acquire knowledge. Psychology, like other sciences, discovers and explains fundamental law and principles of behaviour. Examples: When we perform poorly on an important test, we try to understand what caused our failure to remember or understand the material and what might help us do better the next time. When our good friends Monisha and Charlie break up, despite the fact that they appeared to have a relationship made in heaven, we try to determine what happened. When we expect the rise of terrorist acts around the world, we try to investigate the causes of this problem by looking at the terrorists themselves, the situation around them, and others’ responses to them In a sense all humans are scientists. The answer to these “everyday” issues can teach us many principles of human behaviour and we develop theories to explain why this is so. We all have an interest in asking and answering questions about our world. We want to know why things happen, when and if they are likely to happen again, and how to reproduce or change them. Such knowledge enables us to predict our own behaviour and that of others

9. Goals of Psychology Scientific psychology has four explicit goals: 1. DESCRIBE : Description – What is happening? The first goal of psychology is to observe behaviour and describe, often in minute detail, what was observed as objectively as possible. It addresses the question, “How do people think, feel, and act in various situations?” Psychologists/Researchers might start by observing human behavior and then describing a problem by understanding what is happening. Observe events and behaviors, then look at how events might be related. 2. EXPLAIN: Explanation – Why is it happening? While descriptions come from observable data, psychologists must go beyond what is obvious and explain their observations. In other words, “ why did the subject do what he or she did? Why did this behaviour occur? Which factors influenced this outcome?” are treated under explanation. The second goal of psychology is to explain the causes of behavior. Why does this event or behavior occur? (under what circumstances will it occur?).

10. 3. PREDICT: Prediction – When will it happen again? Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can begin to speculate what will happen in the future. There is an old saying, which very often holds true: “the best predictor of future behaviour is past behaviour.” Once we understand more about what happens and why it happens, we can use that information to make predictions about when, why, and how it might happen again in the future . MODIFY/CONTROL/INFLUENCE: Control/Modify – How can it be changed? i.e. to control/modify an organism’s behavior. Once we know what happens, why it happens and what is likely to happen in the future, we can exert control over it. To modify and improve behaviour to better the lives of individuals and society as a whole. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, psychology strives to change, influence, or control behavior to make constructive and lasting changes in people's lives. By explaining and understanding the causes of behavior, psychologists can create programs or treatments to control or change the behaviors.

11. Example: When dealing with a child, for example, you might ask questions like: "What is he doing?" (describing), "Why is he doing that?" (explaining), "What would happen if I responded in this way?" (predicting), and "What can I do to get him to stop doing that?" (changing). Example 2: These goals are the same commonsense goals that we all use in everyday life. Description : Let’s say that Jane tells her husband, Harry, that their son, seven-year-old Billy, was a brat today. Is this a good description of Billy’s behavior? No, it’s not. It’s too general, too abstract. On the other hand, let’s assume that Jane says that Billy refused to do his homework and told her, “Homework is stupid. I’m not going to do it anymore.” This constitutes a much better description of behavior because is it is specific and concrete. Similar specific descriptions may suggest to both parents that Billy misbehaves more than most children. Explanation : Jane and Harry now wonder why Billy is beginning to misbehave more and more. Is he frustrated? Does he have an inferiority complex? Does he have low self-esteem? Does he have Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)? Does he have an imbalance of certain key neurotransmitters in his brain? Does he have a childhood neurosis? As you can see, potential explanations are plentiful. They have to be evaluated. Prediction : This is where prediction and control come in. Let’s say that Dr. Helen G., the family pediatrician, suggests that Billy is indeed suffering from Attention Deficit Disorder. Let’s also assume that Dr. G. is convinced that Billy eats too many foods with refined sugar and that this causes, through a complex biochemical reaction, a depletion of certain neurotransmitters. She recommends a diet of natural foods with little refined sugar. The physician is predicting that the change in diet will take away the undesirable symptoms. Control/Modify : Let’s say that the diet is tried. Billy sticks to it. If there is no change in Billy’s misbehavior after several weeks, both Dr. G. and the parents will conclude that the explanation was incorrect. On the other hand, if the diet is therapeutic, and Billy’s behavior becomes more manageable, then control has taken place. The explanation will appear to be adequate.

12. Types of Research Used in Psychology Basic /pure/fundamental research Applied research Basic Research  is another type of research, and it is driven purely by curiosity and a desire to expand our knowledge. This type of research tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances our understanding of the world around us. The purpose of basic research is to seek new knowledge and to explore and advance general scientific understanding. Basic Research is completely theoretical. Applied research  is one type of research that is used to answer a specific question that has direct applications to the world. This is the type of research that solves a problem. Applied research is conducted specifically for the purpose of solving practical problems and improving the quality of life. So, the real difference between the two types of research is what they will be used for. Will the research be used to help us understand a real world problem and solve it, or will the research further our general information?

13. Examples Examples of basic research in psychology include: How do panic attacks happen?  What are the symptoms of anxiety disorders?  Examples of applied research in psychology include:  What are the treatment options for anxiety disorders? What are the ways to improve employees’ productivity in the workplace?  Basic research is also known as pure or fundamental research because it is knowledge-specific while applied research primary focus is on providing a solution to a specific problem.  Basic research explores the functions and features of newly discovered phenomena in order to improve the understanding of these concepts hence; it fuels scientific and technological innovations. Applied research, on the other hand, helps to provide solutions to improve a specific condition or create new technology. 

14. Fields/types of Psychology Psychology is a broad and diverse field that includes: the study of human thought, Behavior, development, personality, emotion, motivation, and more. The following are the some of the major areas of research and application within psychology.

15. Fields/types of Psychology (cont’d) Abnormal psychology  is the study of abnormal behavior. Abnormal psychology  is the study of abnormal thoughts, feelings and behaviors. Psychologists who study abnormal psychology usually work to treat people who have some type of mental illness. Here, Abnormal means, something that's outside of the norm. This specialty area is focused on research and treatment of a variety of mental disorders. E.g. What if a man cut in front of everyone in line? Or, what if a woman suddenly starts yelling out nonsense words? (Norm: the way of living in a society, group, culture, community) Developmental psychology  is an area that looks at human growth and development over the lifespan including cognitive abilities, morality, social functioning, identity, and other life areas. Developmental psychology  looks at how thinking, feeling, and behavior change throughout a person's life. Study how people grow and adapt, physically and psychologically Development delays and serious health issues Cognitive Delays. ... Motor Delays. ... Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Delays. ... Speech Delays.

16. Biological psychology  --also called “ Physiological Psychology ”, is the study of the biology of behavior; it focuses on the nervous system , hormones and genetics . Biological psychology examines the  relationship between mind and body , neural mechanisms , and the influence of heredity on behavior . The biological approach believes behavior to be as a consequence of our genetics and physiology. It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a biological and thus physical point of view. All thoughts, feeling & behavior ultimately have a biological cause. Clinical psychology  is focused on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders. Clinical psychologists usually work in a hospital, mental hospital, clinic or other health care institution, so they normally treat patients with mental disorders. E.g. Julie’s experience of depression---- Julie is a 32 year old graphic designer.  In January she started feeling low in moods and lack of motivation meant that she risked losing her job and friends and then a focused course of treatment helped turn things around. Fields/Types of Psychology (cont’d)

17. Fields/Types of Psychology (cont’d) Cognitive psychology  is the study of human thought processes including attention, memory, perception, decision-making, problem-solving, creativity, thinking and language acquisition. Cognitive psychologists  is interested in how the brain processes, learns, stores, recognizes, and utilizes information. Cognitive psychology involves  the study of internal mental processes —all of the things that go on inside your brain. They(psychologists) ask questions like: How do we receive information about the outside world? How do we store and process information? How do we solve problems? How does a breakdown in our perceptions cause errors in our thinking? How do errors in our thinking lead to emotional distress and negative behaviors?

18. Cognitive psychology cont’d For example : scenario 1 You are walking down the street. Your friend walks right past and ignores you.(activating event) You think, 'Bob must be angry with me or he would have said hello.‘ (beliefs) You ignore your friend the next time you see him because you assume he does not want to speak to you.(consequences) For example: scenario 2 You are walking down the street. Your friend walks right past and ignores you. (activating event) Beliefs: You think, 'It is unlike Bob not to say hello, I wonder what is going on?‘ (belief) Consequences: You turn and call out to Bob. He apologizes for not seeing you, but explains he is really distracted by something. You make plans to get together later and catch up. (consequences) Aaron T. Beck developed the cognitive therapy approach as a result of his research and clinical expertise on depression .He observed that most depressed people have a negative interpretation of life events. This eventually led him to assume that how you feel is related to the way you think about your experiences.

19. Forensic psychology  is an applied field focused on using psychological research and principles in the legal and criminal justice system. The word  forensic  is defined as "the scientific method for investigation of crime". Forensic psychology is often described as the merger of law and psychology. Forensic psychologists often find employment in police stations, courthouses, law firms, prisons, jails, and juvenile detention centers and may work as consultants (self-employed). Forensic psychologists  provide counseling to victims of crime . These professionals design and provide therapy services to people convicted of crimes. forensic psychologists often serve as advisors and expert witnesses. Types of Psychology (cont’d)

20. Industrial-organizational psychology  is a field that uses psychological research to enhance work performance and select employees. Industrial/organization psychology  (I/O Psychology) is a field of psychology that applies the fundamental scientific principles of psychology to the workplace environment to make work more fun and more productive. Focused on the study of working environment---How workplace relationships affect lives on the job and beyond Applying research to issues facing employees, teams, and organizations. Examining employee well-being and attitudes, employer-to-employee relationships and overall workplace behaviour. Think about the jobs that you have held. What were the things that made you love going to work each day? What things at the workplace made you want to call in sick? How are decisions made?  How effective is communication?  How do team members interact and collaborate? These are the types of things that I/O psychologists are interested in finding out. Industrial psychology can help; it examines our identity and behavior in the work environment by asking key questions ( Riggio , 2017): How can we redesign a job to make it more efficient and engaging? What makes some roles so stressful? What makes someone a good manager? Types of Psychology (cont’d)

21. Comparative psychology  is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. Comparative psychology  is the study of animals in order to find out about humans. The underlying assumption is that to some degree the laws of behavior are the same for all species and that therefore knowledge gained by studying rats, dogs, cats and other animals can be generalised to humans. Personality psychology  focuses on understanding how personality develops as well as the patterns of thoughts, behaviors, and characteristics that make each individual unique. Psychologists are not just interested in understanding normal human personality, but in recognizing potential personality disturbances that might lead to distress or difficulty with school, work, relationships, and other key life areas. By being able to identify such problems, psychologists are better able to help people develop skills to better cope and manage the symptoms of personality disorders. Types of Psychology (cont’d)

22. Social Psychology  --studies how people act, think, and feel in the context of society(other people around). That is, how people's behaviors, thoughts, and feelings change because of other people. It focuses on group behavior, social influences on individual behavior, attitudes, prejudice(Biasness: a tendency to believe that some people, ideas, etc., are better than others that usually results in treating some people unfairly), conformity (behaviour in accordance with socially accepted conventions.), aggression(any behavior or act aimed at harming a person or damaging physical property), and related topics. Example: Think for a moment about how you act when you're alone. Does your behavior change when you're around your friends? What about when your parents are in the room? How does your behavior change when your professor or boss is observing you? Think back to the example above. Your behavior probably changes depending on who is in the room with you. But even when you're in a room alone , your thoughts, feelings, and even behaviors are influenced by other people: the thought of someone you don't like could make you feel angry; the fact that you wash your hands before handling food comes from lessons taught to you by your grandmother; that thing that your crush said this afternoon could replay in your mind as you try to analyze it. (even absence of someone or just in your imagination affects your behaviour, your feelings). In all of these cases, society has an impact on you.

23. Difference between Psychologist & Psychiatrist Psychologists are not at all doctors; they are specially trained people who deal with the psychological problems and not the medical problems. Psychiatrists, on the other hand, are doctors who have a professional degree in medicine as well as training in treating those suffering from psychiatric/ psychological problems. Not psychologist, but psychiatrists are the ones who prescribe medicine to the mentally ill patients, as they have a professional degree in medicine that authorizes them to prescribe medication