introduction to modern western thought in philosophy

philosophy

1. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS OF ANCIENT WESTERN PHILOSOPHY Centered in Greece . Search for wisdom. Philosophers were also known as ‘wise men’ [Know thyself –Socrates] Wonder at the different realities. Written materials were produced in a meager manner. They viewed Universe as a harmony, an organism and a work of art. “Thought” was held by the majority as the noblest and most divine function.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF MWP It was closely connected with Christian thinking . It was faithful to tradition. Tried to combine faith and reason . The Medieval Western Philosophy is characterized by the relationship between faith and reason . Christianity came into contact with Greek philosophy First group – “Philosophy is useless bze all wisdom in Christ Second Group : Philosophy is dangerous – give rise to many heresies Third Group : Studied Philosphy to attack Philosophy – st Gregory Fourth Group : Importance of Philosophy – use to Explain the Christian ideas – st Thomas aquainas

3. ORIGIN OF MODERN WESTERN PHILOSOPHY “ Moderna” means “ new” and “now ”. Modern is a temporal orientation to ‘ here and now ’ [not ‘there and past” of the medieval mentality] Key concepts of the modernity: “ technological progress”, “revolution”, “economic growth” FATHER OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY : Rene Descartes (1596-1650), The period of Modern Western Philosophy is from 15-16 century up to 18-19 century AD.

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF MWP The focus of the Modern Western Philosophy was reason This period is marked by the separation of philosophy from theology . . The second characteristic of this period is the separation of philosophy from other sciences. Up to 19 th century, all the sciences were considered to be the branch of philosophy. It was because of the advancement of science (knowledge) that men came to distinguish one science from another. Thus they made philosophy an independent science .

5. CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND TO THE MWP RENAISSANCE PERIOD Etymologically, Renaissance means rebirth, renewal, awakening etc. The term Renaissance was first used in 1542 to herald the birth of art and fine writing. scientific discoveries had a devastating religious, sociological and economic implications for the man in the street. the breaking forth of the human thought there came about the revival of the cosmological theories , which denounced fearlessly the geocentric theory (earth as the centre of the cosmos). Renaissance is also known as the ‘Age of Adventure .’

6. Three main characteristics Rationalism : Rationalism gave importance to reason . The method followed by the rationalists was deductive method , i.e., from general to particular. Important rationalistic philosophers were Descartes, Malebranche, Pascal, Spinoza, and Leibniz. Empiricism : Empiricism gave importance to sense knowledge . The method used by the empiricists was inductive method . The important empiricist philosophers are Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. Transcendentalism : Transcendentalism stressed the need for both reason and sense knowledge . The important figure in transcendentalism is Immanuel Kant.

7. Characteristics of the Renaissance There was a conflict with the authority of tradition. people began to think differently . there came about religious revivals , atheistic movements. a revival of Greek humanism in opposition to Christian religiosity interest in man and nature , rather than in the ‘Supernatural.’ With the Copernican revolution , there was an open conflict between science and religion. Western Philosophy is compared to the period of adolescence in human development .

8. THE GROWTH OF HUMANISM Humanism was one of the movements of the Renaissance period In the Middle ages, man valued his union with the Church/Corporation/State The natural man, with his purely individual, emotional life was of no account. a desire to realize at all cost their personality, dignity, and worth interest for the human , both as a subject of observation and as the foundation of action. Humanism represented a belief in man , a passion for learning, an emphasis on scholarly exactness. It stressed the need for political, economical and social changes and laid the foundation of Modern Liberalism

9. Impact of Humanism Humanism affected Italy, France, Germany, Spain, England, and Hungary. The Significance of humanism consisted in its call for a more tolerant and human way of life. The humanist ideal required exact knowledge, validity of reason and the need for moderation in making intellectual assertions the spirit of Humanism was the most important intellectual development of the Renaissance .

10. CHAPTER 3 RENAISSANCE THINKERS, Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) He was born in Cusa as the son of a boatman on the Moselle He had a brilliant mathematical mind. He conceived maths as the ‘science of the infinite. He received his doctorate in Canon Law He became a priest in 1426, attended the council of Basle in 1432, and he was made a Cardinal in 1448. He has written about 12 philosophical books and 3 Mathematical books. Among his books, De docta ignorantia (Learned Ignorance ) is of importance

11. His Thought Harmony : He had a passion for harmony. Unity, he says is the harmonious synthesis of opposites . This is found in every field, politics, religion... His ideal of unity without suppression of differences is akin to that of Lebniz . This idea of unity as the harmonious synthesis of differences was not confined to the field of speculative philosophy. This idea had a powerful influence in his activity. On the metaphysical plane this unity is found in his idea of God.

12. God He defines God as coincidence of opposites . In God the opposites coincide in a manner incomprehensible to the finite beings. We can call God as the Greatest being (Maximum) as well as the smallest being(Minimum). This is because God cannot be greater than what He is and cannot be smaller than what He is. He laid emphasis on the via negative in his intellectual approach to God. (i.e., We know of God what He is not rather than what He is.)

13. Learned Ignorance It refers to the type of knowledge that we can have of God . This is nothing but the way of negation (neti neti). With regard to the positive knowledge of the divine nature , our minds are in a state of ‘ignorance.’ The ignorance proceeds from the realization of God’s infinity and transcendence . Ignorance refers to the realization of our finitude A person becomes wise only when he/she realizes that the human intellect never grasps any truth fully. Hence the title of his famous work De docta ignorantia

14. Man: A person unites in himself or herself matter, organic life, sensitive animal life, and spiritual rationality. . Man is a finite representation of the divine coincidence of opposites. Man is a microcosm, a little world, embracing in himself the intellectual and material sphere of reality. . Each finite thing mirrors the whole universe and so too the man. The nature of man is mirrored in all of his parts, but it is mirrored more perfectly in the head. man can be called a ‘ perfect world, although he is a little world and a part of the great world.’

15. Cosmology He did not see the earth as the center of the universe or the center of the orbit of the planets He instead called the earth ‘a noble star.’ He was novel enough to consider the possibility of extraterrestrial life, and he said that it was possible. one should not speculate which is superior or inferior. They have their own way of life and perfection and we have our own

16. 3.2 Renaissance Scientists Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519 ): This great artist was gifted with a remarkable flair of anticipating future discoveries inventions and theories. anticipated speculatively the discovery of the circulation of the blood, which was made by William Harvey about 1615 he anticipated the undulatory# theory of light. He is also well known for his plans for flying-machines, parachutes and improved artillery (weaponry ).

17. Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) He was a Polish Ecclesiastic, born on Feb. 19, at Torun, Poland Copernicus argued on behalf of the hypothesis of the earth’s daily rotation on its axis [day] that the rotating earth also rotates round a stationary sun. He thus substituted the Heliocentric for the geocentric hypothesis.

18. Scientists John Kepler (1571-1630) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) John Napier (1550-1617)

19. Renaissance Humanists The Philosophical term ‘humanism’ refers to a series of interrelated concepts about the nature, characteristics, powers, education and values of human persons. concerned with human rather than divine or the supernatural matters. The catchwords daring, risk, freedom, responsibility and tolerance emerged as the hallmark of the humanistic movement of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. it is a belief or outlook emphasizing common human needs, and seeking solely rational ways of solving human problems and is concerned with mankind as responsible and progressive intellectual beings.

20. 1) educational programme founded on classical authors with a study of grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy. 2) A commitment to the perspective , interests, and centrality of human persons; 3) a belief in reason and autonomy as foundational aspects of human existence. 4) a belief that reason, skepticism and the scientific method are the only appropriate instruments for discovering truth. 5) a belief that the foundations for ethics and society are to be found in autonomy and moral equality.

21. Desiderius Erasmus 1464-1536 He was an Augustinian Monk , but he left after some time His books are: The Handbook of the Militant Christian, On Contempt for the World, On Preparation for Death, In Praise of Folly. He believed in free will (opposed to determinism). His call for a reformation of the Church in its head and members brought him into conflict with conservative Catholic theologians. In his attempt to expose the abuses of the Church and the failings and foolishness of churchmen he was disliked .

22. 3.4 RELIGIOUS THINKERS During these centuries the church also has earned a bad name because of its cruel treatments towards the heretics , and because of its temporal power (secular power) and immoral life. John Wycliffe a priest and professor at the Oxford, demanded an English translation of the Bible . This ‘morning star of reformation’ attacked also the doctrine of transubstantiation. Luther’s radical teaching challenges the papal claim to be the sole authority on the scriptures . He questions many of the rights of the priests and rejects the belief that bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. In 1522 Luther translated Bible into German for the common people.

23. Martin Luther 1483-1546 Doctrines of Protestantism or Lutheranism/ How it differs from Catholicism? [Luther denounced the pope and called him an usurper. Considers duties as sacred and not the clergy themselves. rejected free will, saying “ faith in God alone will save .” (Rom 1: 7) Considers human nature as totally and incurably corrupted by original sin. Only faith in Christ can save people and not good works. His intention was to emphasize faith and grace of God. He considered the secular state as the Supreme power

24. 3.5. Political Thinkers Nicola/Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) He was an Italian Politician His books are: The Prince & Discourse Machiavelli was interested in was Political Power. Government should use its power to maintain law and order. He said that it is legitimate to use immoral means to ensure peace in the state. His famous claim was that end justifies the means.

25. Prince should be a beast-man: In The Prince, Machiavelli posits a complex relationship between ethics and politics that associates princely virtue with the capacity. to know and act within the political world as it ‘is’ and with the beastly abilities to dispense violence and practice deception. A prince must be able to act just like a beast, he should learn from the Fox & the Lion. One has to be a fox to recognize traps and a lion to frighten off wolves.

26. CHAPTER III RATIONALISM

27. RENE DESCARTES Born on 31st March 1596 in France He was very much interested in Mathematics. He died in 1650 at the age of 54. Descartes is the father of Modern Western Philosophy individualism played a vital role in Modern Western Philosophy. Descartes was one of the principal causes of it. Meditations on the First Philosophy, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, Treatise on the World , Discourse on the Method, Principles of Philosophy, Passion of the Soul

28. Theory of Knowledge Descartes often asked the question: “What do I know?” According to him Philosophy should begin with something absolutely certain, from which everything else will be derived by logical inference He said, I cannot depend on sensory knowledge , because I may be dreaming. Eg. , I see a tree outside. The colour of the leaves is green. But is it true? I may be dreaming. Eg. , Someone is sleeping. I may be dreaming that he is sleeping. I cannot be sure. In his first meditation he says, it is wiser not to trust entirely anything. Though he says, Mathematics is the only certain knowledge, according to him, sometimes even theoretical knowledge is to be doubted. In his first meditation he speaks of an evil genius who is constantly corrupting and disturbing one’s thinking process.

29. Universal Doubt (Methodic Doubt or Cartesian Doubt) the best way to arrive at certainty is through doubt. This universal doubt is a doubt about everything. there is a difference between Cartesian doubt and the doubt of the Sceptics. The Sceptics doubt is out of despair. They hope to achieve nothing Descartes doubted in order to know. The doubt was part of his struggle to attain certainty. ( Eg. Vocation)

30. Cogito ergo sum Think of Descartes who is in total doubt, dreams and in total confusion. But he asks the question: “What sort of a creature am I?” I think I am a man, but who is man! A rational animal. But what is animal? He says, I will be lost if I proceed this way. Still he asks the question who am I. Well I can think. Therefore I exist. He could not doubt his thinking. Thus Descartes tries to accept at least one certainty namely, the fact of his existence. all that is clearly and distinctly perceived is true Cogito can be any conscious experience. Therefore we can say, I understand, therefore I exist, or I walk therefore I exist. Walking is not a bodily activity, but the mental activity of being conscious of this activity.

31. Types of Concepts i ) Representative facts: these are images of things or person. For example, when I think of the concept of a man, at once the image of a man comes to my mind. ii) Purely active facts: they are two types. I) volitions: volitions are acts where in the soul is involved. Eg. , to love God, to desire a reward etc. Sentiments: these are acts where the soul appears to be acted upon by something else. Eg , the pleasure one experiences in seeing a friend iii) Judgements: a combination of the Purely active facts.

32. The Problem of the Bridge How can I bridge the gap between my concepts and the things outside (external world-the world of ideas)? Descartes answer was this: God our good and wise creator, would not let us be deceived. He says that we can safely assume that there is an external world corresponding to the ideas in my mind. He used God’s existence to guarantee the reality of the external world.

33. Theory of God Descartes sees God as absolute substance. The idea of God is infinite, independent and omnipotent. God is self-caused; so He does not need to depend on anything else to exist. 1. Proof from within:God is the guarantee for the existence of the external world. Descartes cannot get this idea form the external world, but from within himself. He said that we are able to form an idea of God from within, on the basis of our self-consciousness and thus without any reference to any created reality outside us.

34. 2. Proof from the idea of the Perfect being: It is possible for us to have a clear idea about a being which is perfect in everyway. Neither the external world nor I are perfect. Therefore there must be a perfect being who has put in me this idea of Himself. 3. Proof from the indication that I did not create myself: This is found in the principles of Philosophy. A being which is capable of both forming the idea of the most perfect as well as of producing itself, would make itself perfect. But we have the first capability, but not the last. So, we are not our own cause. Therefore God exists as our cause.

35. Man Man is a being who has the nature of thinking. He took a step further and said. “I am only a thinking thing, that is, a mind.” (Second Meditation). Therefore his emphasis was on the mind. What about the unity of body and soul? For Descartes, the body is joined to the soul, so that we may have sensation and appetite. But how did he explain the intimate union of body and soul? He tried to avoid this question. Still he said, “There is a special gland somewhere in the head where body and soul meet.”

36. Cartesian Dualism According to Descartes, there are two elements in the world: conscious and material. All the objects that surround us are material. Conscious beings have the qualities of will, knowledge, and desire. The material objects do not have these characteristics. This is true of mind and body. They appear to be two opposite things. (Mind is not visible, body is visible). Therefore Man is a combination of two opposed though complementary elements.

37. Matter is corporeal and Mind is spiritual. Mind and matter are independent of each other and they are opposed to each other. Thus Descartes advocates Dualism. But we see that a man has mind and body. If the two substances are opposed to each other, how can there be interaction between them? To solve this problem Descartes introduces the psycho-physical interactionism. According to this theory, body and mind act upon each other in the pineal gland of the brain which is the seat of the mind. The body acts upon the mind in sensations and the mind causes movements to take place in the body through the will. So the body at sometimes affects the mind, at other times the mind directs the body.

38. World He defines substance as a ‘thing, which exists independently of everything.’ So according to this definition only God can be the substance. Because God is independent of everything. But later he said, “we can also call other things substances because they proceed from God, or they have a connection with God. Animals and Plants: Descartes denied all forms of sub-human life. He considered animals as mere sophisticated machines. Why did he say this? Because at that time some thinkers considered the difference between animals and human beings only in degree.

39. Idea of Substance substance as ‘an existent thing which requires nothing but itself in order to exist’. God is an absolute substance. Created substances are either corporeal or spiritual. A substance is known through its properties The attribute of mind is thought and the attribute of matter is extension. The secondary properties are known as modes or accidents. Modes are variable modifications of created substances. The modifications of mind are feeling, volition, desire, judgement etc. The modifications of matter are position, figure, motion etc. Substance and attributes can be conceived without modes, but modes cannot be conceived without substances and attributes. A substance cannot change its attributes, but it can change its modes. Only created substance has its modes. The idea of substance is an innate idea which cannot be derived from experience. Thus it is an a priori idea, not an a posteriori idea.

40. Evaluation and Conclusion Spinoza points out that ‘if the definition of Descartes is to be strictly adhered to, there can be only one substance, i.e., God. Mind and matter can never be regarded as substance as they are dependent on God for their existence. theory of Interactionism is not satisfactory. If two substances, mind and body are completely different, how can the one act upon the other? A reference to the pineal gland does not solve the problem. Further Descartes’ idea of substance as an innate idea is rejected completely by the empiricist philosophers. The empiricist philosophers believe that the idea of substance is derived from experience, thus it cannot be called innate idea.

41. The Problem of the bridge Is it really a problem/pseudo problem? It is an artificial one that does not exist at all. It is more consistent to say that what we know immediately and directly are things, not our ideas of them. First we have to see the object, only then we can have an idea of that object. It is a strange paradox that the founder of the Rationalist school has to accept the reality of the external world on an act of faith. But the problem of the bridge did remain a problem. Kant would say, “we just cannot know….”Man as a thinking thing does not portray man who is also flesh and blood.

42. NICHOLAS MALEBRANCHE (1638 – 1715) Born in Paris, developed an Augustinian spirituality, which emphasized a theocentric vision of reality. he came across Descartes and was fascinated Accused of heretical ideas, his book Treatise on Nature and Grace was put in the Index, along with those of Descartes. His famous book is Search for Truth. Bossuet called his philosophy ‘Pulchra, Nova, Falsa.’ (nice, new, and false). His theory of Occasionalism:there is only one efficient cause and others are mere occasions for God to act. No human being is an efficient cause, but only instrumental cause and an occasion for God to act.

43. On Ideas: All eternal and necessary ideas are in God. (Also Augustine’s view). These ideas are the objective reality and they are different from feelings. 4.2.4 Knowledge: Since man is not eternal and immutable, ideas cannot reside in him. So man needs to have the direct vision of these ideas in God. But we do not see God but have a natural intuition of ideas. 4.2.5 Conclusion: Though he is a rationalist, he emphasized on the theocentric vision of reality.

44. BLASÉ PASCAL (1623 – 1662 A.D.) He is considered as one of the world’s greatest mathematicians. Thus it was considered more Calvinistic than catholic. There was a controversy between the Jesuits and the Jansenists: the Jesuits in opposition to the rigorist moral code of the Jansenists advocated liberal morality. In 1652, Jacqueline entered the convent. This convent became the centre or stronghold of Jansenism (a rigorist moral code). They considered God as the Judge (predestination ).

45. His Connection with Jansenism Jansenism comes from Cornelius Jansen (1558-1638). He was the Bishop of Ipres (Belgium). In his book Augustineses he propounded an extremely rigorist morality. According to Jansenism Christ did not die for all men (Predestination) and Christian beliefs cannot be proved by reason. Pascal published the “Provincial Letters” to the Jesuits in which he attacked the Jesuits for their laxity in moral principles, the emphasis on freedom, inculturation and introduction of vernacular for liturgy. A book was written and published posthumously – Thoughts. He was noted for his middle way (reason and faith). The heart has reasons which reason does not know. The God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob is not he God of Philosophers. The conclusion of God through reason is not the God of our

46. Epistemology . He seems to limit the whole of reason i.e., the reason has limitations. This passage limits the exaggerated claim of the rationalists. He says that reason is a poor thing. It cannot know everything in Philosophy. It cannot know the supernatural Philosophy. He was not in any way belittling reason. He took a middle path. whenever we think of the heart, we think of the mind. The mind has principles and it demonstrates its principles. Whereas heart has a kind of intuition. The heart cannot prove anything. Heart refers to a loving apprehension. It is not simple knowing, but knowing with love. It is the heart that is conscious of God and not the reason. Through heart we come to know the first principles. Heart can be considered as an intellectual instinct. “It is the heart that is conscious of reason and not the reason.

47. Man “Man is but a reed; the weakest thing in nature; but he is a thinking reed”. Man is capable of knowing himself. Even if the whole nature comes to kill him, he cannot be killed. In such a situation, man will be nobler because he still knows himself to be dying (the universe doesn’t know!). man is a middle term between the nothing and the all. He considered man as a wounded person to the depths of his being, by the consequences of the original sin. His picture of human being could be imagined this way They look at one another in sorrow and without any hope.’ the relationships existed among human beings are corrupt and insincere

48. World & God He considers the world as fallen (like man). Like man, the world is also waiting for the redemption by Christ. The world stands in need of liberation. Because, nature also has suffered corruption. He aimed at harnessing science to the service of faith. He also aimed at setting up a methodology for science. “Authority is useless in subjects that fall under the senses and under reasoning.” the God of Christians is a God of love and consolation, a God who fills the souls and hearts of those who are His, and who causes them to feel deeply within themselves their own mystery.

49. God – Man Relationship man’s insufficiency and misery, as well as his utter dependence on God. This is the foundation of a very intimate and lasting relationship between the human and the divine According to Pascal, God is not the mere end of our life. He is the beginning and the ground of our very being. He considered non-Christian religions as foolish. He called atheists as evil men, because they are unwilling to live moral life. He strongly believed that prophecies are fulfilled only in Christianity. Conclusion: Pascal represents rationalism in the sense that he devoted himself to the pursuit of truth as attainable by the philosophical and scientific reflection of the human mind. His famous book Pensees made him known in the circles of Philosophy

50. BARUCH (BENEDICT) SPINOZA (1632 – 1677 A.D.) He was born in Amsterdam. Ernest Renan called Spinoza as “the greatest Jew of modern time.” he held a more rational approach with regard to God and since he spoke about the power of reason, he was considered a heretic. Van Enden introduced Spinoza to the Philosophy of Descartes he was interested in the primacy of the Consciousness (Descartes’ view). we can say that Spinoza’s Philosophy is a Philosophy of synthesis and unification he would say that God and Nature are one His important books are: Ethics, Principles of Philosophy, On the Healing of the Intellect and Theologico -Political Treatise.

51. Epistemology His basic Philosophy was the Philosophy of unification and ethics A Philosophy of synthesis and unification has the perennial danger of becoming a Monistic Philosophy. In spite of being thrown away from the Jewish Synagogue, he could think of unification. People held in those days that God is one power and nature is another power. Spinoza says that there is only one power, God. He was against dualism.

52. Three stages of Knowledge: 1. Obscure Knowledge: It comes from our sensations and imagination. It is inadequate knowledge. 2. Clear and distinct Knowledge: It arises when reason studies the real na ture of objects and studies the relations that exist between things. Therefore, clear and distinct knowledge comes as a result of rational knowledge. 3. Intuitive Knowledge: It is the highest knowledge. It is a kind of immediate perception of truth. For example: whole is greater than the parts. Reason gives us more accurate and certain information.

53. On Correcting the Intellect He is not interested in proving the capacity of the mind to know truth. Instead, he was interested in the method to attain it. To attain truth, (in the possession of which our happiness) we need to rid our mind of the various prejudices that beset us (like having a dualistic understanding of reality). When we stop listening to ourselves, we are listening to the other. He brings out this idea in his book On the Correction of the Intellect. Error arises from imagined knowledge. Error is nothing but a fault in knowing. Knowledge is true when an appropriate object is present along with it. Knowledge is false when such and object is absent. criterion of truth: clarity and distinctness. He also added coherence to clarity and distinctness for an idea to be true. So knowledge which yields adequate ideas is necessarily true.

54. God Spinoza considers God as the ultimate substance and other than Him there is nothing. God becomes the essence of all things. Spinoza identifies God and the universe as one. Therefore God is everything (Pantheism). Spinoza explains what emanation is. ‘To emanate’ means ‘to originate from something else.’ Emanation is different from creation. According to Spinoza, various things emanate from the infinite essence. that there is only one reality underlying the whole universe. All the variety and multiplicity that we see around in the universe are due to the manifestations of the one and only reality – God. Whatever is, is in God, and nothing can exist or be conceived without God.”

55. World According to Spinoza, there are contingent beings in the world, in the sense that there are emanations whose existence is not their essence. The substance emanates various modes and attributes. Modes are the modifications of substance. A mode necessarily belongs to a thing. Extension and thought are modes which together make up the object. Extension is expressed through physical objects and thought through specific concepts. D Motion and rest are the two forms of operation in the field of extension. “By attribute I mean that which the intellect perceives as constituting the essence of substance.” – (Spinoza in Ethics).

56. 4.4.5 Ethics Spinoza's ethics is rooted in his notion of ‘Conatus’ (in Latin, it means ‘effort’ or ‘ endeavour ’). behind every being’s activities there is present one most basic urge: the endeavour to preserve one’s being. “Everything, in so far as it is itself, endeavours to persist in its own being, and the endeavour wherewith a thing seeks to persist in its own being is nothing else than the actual essence of that thing.” good individuals act according to reason. Anything which retains the harmony of action and inaction between the various parts of a human being’s body is good. Man should strive for pleasure – but rational pleasure.

57. Emotions: emotions, are mental affirmations or judgements. Appetite and emotions are connected. Appetite is nothing but the endeavour to persist in being, when it refers simultaneously to body and mind. joy and sadness. When a person becomes aware of his success in attempting to persist in being, he experiences the emotion of joy. When he/she becomes aware of the failure, he/she experiences sadness all the other emotions are derived from these two emotions “Men think themselves free, because they are conscious of their volitions and desires, but are ignorant of the causes by which they are led to wish and desire

58. LEIBNIZ, WILHELM GOTTFRIED (1646 – 1716) He was born at Leipzig, Germany He studied Latin literature and History of Philosophy. Intellectually he was a self-made man He invented a calculating machine. He was a mathematician too He wrote a book Discourse on Metaphysics. The background of this book was on the reunification of Protestants and Catholics In 1704, he wrote one of his famous books, New Essays Concerning Human Understanding. He is known for two basic ideas: Theodicy and Monadology. He has also written the following books: Essays on Theodicy, The Monadology.

59. 4.5.2 Theory of knowledge According to Leibniz, truth is to be established by combining the simplest and the most basic elements of knowledge. Eg : we have gone for a movie No fact can be real or existing and no statement can be true, unless it has a sufficient reason why it should be thus and not otherwise. For example: what is the sufficient reason to say, why I am a man and not this duster? – my human existence. What is the sufficient reason to say that my substance is a human substance? – God, the In ‘Truths of Reasoning’, the opposite is impossible. For example: square has four sides. This is rational knowledge. ‘Truths of Reasoning’ is a priori knowledge. Truths of Fact’ can have opposites. For example: Gilton is our first capo. The opposite is possible, i.e., somebody else could have become the first capo. Or, it wasn’t necessary that Gilton should have become the first capo. ‘Truths of fact’ are based on experience. This is a posteriori knowledge.

60. 4.5.3 Theory of the World: Monad In simple words, a monad signifies unity Monad is that which is one. They are “simple substances, which go to make up composites.” By simple we mean, without parts. Thus monads are the basic elements of things.According to Leibniz, there is plurality of monads. But each one is dependent on God Monads are not dependent on each other. No monad can influence or affect another monad. Each monad is a perpetual living mirror of the universe all simple substances enjoy some kind of perception, in different degrees. “Those monads whose perception is more distinct and is accomplished by memory have souls in it. Soul is a mysterious dominating force.”

61. 4.5.4 Theory of God According to Leibniz, God is the supreme monad. He is the monad of monads. Leibniz is certain of God’s existence. According to him, God is the only sufficient reason that can account for the existence of contingent beings. Leibniz says that God wills everything in the best possible way Therefore, our particular world is the best possible world and whatever happens to us is for our good. This is the cause for the existence of the greatest good: namely, the wisdom of God permits him to know it, his goodness causes him to choose it and his power enables him to produce it.”

62. Evil According to Leibniz, there are three types of evil: metaphysical evil (it is mere imperfections) physical evil (suffering) and moral evil (sin). Evil is a privation and it is not a positive entity. God permits physical on the supposition that it is for our good. While metaphysical evil is necessary for all created beings. Because, created beings are necessary for all created beings. Because created beings are finite beings. Because, created beings are finite beings. Is God responsible for metaphysical evil? Not at all! Created beings are finite beings; God willed only our good. The fitness or the Metaphysical evil is due to the limited nature of things.

63. CHAPTER 5 EMPIRICISM root word of empiricism as empiric—doctor who relies on practical experience—or the Greek word empeiria meaning experience. Empiricism is the view that all knowledge is derived from experience empiricism has to account for principles of space, time and causality that seem to be necessary presuppositions for empirical knowledge and which therefore cannot be based on experience. John Locke, David Hume and John Stuart Mill are among the major philosophers regarded as empiricists. In the twentieth century, influential representatives have been Bertrand Russell, A.J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and other logical positivists

64. Francis BACON 1561-1626 Bacon was an English lawyer, statesman and philosopher, traditionally regarded as the first important figure in the history of British empiricism He was Lord Chancellor of England and a great political figure in Elizabethan and Jacobean England Novum Organum, (True Directions Concerning the Interpretation of Nature) The Great Renewal, The Advancement of Learning, The Thread through the Labyrinth, On the Interpretation of man, and Things Thought and Seen science should aim at collecting empirical data and use them for inductive generalizations, instead of seeking explanations in terms of final causes. His Achievement was the introduction of empiricism and the inductive method

65. Four Kinds of Idols of the Mind The four kinds of idols are false preconceptions that lead us astray in our thinking. These idols arise from four important kinds of error-inducing tendencies in the human mind. These idols are: 1. idola tribus (the idols of the tribe): this the tendency to think anthropomorphically—these are inherent in the human nature: tendency to personify inanimate objects and so forth. 2. idola specus (the idols of the cave): they tend to be unduly influenced by their personal habits and prejudices. These are prejudices of the cave in which man finds himself—as in the allegory of the cave of Plato. 3. idola fori (the idols of the market place): they tend to be mislead by language. 4. idola theatri (the idols of the theatre): they tend to be mislead by established theological, philosophical and scientific opinion.

66. Baconian Induction Bacon criticizes the syllogistic method the major premise of which itself is a universal principle obtained not syllogistically. This leads Bacon to establish his theory of induction: Induction is the method and process of arriving at general concepts of the things and the laws of nature, from a series of individual facts, grouped in a suitable systematic way, through abstraction, after following a rigorous experimental and logical procedure To conclude: In spite of his contribution to empiricism one cannot but notice in him a lack of clear awareness of mathematics and a priori reasoning. His empiricism was much less fruitful than the rationalistic philosophers who based their systems on that of Descartes.

67. Thomas HOBBES (1588-1679) Hobbes is another interesting English philosopher imbued with the method of the mathematical and physical sciences For several years in his youth he was secretary to Bacon, and he shares Bacon’s concerns Hobbes applies the naturalistic method of modern physics to the study of mankind. he studies Man as an individual in society, and thus psychology, anthropology, politics, the science of the State and society, making those the themes of his study.

68. Hobbes’ Empiricism Hobbes too is an Empiricist. For him knowledge is bases on Experience, and his concern is to instruct men for practical purposes he is a nominalist, and thus a continuer of the medieval Oxford tradition. The universals exist neither outside the mind nor even within it, because our representations are individual; the universals are merely names, signs for the things, and thought is a symbolic operation, a sort of calculus, closely linked to speech . Hobbes believes that the processes of the soul and the mind have a material and corporeal basis according to him the soul cannot be immaterial. Hobbes is a materialist and denies the freedom of the will. A natural determinism prevails in everything.

69. The Doctrine of the State the equality of all people. He believes that all people aspire toward the same goal and that when they fail to achieve it, enmity and hate spring up Hobbes’ pessimistic conception of mankind: homo homini lupus, man is a wolf to man. Men have no direct interest in the company of their fellows, except to the extent that they can reduce them to submission The three motives of discord among human beings are competition , which provokes aggression with gain as an object; mistrust , which makes men attack each other in order to achieve security; and vanity, which creates enmity between rivals for fame.

70. Hobbes’ Social Contract theory For security man enters into a covenant. The theory of Hobbes on the origin of the State is called the social contract theory two assumptions – “the state of nature” and the “state of society.” The state of nature is the period before the formation of society and the state of society, is the period after the formation of the state. the state of nature. In his opinion, it was a state of war, a savage state. Men were selfish and aggressive brutes. Every man was the enemy of every other man. Might was right. To avoid the fear and danger of this terrible situation, men agreed to set up authority. And thus the state was formed

71. Absolute Power of the State the State as thus constituted is absolute. the State strips the individual men of their power, it assumes all of it itself and governs without limitations. Hobbes finds no more suitable name for this monster than that of the great beast of the Bible: Leviathan; this is the State, superior to all else, a moral God, as it were. The State decides upon everything, not only politics, but also morality and religion. Hobbes’ Philosophy of Right/just: ¬Hobbes distinguishes between jus, or right, which he interprets as freedom, and lex, or law, which signifies obligation. Man has the freedom—that is, the right—to do anything he can or desires to do; but three things can be done with a right: it may be exercised, renounced or transferred. The mutual transfer of a right is called a pact, contract or covenant. This leads to the idea of a political community.

72. John LOCKE (1632-1704) John Locke was born in 1632 and died in 1704. At Oxford he studied philosophy, medicine and the natural sciences; he studied Descartes and Bacon; he also established contact with Robert Boyle, the great English physicist and chemist. Locke’s influence has been extremely important, greater than that of any other English philosopher. Through his leadership, empiricism, which found in him its most able and fortunate expounder, came to dominate eighteenth-century thought. His works: Essay Concerning Human Understanding , Two Treatises on Government and Letters on Toleration , which defined his position on religious matters.

73. His Rejection of Innate Ideas the soul is a tanquam tabula rasa, like a clean slate on which nothing has been written It does not mean the denial of the truths of science, morals and religion Locke believes in the universal knowledge which he thinks, can be explained by his thesis of empiricism Any knowledge is not gained by having innate ideas but by having clear and distinct ideas through experience.

74. His Epistemology Knowledge consists in “perception of the connection and agreement, knowledge is rational for it consists in seeing the agreement or disagreement between ideas. Three Degrees of Knowledge Intuitive Knowledge: This knowledge is most clear and certain and is the highest kind of knowledge which human faculty is capable of reaching. We’ve intuition of our existence. Demonstrative Knowledge: This is a knowledge which is indirect, which is attained by proof, in contrast to intuition which is immediate knowledge. Locke and Hume speak of this. Sensitive Knowledge: Anything that comes to acquire the certainty of intuitive or demonstrative knowledge and anything which comes short of it is not knowledge but is an opinion. This knowledge regarding the particular external objects is called sensitive knowledge.

75. Two types of Experiences: Sensation and Reflection external perception (external sensation) obtained by means of the senses (sensationalism); and internal perception (internal sensation) of physical states, (reflection). In either case reflection operates on material introduced by sensation. Through sensation we receive idea s of the sensible qualities of physical objects; through reflection we receive ideas about the operations of the mind. Simple ideas Simple ideas constitute the materials of all our knowledge. These simple ideas come to mind either through sensation or reflection. Ideas of colour , taste, extension, motion, thinking, doubting etc , are examples of simple ideas Complex ideas are the result of the activity of the mind, which combines or associates simple ideas. When mind is possessed of some simple ideas, mind can create complex ideas out of these simple ideas by three principal processes of combination, relation, and abstraction. For example the world, a house, an army, etc are complex ideas.

76. Division of Simple Ideas into Two Those with objective validity or primary qualities The primary qualities belong to the bodies and cannot be separated from them. The primary qualities cannot exist by themselves. Thus we have to suppose that there is an unknown and unknowable substratum underlying and supporting these primary qualities known through external sensations. Those which have only subjective validity The secondary qualities are subjective sensations of the man who perceives them. If we take a lump of sugar, our sensation reveals to us the primary qualities like size, shape, extension and the secondary qualities like whiteness, sweetness etc , created by these primary qualities.

77. Locke’s Empiricism According to him, origin of knowledge is experience. As is customary with English thinkers, he uses the word “idea” in a very broad sense: it includes everything that one thinks or perceives, the whole content of consciousness; Locke’s Empiricism limits the possibility of knowledge, especially in regard to the great traditional themes of metaphysics. Locke’s Ethics presents inconsistencies. In general he is a determinist, and does not grant that human will is free. The proper form of State is the constitutional and representative monarchy, independent of the church, tolerant on religious matters. According to him education should not be a burden; children should be introduced to letters. Physical fitness, dancing, riding. The four fold aim of education is virtue, wisdom, good breeding and learning.

78. Evaluation we can get idea of an unknown substratum of sensible qualities or internal workings of our mind without sensation or reflection Locke suggests that substance is unknown and unknowable. How can Locke know something which is unknown and unknowable? Locke asserts that mind knows directly the ideas of the objects and not the objects themselves. This has also created much dispute. If mind cannot know objects directly, it is very difficult to determine whether ideas of the objects tally with the objects or not.

79. George BERKELEY (1685-1753) Berkeley the Irish philosopher was interested in refuting materialism as it provided a basis for unbelief He was named (Anglican) Bishop of Cloyne in 1734. . He was full of a religious spirit that influenced both his philosophy and life. Berkeley was very much influenced by the Platonism that was traditional in England; his spiritualist philosophy was shaped by his religious convictions, which he attempts to defend against attacks by skeptics, materialists and atheists. Thus he arrives at one of the most extreme forms of idealism ever known. His works : Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision; Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous ; Principles of Human Knowledge; Alciphron , or the Minute Philosopher, and the Siris.

80. The Main Tenets of Berkeley’s Empirical Philosophy 1. We always begin with the exclusively particular and distinct sense qualities of heat, colour , smell etc. a) These sense qualities are either directly presented to us, or b) They are at once represented to us by way of image. 2. The same positive thesis may be expressed negatively by saying nihil est in intellect quod non pius fuerit in sensu. Thus there is no knowledge that cannot be reduced to sensation. 3. The things like tables or chairs are collections of ideas which often go together and are marked by their specific names. 4. Apart from the ideas, there are spirits that perceive the ideas. Things cannot exist without some mind to perceive them. When there are no human minds, things are sustained by the divine mind.

81. His Epistemology knowledge may be reduced to two kinds: one that of ideas and the other that of spirits. The ideas are also of two kinds, namely a) the ideas imprinted on the senses and b) the ideas formed by memory and imagination. The ideas of ideas of senses are either ideas of particular sensible qualities like heat, colour , smell or else they may be a collection of such qualities called thing. According to Berkeley for a material thing, such as a chair or tree, to exist is to be perceived by the senses – often quoted in his Latin phrase esse est percipi a non-material thing, such as the mind or spirit of man or God, to exist is to perceive, by either the senses, the feelings, imagination, or thought – in Latin esse est percipere . In this book he says that only God and the spirits and the ideas they conceive exist. Nothing else exists. This is called the immaterialist doctrine of reality.

82. Berkeley’s Idealism The principle that ‘To be is to be Perceived’ is sometimes called Berkeley’s Idealism sensible things are nothing but clusters of ideas. when I see a thing, I don’t see the thing, but the idea of that thing in my mind.’ This denies the commonly held view that such objects as chairs and trees are composed of not only perceivable qualities like colours , smells and sounds—which may depend on being perceived—but also of some unperceivable matter like atoms and molecules which is the cause of the perceivable qualities. Another consequence of this Idealism is that objects such as trees and chairs cease to exist when not being perceived by any mind or spirit. This idealism further leads to the question that if the existence of the chairs and trees we perceive around us depends on their ‘being perceived’, what causes these perceptions of ours on which this existence depends? And yet another question was if these chairs and trees continue to exist when we ourselves do not perceive them how can we agree with Berkeley?

83. Berkeley’s Answer to the Problems He introduces an infinite mind or spirit, which he identified with God, as one who, on the one hand, causes us to have the perceptions we do have when we perceive chairs and trees, and who on the other hand, perpetually and continuously perceives those chairs and trees when we are not perceiving them. Berkeley’s Spiritualism: For Berkeley, the entire world is but a representation or perception of mind. The only thing that exists is the spiritual Self, of which we have an intuitive certainty. there are only concordances, relations between ideas. Physical science establishes these laws or connections between phenomena, which are understood as ideas. These ideas proceed from God; He puts in our spirit: the regularity of these ideas, which is based on God's will causes to exist for us what we call a corporeal world. We do not only see the things in God; rather literally, “we live, move and exist in God.”

84. Conclusion Berkeley’s Empiricism is spoken of as empiricism of Locke made consistent. Hume’s empiricism in relation to Berkeley’s empiricism can be spoken of as an effort to make Berkeley’s empiricism consistent. So now we turn to Hume whose philosophy is the culmination of classical empiricism and whose analysis of knowledge has contributed much to contemporary logical empiricism, positivism, pragmatism and so on. We cannot support Berkeley’s view that ideas in finite mind are given by God.

85. David HUME (1711-1776) Scottish empiricist philosopher and historian, commonly considered the greatest philosopher to have written in English, born near Berwick. his moral and philosophical attitudes were shaped by his reading of the classics, especially, Cicero. While still young, he conceived a project for the reform of philosophy. .His philosophy was clouded by skepticism, and irreligion preventing his election for chairs of philosophy in both Edinburgh (1745) and Glasgow (1752). Hume has been classified as an empiricist, a skeptic and a seculizer , but he is most fundamentally a naturalist. His Works: A Treatise of Human Nature 1739-40; Essays, Moral and Political 1741-42; Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 1748; Three Essays Moral and Political Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals 1751; Political Discourses 1752; History of England 1754-62; Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 1779 and Essays: Moral and Political.

86. Subdivision of his writings Epistemology: Treatise, Book I, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Psychology: Treatise, Book II, A Dissertation on the Passions; Treatise, Book III, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. Religion: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding; The Natural History of Religion; Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, Of the Immortality of the Soul. His aim was to establish a science of Human nature. His method was experimental or inductive method, which downplayed reflective analysis

87. Naturalism of Hume Presenting ourselves us part of the natural order His philosophical objective was to present us to ourselves as part of the natural order. He pursues the classic Socratic objective of self-knowledge, but believes it can come about through a scientific understanding of human nature that parallels Newtonian physical science. we are fundamentally creatures of instinct and habit whose mental lives are dominated by passion rather than reason, whose beliefs are formed by mechanisms of association and custom rather than by a priori reflection, and whose moral lives are the product of feeling trained by convention Rationalist systems misrepresent our natures profoundly, and suggest that the human soul is alien to the world in which it finds itself; the same is true of the Christian religion, which generates ‘life-denying ethical objectives’ that hinder the socialization necessary for the growth of moral virtue.

88. His theory of Knowledge He in his epistemology speaks of the mind, the contents of the mind, and the laws of mind. Content of the mind is called ‘Perceptions’. Perceptions are divided into two parts: The difference between impressions and ideas is only a degree or quantity of vividness

89. Imagination and Memory a past impression may be “made to appear” (recall) in two ways: 1) With the help of memory. 2) With the help of imagination. Through memory we are able to recall past impressions in a vivid manner. Whereas, imagination makes past impressions appear in a faint way. There is one more difference: Memory faithfully recalls the past impressions in the same chronological order, whereas imagination rearranges ideas in an arbitrary way Hume’s Scepticism Hume is a sceptic, in the sense, he denies that our key natural beliefs can be intellectually supported. Hume subordinates reason to instinct.

90. Belief Ethics, Our beliefs are the products of these associative laws of the imagination, not of reasoning as rationalist philosophers suppose. Hume suggests that we are biologically programmed to believe. Belief is more properly an act of the sensitive, than of the cognitive part of the nature. Hume’s ethics could not but be based on instinctive feelings, since he refused to accept any such things as nature, natural law and so on. According to him, man seeks instinctively what is useful to the common good. He says that it is only the passions, including particularly the desires, that can move us to action, and that reason must be their ‘slave’ operating in their interest

91. GOD Religion, especially organized religion, does not convey much to him. Writing on the history of religions, he asserts that a primitive polytheism was first practiced by man. This in turn gave way to anthropological monotheism which, finally, developed into philosophical monotheism. He is also very much against all religions, which, like Christianity, claim some special revelation and a kind of unique predilection from God. In the Natural History of Religion 1757 he claims that religious beliefs arise from a propensity/tendency to ascribe natural calamities to invisible personal forces, rather than to explain them scientifically. Hume argues that testimony to miracles runs counter (against) to our commitment to natural regularity and that we should never yield its acceptance.

92. Conclusion His effort to focus on man in a world of progress and individualism is praiseworthy. But his attempt which almost claims to reduce human nature to a scientific understanding is questionable. Is it possible to have a ‘science of man’ as we can have a science of the plant world? There is more to man than science can think and predict about him. Man is a being endowed with free will and so he is not mechanically directed. Human behaviour cannot be scientifically put under a paradigm. And man is not a being that acts instinctively.

93. JOHANN GOTTLEIB FICHTE (1762-1814) Subjective Idealism A German Philosopher, who first greatly admired Kant. His first work was first mistaken for a work of Kant. He became the Rector of the university of Berlin. His works Attempt To A Critique of All Revelation, Science of Knowledge, The System of Ethics, The Vocation of Man (1800). Fichte accepted the Kantian view that we cannot know the things-in- themselvessince we cannot know them, they should be left out from our explanation of the real. how to explain our experience of the objects. Fichte’s answer was that the objects are the results of our thinking. This was the Context of Fichte’s Subjective Idealism.

94. the objects must be the result of our own thinking. The world, others, even God become then like the settings and characters which are the products of a novelist’s mind. We have here the best example of total subjective idealism. The result seems also to be a kind of solipsism (I alone exist), because, if others (world, God etc.) are only the objects of my thought, then they are not distinct real subjects but only the objects of my thought; they are only the immanent objects of my mind. Rights involve several subjects; the one’s who have the rights and others who have to keep the rights of the first. Thus Fichte’s Ethics forced him to leave his subjective idealism as a form of solipsism. Ficte’s ethics obliges us to admit of a plurality of subjects, as it is only right. [But ethics is not only a philosophy of rights. But there are duties to things, to others, to self and to God.]

95. Fichte’s Doctrine on Religion Fichte in his critique of all revelation says “Religion is also a supplementary moral which makes us recognize God's will as the ground of the existence of moral law within us. Revelation should be based on ‘a fact in the sensual world’, which could be perceived as an action of God. Faith in God produces an additional incentive to be faithful to the moral order. Religion and Revelation: Religion can be, and is more than a support for the moral order. It is our total returning to God in respect and love. Revelation also is more than an additional support for the moral order, because it might let us know more about God and our salvation than we would otherwise know.

96. Subjective Idealism: Fichte too became the victim of Kant’s failure to see that in knowledge, we receive from the outside world, data; the sources of which are real in themselves and which we can know. So knowledge is not just subjective interpretation as Kant held, nor creative product of the mind as Fichte held, but it is a valid and intentional possession of the real. Conclusion Kant had cautioned against presenting a Metaphysics. In spite of the warning Fichte tried to propose one. But to propose a correct one he should have seen more clearly the shortcomings of Kant’s Epistemology.

97. FRIEDRICH VON SCHELLING 1775-1854 [Idealism of Absolute Identity His Life Schelling lectured in no less than 6-7 universities in Germany. He had been for a time friend of Hegel in his years of studies. But later when Hegel made some disparaging remarks about his philosophy, he began to strongly oppose Hegel’s views. His Works: Philosophy of Mythology, Philosophy of Revelation, Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature, On the World-Soul: A Hypothesis of Advanced Physics toward an Explanation of the Universal Organism, On the Essence of Human Freedom, The Age of the World, Philosophy of Nature, System of Transcendental Idealism the two principal themes in Schelling’s philosophy are nature and freedom

98. Idealism of Absolute Identity Schelling’s doctrine is one of ABSOLUTE IDENTITY of Subject and Object (Nature). On the one hand the absolute as subject gives rise to finite subjects, with human consciousness. On the other hand, the absolute as object gives rise to finite objects.

99. Hegel’s Attack Hegel attacks Schelling by remarking: “Schelling’s Absolute is like a dark night in which all the cows look black. Conclusion Schelling’s standpoint is more pantheistic than Fichte’s, since he upheld the ultimate identity of the subjects in a Subject, and of the objects in an Object, with also an Absolute Identity between the Subject and Objects.

100. ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER His Life and Works Life: He was born in Danzig (Poland). He read Kant and Plato in his university days. Though son of a businessman, business was not his cup of tea. His Works: On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (1813), The World as Will and Representation (1818), On the Freedom of the Will (1841), Parega and Paralipomena (1851)

101. His Contempt for Hegel He was a younger contemporary of Hegel and had no regard for him. He scheduled his classes at the same time as Hegel’s in the university of Berlin, so as to get some of the Hegelian students for himself; but this turned out to be a futile effort. He called Hegel, Fichte, and Schelling as stupid, clumsy, charlatans, who according to him were mere windbags (filled with air only and nothing substantial in them). Kantian Influence He demanded a return to Kant and agreed with Kant that human mind is incapable of knowing the ultimate reality. He starts from Kant and states that the thing-in-itself corresponds to the WILL. We can know only that reality which has passed through the grid work of space and time and the categories of the understanding. Like Fichte he found Kant’s noumena unacceptable and thought that he had discovered what the ultimate reality is: the WILL. This will has no purpose or aim and is not reasonable or rational; it is blind striving.

102. The World as my Idea The world is my idea, says, Schopenhauer. Man, what he knows is not a sun and an earth, but only an eye that sees a sun, a hand that feels an earth; that is the world that surrounds him is there only as idea. We know the world of appearances through the operation of the will. The body is the appearance whose reality resides in the will. The will is fundamental; Reason and sensations follow from it. The individual will is really only the one, universal will. The universal will is blind, irrational, and evil—and thus the source of all suffering. Kant believed that certain intuitive experience such as faith in God, freedom, immortality and eternal justice, might give us an extra rational insight into the ultimate (noumenal) reality.

103. Schopenhauer’s Pessimism regarding the rule of the will Schopenhauer had a pessimistic view about the nature of the ultimate reality. The serious impressive and awful truth is that the world is my WILL. Behind the appearances, behind the phenomenal veil is the noumenal reality, a wild, meaningless force which he calls WILL. The force (will) cerates all and destroys all in its unending demand for more. The best phenomenal images for understanding Schopenhauer’s will are the images of Sex and Violence. According to Schopenhauer everything in the phenomenal world is merely the manifestation of the will. The will does not care for the happiness or the well being of any of its creatures beyond the bare needs of reproduction.

104. His Pessimism Rational Pessimism Schopenhauer calls his pessimism a rational pessimism as he sought rational solutions to it. Jesus and Buddha: he calls them pessimists. According to him there disciples did the magic of turning their message into ‘Good News.’ Schopenhauer on Women:You need only to look at the way she is formed to see that woman is not meant to undergo great labour , whether of the mind or of the body. His ridiculously vehement essay On Women, which has probably been read more widely than anything else he wrote, airs a deeply personal resentment.

105. Solution to escape the Will Though suicide would seem a fine solution, Schopenhauer rejects it as it is again a desperate act of the will. The liberation from the will can be reached in specific corner of the art world – that of music, but not any music but the pure formal music which has no words or imagery which he calls as baroque music. This would take one to Nirvana – escape from the world into pure form and hence a triumph over the will. It was this toward which Plato and Buddha were striving to

106. His place in History of Philosophy He was the first major European philosopher to make a point of atheism. He was the first major European philosopher to be profoundly influenced by Upanishads and Buddhism. He insisted on the universality of suffering and probably described it in greater details than any other philosopher of his time. There fore his philosophy is referred to as a pessimistic philosophy. He voluntarism which considered the intellect as an instrument of the will, inaugurated an increased emphasis ‘on the will and on the irrational’ in modern philosophy.

107. His Three Aids to Salvation 1) Philosophy of knowledge 2) Contemplation of works of art 3) Sympathy for others based on the recognition that we are only phenomenally distinct from others while in reality we are one. Influence on Nietzsche and Freud Both were influenced by Schopenhauer. But Nietzsche says that baroque music is the most sensual of all music and that the desires to immerse oneself in it is after all a desire and hence still it becomes a sublimation to the will.

108. IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804) Born: April 22, 1724, Königsberg, Germany Died: February 12, 1804, Königsberg, Germany Buried: February 28, 1804, Sage of Königsberg Education: University of Königsberg (1740–1746), University of Königsberg Parents: Johann Georg Kant, Regina Dorothea Reuter

109. LIFE - Born in Konigsberg, Germany - Extremely brilliant philosopher. - By nature he was neat, model citizen, not eccentric, kind, gentle, spoke little, generous, and with pleasant disposition. - 1755 – became lecturer at the university of Konigsberg. - Lectures were popular. He taught physical geography, physics, maths , pedagogy, anthropology, mineralogy, metaphysics, moral philosophy. - 1797 – retired from the university.

110. WORKS 1. Dreams of a Spirit Seer – 1766 2. Critique of Pure Reason – 1781 3. Prologomena to any Future Mataphysics – 1783 4. Critique of Practical Reason – 1788 5. Inaugural Dissertation - 1790 6. Critique of Judgement – 1790 7. Religion within the Bounds of Reason Alone – 1794. 8. Eternal Peace – 1795

111. KANT’S PURPOSE - He did not want philosophy to be only theoretical. It should also help us in our practical life. - Philosophy must be a stimulus to the intellect and should help you to live up to the demands of your moral nature. - He began his philosophy by asking basic questions – 3 questions - ( i ) What can I know? - (ii) What should I do? - (iii) What may I hope for? - His works are called the “Summa Theologiae ” of modern times.

112. PHILOSOPHY OF KNOWLEDGE The Sorry Plight of Metaphysics He found that while the natural sciences and maths were very precise and exact, metaphysics was plagued by vagueness and innumerable inconsistencies. In science there is some sort of consensus with regard to what is true but in metaphysics there still are innumerable disputes. he recognized that metaphysics is very important discipline. He argued with Coreth who said, “Man is a metaphysical animal. He can’t help asking the question of Being.” Since metaphysics is a natural disposition in man, it must be given serious thought to. That is what he tried to do in his philosophy.

113. Kant’s Response His response is in 2 books: “The Critique of Pure Reason” and “The Prologomena to any Future Metaphysics” - He said what is required is a radical change in method. We need to reorder, re-examine, our metaphysical presuppositions. - Perhaps so far, metaphysics has been following the wrong path. - So far we have assumed that all our knowledge is derived from experience and must conform to objects. But this has not led us very far. - Therefore, he says, we must make a trial and see whether we meet with success in metaphysics if we suppose that objects must conform to our knowledge. - This 1st distinction he made was between a priori and a posteriori.

114. A priori and A posteriori He says that there are some principles and concepts that reason derives from within itself on the occasion of experience. These he calls a priori concents . - Eg. A child is not born with the idea of causality but on the occasion of experience, its reason derives this concept from within itself. It is an apriori concept in the sense that it is not derived from experience but is applied to and in a sense is said to govern experience. On the contrary, a posteriori knowledge is empirical knowledge. It has its source in experience. - An apriori knowledge is absolutely independent of all experience. - Is it possible? Yes. It consists of the 12 categories of understand and two apriori forms of senses. - Another distinction that we need to make before proceeding with Kant’s philosophy is the distinction between analytic and synthetic judgements.

115. Analytical judgements and Synthetic judgements A judgement according to Kant is a union between a subject and a predicate. Now this union can be of 2 kinds. - There are some judgements, in which the predicate is pre-contained at least implicitly in the concept of the subject. They are called Analytical judgements. - These judgements are also called EXPLICATIVE JUDGEMENTS because the predicate does not add anything to the subject which is not already contained in it. - We cannot deny an analytical judgement without landing ourselves in a logical contradiction. Eg : All bodies are extended. The idea of extension is pre-contained in the idea of body. - These are tautological. They are purely conceptual and one needs no experience for their formulation. Their validity can be determined by a mere analysis of the subject (does not depend on experience).

116. Synthetic judgement - They are called AUGMENTATIVE or AMPLIATIVE judgements. - In synthetic judgements the predicate are not pre-contained in subject. They add something new to the concept of the subject. - E.g. All bodies have weight and heaviness. Kant says that the idea of weight or heaviness is not pre-contained in the idea of body. - There are 2 types of synthetic judgements. a. Synthetic aposteriori - Acc. To Kant it is factual and contingent. - The connection between S and P is arrived only after experience. - e.g. All members of pigmy tribe are short. - This is synthetic proposition. In that the connection between shortness and membership in the Pygmy tribe is given only in experience. - It’s universality is not strict but only assumed and comparative

117. Synthetic apriori - In these judgements, the connection between S and P cannot be arrived at by a mere analysis of subject. Nonetheless these judgements are strictly universal and necessary. - e.g. Everything that happens has its cause. - This proposition is dependent on experience because only in experiences are we acquainted with things happening. - At the same time connection between S and P is given apriori – does not stand in need of experiential conformation.

118. Metaphysics as a science is impossible - Science seems to make generalizations, to draw universal laws and so on. - Science proceeds through universal necessary judgements based on experience. - Metaphysics if it is to be a science must base itself on synthetic apriori judgements. - Now synthetic apriori judgements are intimately bound up with experience. - Traditional metaphysics soars far beyond experience and makes judgements about God, freedom, immortality etc. - Metaphysics in traditional sense is impossible. - Kant is proposing a new Metaphysics. - In this metaphysics, we should try to investigate the apriori contribution of the mind to knowledge. This is the type of metaphysics he proposed in his 1st critique. (Critique of pure reason)

119. Process of Knowledge - Human knowledge arises out of 2 sources. - I) SENSES = through which we receive the data of knowledge (sense intuitions) - II) UNDERSTANDING = through which sense intuitions are thought of as means of concepts. - Thus we see that the co-operation of both the senses and understanding is necessary for knowledge. - Without the senses, no object would be given to us. - Without understanding, nothing would be thought of. - Thoughts without content are empty. - Sense intuitions without concepts are blind. - He summarizes sole knowing process in 1 line. “True knowledge consists in taking in sense data and assigning it to a category of reason.”

120. Contribution of Senses - The sense data comes to us through various sense organs and present themselves to us in a confused and unconnected manner. Kant calls them MATTER OF SENSATIONS (MOS). - This MOS is organised and related by two apriori forms of SPACE and TIME. - Now space and time are not empirically derived concepts nor do they represent any quality of the things themselves. They are the necessary conditions for all sense experience. - (Space and time are apriori forms of human sensibility ... there is no reason to suppose that they apply to things in themselves, apart from their appearance to us. - Space and time are empirically real, in the sense that what is given to us in experience is in space and time.)

121. Contribution of Understanding - Within our understanding are apriori concepts by which phenomena is synthesised . (Kant says we can reduce all the operations of the understanding to Judgements.) - To judge, which is the same as to think, is to unify diff. representations to form one cogition by means of concepts. - Now, there are diff. possible types of judgements and to each of these there is a corresponding different apriori concept. - Kant says the understanding possesses an apriori categorical structure and because of this it necessarily synthesizes representations in certain fundamental ways. - Without this synthesizing, knowledge is not possible. Hence, acc. to Kant the categories of understanding are the apriori condition for the possibility of knowledge. - There are 12 kinds of Judgements and to each corresponds a category

122. - In knowledge mind is not passive but active. This does not mean that the mind creates things out of nothing but what it means is that things are known only after they are ordered by apriori forms of space and time and synthesized by the apriori categories of understanding. - Man is a being who sees the world through red-tinted spectacles. (Draw diagram on the board Noumena – Senses – space and time – categories of und. – jmt – Phenomena)

123. Schematism - On one hand, we have the manifold data of sense intuition and on the other hand we have a plurality of categoris . - Q: What determines what category or categories should be applied to sense data? - To explain this Kant spoke of the IMAGINATION. - Kant said the imagination is the mediating faculty between SENSES and UNDERSTANDING. - The imagination is the bearer of the SCHEMA. - A schema is a rule or procedure for the production of images which schematize or delimit a category so as to permit its application to sense appearances. - It determines which sense data is assigned to which particular category

124. Phenomena and Noumena - Kant says that all knowledge is limited to phenomenal reality. - Though we cannot cross the bounds of phenomenal reality and know what lies beyond it, we cannot say that nothing lies beyond phenomenal reality. - He introduces the idea of NOUMENA. - Noumena = thing-as-we- kno -it. - What we know is appearance clothes under the apriori forms of space and time and invested with a category or categories.