Introduction to Psychology

General psychology
Introduction to Psychology, Definition, What is Psychology : Nature of Psychology, Psychology as a science, The challenges of studying psychology, Schools of Psychology

1. DEFINITION, NATURE, PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE Made by Psychologist Stella

2. DEFINITION: Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word “ psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche”, meaning life, and “logos”, meaning explanation. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. –Physical state –Mental state –Environment

3. Behavior = outward or avert actions and reactions –Talking, facial expressions and movement Mental Process = internal, covert activity –Thinking, feeling and remembering

4. What is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior Psychology is more than common sense Why is psychology scientific? because it is based on empiricism the notion that all knowledge can be acquired through observation, not on reasoning, tradition or common sense  

5. Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior mind the contents of subjective experience sensations, thoughts, and emotions behavior observable actions thought and feelings activities of cells

6. Although it is easy to think that everyday situations have commonsense answers, scientific studies have found that people are not always as good at predicting outcomes as they often think they are. The hindsight bias leads us to think that we could have predicted events that we could not actually have predicted.

7. Hindsight bias , also known as the knew-it-all-along effect Hindsight bias may cause memory distortion, where the recollection and reconstruction of content can lead to false theoretical outcomes.

8. Employing the scientific method allows psychologists to objectively and systematically understand human behavior. Psychologists have also found that there are a variety of cognitive and motivational biases that frequently influence our perceptions and lead us to draw erroneous conclusions

9. We can label the scientific method as the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical research. Empirical methods include the processes of collecting and organizing data and drawing conclusions about those data. The empirical methods used by scientists have developed over many years and provide a basis for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data within a common framework in which information can be shared.

10. Although scientific research is an important method of studying human behavior, not all questions can be answered using scientific approaches. Statements that cannot be objectively measured or objectively determined to be true or false are not within the domain of scientific inquiry. Scientists therefore draw a distinction between values and facts . research can sometimes provide facts that can help people develop their values.

11. Although science is not perfect, the requirements of empiricism and objectivity result in a much greater chance of producing an accurate understanding of human behavior than is available through other approaches. The study of psychology spans many different topics at many different levels of explanation, which are the perspectives that are used to understand behavior.

12. The Challenges of Studying Psychology Individual differences are the variations among people on physical or psychological dimensions. Another reason that it is difficult to predict behavior is that almost all behavior is multiply determined, or produced by many factors.

13. Furthermore, these multiple causes are not independent of one another; they are associated such that when one cause is present other causes tend to be present as well. This overlap makes it difficult to pinpoint which cause or causes are operating

14. Another difficulty in studying psychology is that much human behavior is caused by factors that are outside our conscious awareness, making it impossible for us, as individuals, to really understand them.

15. The role of unconscious processes was emphasized in the theorizing of the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), who argued that many psychological disorders were caused by memories that we have repressed and thus remain outside our consciousness.

16. KEY TAKEAWAYS Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Though it is easy to think that everyday situations have commonsense answers, scientific studies have found that people are not always as good at predicting outcomes as they think they are. The hindsight bias leads us to think that we could have predicted events that we actually could not have predicted.

17. People are frequently unaware of the causes of their own behaviors. Psychologists use the scientific method to collect, analyze, and interpret evidence. Employing the scientific method allows the scientist to collect empirical data objectively, which adds to the accumulation of scientific knowledge.

18. ROOTS OF PSYCHOLOGY in the late 1800's both physiologists and philosophers were investigating the mind philosophy - "why" physiology - "how" philosophy - ideas of about the acquisition of knowledge physiology - progress in understanding the nervous system, senses, etc both came together to create the idea of applying the methods of science to the study of human behavior

19.     The First Schools: Psychology Emerges as a Science Wilhelm Wundt established psychology as an independent science first psychology lab, in Germany (1879) defined psychology as the study of conscious experience typical questions how are sensations turned into mental awareness of the outside world? what are the basic elements of thought?

20. Psychology comes to America Wundt's students start labs across USA (1880 - 1900) Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Stanford UW-Madison Psychology department formed 1888 Structuralism Edward Titchner analyze consciousness into basic elements and study how they are related introspection - systematic self-observation of one's own conscious experiences

21. Functionalism William James (1842 - 1910) investigate the function, or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure e.g., bricks and mortar of a house versus its usefulness Functionalist activities leaned toward applied work and more natural settings development in children educational practices usefulness of memory techniques Structuralism vs Functionalism Structuralism - What? Analyze consciousness into basic elements Functionalism - Why? Investigate the function, or purpose of consciousness

22. Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer (1880 - 1943) phi phenomenon : The phi phenomenon is the optical illusion of perceiving a series of still images , when viewed in rapid succession, as continuous motion . reaction against structuralism elementary thought particles don't capture experience "the whole is different than the sum of its parts“

23. Behaviorism John Watson (1878 - 1958) attack on introspection psychology, as a science, should focus on observable behavior mental processed cannot be studied directly, so don't try! often referred to as Stimulus-Response psychology B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) like Watson, all behavior can be explained by stimulus-response pairing emphasized the importance of reinforcement and punishment Psychology (1920's - 1960's) Behaviorism: Psychology is the science of observable behavior John Watson: Behavior without reference to thought the rat and SR psychology BF Skinner: Behaviorism based on consequences the pigeon and the Skinner box

24.    Freud and the Humanists: The Influence of the Clinic Freud and Psychoanalysis The Unconscious thoughts, memories, and desires exist below conscious awareness and exert an influence on our behavior Psychoanalytic theory personality, mental disorders and motivation explained in terms of unconscious determinants of behavior unconscious expressed in dreams and "slips of the tongue" emphasis on the role of childhood experienced in shaping adult behavior

25. The Humanistic response rejects pessimistic view of Freud potential for self-awareness, responsibility and growth Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and self actualization

26. .    Understanding the Focus of Modern Psychology The cognitive revolution (1960's) Noam Chomsky and Language Advent of computers (late 1950's) provides a new model for thinking about the mind a return to the study of learning, memory, perception, language, development and problem solving   Developments in biology physiological recording devices - single cell recording, EEG, CT, PET, MRI understanding neurotransmitters   Recognizing Culture before - searched for universal principles now - cross-cultural factors important culture - shared values, customs, and beliefs

27. .    What Psychologists Do Today Research Psychologists conduct experiments or collect observations designed to uncover the basic principles of behavior and mind Biopsychologists investigate the biological basis of behavior Personality Psychologists study the differences between individuals Cognitive Psychologists conduct research on memory, language, problem-solving Experimental Psychologists conduct research on sensation, perception, and basic learning Developmental Psychologists study human mental and physical growth from conception to death Social Psychologists study how people influence one another

28. Applied Psychologists try to extend the principles of scientific psychology to the practical, everyday problems of the world School Psychologists assist in children's educational, intellectual and social development designing programs for special need children testing teaching Industrial/Organizational use psychological principles to improve work environment predicting job performance, assessing leadership, factors contributing to job satisfaction Human Factors/Engineering design and engineering of new products how best to design new keyboard or telephone touch pad best place to put knobs on stove

29. Environmental the relationship between the physical environment and psychological processes functioning of workers in different environments people's sense of personal space Forensic Psychologists interface between psychology and the law assisting victims of crime profiling criminals selecting jurors for trials

30. Clinical Psychologists specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders clinical psychologists versus counseling psychologists clinical psychologists versus psychiatrists What holds it all together? the desire to describe, predict, understand, and control behavior