Introduction to Research Methodology RM Course

Research methodology course for phd students

1. Introduction to Research Methodology Module1 Dr Jayadas N H

2. Research-Motivation… Passion for the subject: Many PhD candidates are driven by a genuine passion for a specific field of study. They have a deep curiosity and desire to explore and contribute to the knowledge within that field. This passion is a strong motivator to embark on an in-depth research journey. Intellectual growth and challenge: Pursuing a PhD offers significant intellectual growth opportunities. It involves engaging in rigorous research, critical thinking, and problem-solving. A PhD provides an ideal platform for individuals who enjoy intellectual challenges and want to push the boundaries of knowledge. Career aspirations: In certain fields, a PhD is required to advance in academia, research institutions, or industry positions. If someone aspires to become a professor, researcher, or industry expert in a particular domain, obtaining a PhD can open doors to such opportunities and enhance career prospects. Contribution to society: Many individuals are motivated by the desire to impact society through their research positively. They see their PhD research as a means to address real-world problems, develop innovative solutions, or advance scientific understanding in a way that benefits society as a whole. and contribute to the scholarly discourse. RM-2023-SOE 2

3. Research -Motivation Personal development: Pursuing a PhD is a transformative experience that nurtures personal growth. It helps individuals develop a range of skills, including critical thinking, independent research, project management, communication, and leadership skills. The journey of a PhD can foster personal resilience, perseverance, and self-discovery. Collaboration and networking: Engaging in PhD research provides opportunities to collaborate with experts and professionals in the field, fostering a network of like-minded individuals. Collaborative research often leads to valuable insights, shared learning, and future collaborations, which can be highly motivating and rewarding. Love for academia: Some individuals have a genuine love for academia and enjoy the academic environment, including the freedom to explore ideas, access to resources, and the opportunity to engage with fellow scholars. For them, pursuing a PhD research allows them to immerse themselves in the academic world RM-2023-SOE 3

4. Research –Objectives… Advancing knowledge: The primary objective of PhD research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge within a specific field. This can involve conducting original research, uncovering new insights, challenging existing theories or assumptions, or developing novel methodologies or frameworks. Addressing research gaps: PhD research often aims to fill gaps in current knowledge or address unanswered questions in the field. By identifying areas where knowledge is lacking or incomplete, the researcher can set objectives to conduct research that adds value and fills those gaps. Developing expertise: PhD research allows the candidate to become an expert in their chosen area of study. The objective is to delve deeply into the subject matter, gain a comprehensive understanding of the existing research, and develop a high level of expertise in the specific topic or discipline. Conducting original research: Originality is a key objective of PhD research. Candidates are expected to contribute something new and unique to the field. This can involve designing and conducting experiments, developing new methodologies, collecting and analysing data, or proposing innovative solutions to existing problems. RM-2023-SOE 4

5. Research –Objectives… Critical analysis and evaluation: PhD research involves critically analysing and evaluating existing literature, theories, methodologies, or practices in the field. The objective is to identify current approaches' strengths, weaknesses, gaps, or limitations and propose improvements or alternative perspectives based on rigorous analysis and evaluation. Developing transferable skills: PhD research aims to develop transferable skills beyond the specific research topic. These skills may include critical thinking, problem-solving, data analysis, scientific writing, presentation, project management, and collaboration. The objective is to equip the candidate with skills that can be applied in various academic, research, or professional settings. Contribution to society or industry: Many PhD research projects aim to impact the community or industry practices. This can involve developing solutions to real-world problems, addressing societal challenges, or creating innovations that have practical applications and benefits. RM-2023-SOE 5

6. Research Methods vs Methodology… Research Methods: Research methods refer to the specific techniques, tools, or procedures used to collect and analyse data in a research study. They are the practical steps and processes to gather information, conduct experiments, or obtain evidence to answer research questions or test hypotheses. Research methods can include qualitative methods (such as interviews, observations, or focus groups) and quantitative methods (such as surveys, experiments, or statistical analysis). They are tangible, concrete techniques to gather data and information for the research project. RM-2023-SOE 6

7. Research Methods vs Methodology Methodology: Methodology, on the other hand, refers to the broader framework or the overall approach that guides the entire research process. It encompasses the theoretical underpinnings, the overall strategy, and the rationale behind the chosen research methods. The methodology provides a systematic and logical structure for conducting the research study. It includes considerations such as the research design, the research questions or objectives, the theoretical framework or conceptual model, the sampling strategy, the data collection and analysis techniques, and the interpretation and validation of findings. RM-2023-SOE 7

8. Types of research – Descriptive vs Analytical… Descriptive Research: Descriptive research aims to describe and document a particular subject or population's characteristics, behaviours, or phenomena. It focuses on providing an accurate and comprehensive portrayal of the existing state of affairs without attempting to explain causality or establish relationships between variables . Descriptive research typically involves observing, surveying, or documenting data to answer questions like "What is happening?" or "What are the characteristics of a specific group?" Examples of descriptive research include surveys, observational studies, case studies, and content analysis. These methods systematically collect data, summarise the findings, and present them in a descriptive format such as tables, charts, or narratives. RM-2023-SOE 8

9. Types of research – Descriptive vs Analytical Analytical Research: Analytical research, on the other hand, goes beyond mere description and seeks to understand the relationships, causes, and effects among variables. It analyses and interprets data to identify patterns, trends, correlations, or causal relationships. Analytical research often involves the formulation of hypotheses and testing them through data analysis to answer questions like "Why is it happening?" or "What are the underlying factors influencing a phenomenon?" Analytical research methods can include experimental studies, statistical analysis, regression analysis, and qualitative research techniques like grounded theory or thematic analysis. These methods involve manipulating variables, comparing groups, conducting statistical tests, or applying theoretical frameworks to gain insights into the relationships or mechanisms at play. It's important to note that descriptive and analytical research are not mutually exclusive and can be used together in a research study. Descriptive analysis provides a foundation of information and data, while analytical research builds upon it to explain, predict, or draw conclusions. The choice between descriptive and analytical study depends on the research objectives, the nature of the research questions, and the available resources and data. RM-2023-SOE 9

10. Types of research – Applied vs Fundamental… Applied Research: Applied research aims to address practical problems, improve existing processes, or develop solutions with direct and immediate real-world applications. It focuses on solving specific issues or meeting practical needs. Applied research is often conducted to solve a particular problem, improve a product or service, or inform policy or decision-making. The primary characteristics of applied research include: Practical orientation- Applied research is driven by the need to address practical challenges or improve real-world situations. Problem-solving approach- Applied research focuses on finding solutions to specific problems or meeting practical needs. Applicability and relevance- Applied research findings are intended to be directly applicable and useful in practical contexts. Examples of applied research can be found in fields such as engineering, medicine, technology, education, and business. It often involves collaborations between researchers, industry professionals, and stakeholders to ensure the findings are directly applicable and can be implemented to solve practical challenges. RM-2023-SOE 10

11. Types of research – Applied vs Fundamental Fundamental Research: Fundamental research, also known as basic or pure research, aims to expand knowledge, explore fundamental principles, or uncover new theories and concepts within a specific field of study. It is driven by curiosity, intellectual exploration, and the desire to understand the underlying mechanisms of phenomena. Key characteristics of fundamental research include: Knowledge expansion- Fundamental research focuses on expanding the existing body of knowledge within a particular discipline. Theoretical exploration- It aims to develop new theories, concepts, or models that provide a deeper understanding of a subject. Generalizability and universality- The findings of fundamental research may not have immediate practical applications but contribute to broader theoretical frameworks and understanding. Fundamental research is often conducted in academic and scientific institutions, where researchers have the freedom to explore and delve into a particular subject without immediate practical considerations. It forms the basis for applied research by providing a theoretical foundation and insights that can be applied in practical contexts. RM-2023-SOE 11

12. Types of research – Quantitative vs Qualitative research… Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is an empirical research method that focuses on measuring and analysing numerical data. It aims to quantify variables, establish patterns, identify correlations, and make statistical inferences. Quantitative research follows a structured and objective approach, emphasising statistical and mathematical techniques to analyse data. Key features of quantitative research include: Data collection: Quantitative research relies on structured data collection methods, such as surveys, experiments, questionnaires, or measurements. Large sample sizes are often used to ensure statistical significance. Measurement and numerical analysis: Data in quantitative research is represented using numerical values, which are analyzed using statistical methods to derive patterns, trends, and relationships. Objectivity and generalizability: Quantitative research strives to be objective, minimising biases and personal interpretations. It often aims to generalise findings to a larger population or make predictions based on statistical models. Statistical analysis: Quantitative research involves statistical techniques such as hypothesis testing, regression analysis, chi-square tests, and correlation analysis to analyse the data and draw conclusions. Quantitative research is commonly used in fields such as psychology, economics, sociology, and natural sciences, where numerical data and statistical analysis play a significant role in understanding phenomena, making predictions, or testing hypotheses. RM-2023-SOE 12

13. Types of research – Quantitative vs Qualitative research Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is an exploratory research method focusing on understanding and interpreting subjective experiences, meanings, and social contexts. It seeks to uncover the richness and complexity of human behaviour and social phenomena through in-depth exploration and analysis of non-numerical data. Key features of qualitative research include: Data collection- Qualitative research relies on methods such as interviews, observations, focus groups, or document analysis to collect rich, textual or visual data. These methods often involve direct interactions with participants in their natural settings. Subjectivity and context- Qualitative research embraces subjectivity and acknowledges the importance of social and cultural contexts in shaping human experiences. It aims to understand the meanings, perspectives, and interpretations of individuals or groups. Inductive analysis- Qualitative research involves a process of inductive analysis, where data is systematically coded and categorised to identify themes, patterns, or theoretical concepts. It prioritises depth over breadth in understanding phenomena. Narrative or interpretive approach- Qualitative research often presents findings in narrative form, using quotations, descriptions, or case studies to provide a detailed and contextualised understanding of the research topic. Qualitative research is commonly used in fields such as anthropology, sociology, education, and humanities, where subjective experiences, social interactions, and cultural contexts are central to understanding phenomena. RM-2023-SOE 13

14. Types of research – Conceptual vs Empirical… Conceptual Research: Conceptual research, also known as theoretical research, aims to develop or refine theories, frameworks, or conceptual models. It focuses on conceptualising and understanding abstract concepts, relationships, or phenomena. Conceptual research is typically exploratory and seeks to enhance theoretical understanding within a specific field. Key features of conceptual research include: Theoretical exploration- Conceptual research involves a deep exploration of existing theories, concepts, or models within a field. It seeks to expand or refine theoretical frameworks and propose new conceptualisations. Literature review- Conceptual research relies heavily on reviewing and analysing existing literature, theoretical frameworks, or empirical studies to identify gaps, inconsistencies, or opportunities for theoretical development. Conceptual synthesis- Conceptual research involves synthesising and integrating ideas, concepts, or theories to propose new frameworks or perspectives. It often involves conceptual mapping, theorising, or developing new theoretical constructs. Limited empirical data- Conceptual research does not primarily rely on empirical data collection or analysis. Instead, it focuses on synthesizing and organizing existing knowledge to contribute to theoretical understanding. RM-2023-SOE 14

15. Types of research – Conceptual vs Empirical Empirical Research: Empirical research aims to gather and analyze empirical data to test hypotheses, validate theories, or answer research questions. It involves collecting real-world data through observation, experimentation, or surveys and analyzing it to draw conclusions or make generalisations. Key features of empirical research include: Data collection: Empirical research involves collecting data through direct observation, experimentation, surveys, interviews, or other data collection methods. It emphasises the collection of observable, measurable data. Hypothesis testing: Empirical research often involves formulating specific hypotheses that can be tested using data analysis. It seeks to validate or refute hypotheses based on the collected empirical evidence. Statistical analysis: Empirical research employs statistical methods to analyse the collected data, identify patterns, relationships, or trends, and draw conclusions. It often involves using statistical software and techniques such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, or regression analysis. Generalizability: Empirical research strives to generalise findings beyond the specific study sample to a larger population or context. It aims to provide evidence-based knowledge that can be applied or generalised to broader settings. Empirical research is commonly used in fields such as natural sciences, social sciences, psychology, economics, and medicine, where data collection and analysis play a crucial role in testing hypotheses, making predictions, or informing decision-making. RM-2023-SOE 15

16. Scientific laws, theorems, theories, axioms Scientific Laws: Scientific laws are concise statements that describe or summarise a fundamental principle or relationship in nature. They are often derived from repeated observations and experiments and are widely accepted as true within a specific domain. Scientific laws are typically expressed in mathematical or quantitative terms and provide a concise and general description of natural phenomena. Examples of scientific laws include Newton's laws of motion and the laws of thermodynamics. Theorems: Theorems are statements that have been proven or demonstrated to be true based on rigorous mathematical or logical reasoning. Theorems are typically associated with formal systems, such as mathematics or logic. They are derived from axioms and established rules of inference . Theorems are based on deductive reasoning, where conclusions are logically derived from a set of premises or axioms. Euclid's theorem on the infinitude of prime numbers is a well-known example. Scientific Theories: Scientific theories are comprehensive explanations that integrate and organise a wide range of observations, experimental results, and empirical evidence. They are explanatory frameworks that provide a coherent understanding of a particular phenomenon or set of phenomena. Scientific theories go beyond individual observations and provide a unifying explanation supported by a substantial body of evidence. Theories are constantly refined, expanded, or modified as new evidence or insights emerge. Examples of scientific theories include the theory of evolution, the theory of relativity, and the cell theory. Axioms: Axioms, also known as postulates, are fundamental statements or assumptions that are accepted as self-evidently true within a particular system or framework. Axioms serve as starting points for reasoning and are not derived from other statements. They are the foundational principles upon which logical and mathematical reasoning is built. Axioms are typically stated in a concise and intuitive manner and provide the basis for deducing theorems or conclusions within a formal system. RM-2023-SOE 16

17. Deductive and Inductive methods… Deductive Reasoning: Deductive reasoning starts from general principles or premises and uses logical inference to draw specific conclusions. It follows a top-down approach, where the conclusions are logically derived from the premises. Deductive reasoning aims to provide certainty and is often used to test hypotheses or make predictions based on established theories or principles. In scientific investigations, deductive reasoning is commonly used in hypothesis testing. It involves the following steps: Formulating a hypothesis: A specific hypothesis is formulated based on existing theories or observations. Deriving specific predictions: Using deductive reasoning, specific predictions or expectations are logically derived from the hypothesis. Testing the predictions: Experimental or observational tests are conducted to examine whether the predictions match the actual outcomes. If the predictions hold true, it provides support for the hypothesis. Deductive reasoning is particularly useful when researchers have well-established theories or principles that can be used as a basis for deriving specific expectations or predictions. It allows for testing the logical consistency of a hypothesis and making specific assertions that can be empirically tested. RM-2023-SOE 17

18. Deductive and Inductive methods… Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning involves making generalisations or forming theories based on specific observations or patterns. It follows a bottom-up approach, where conclusions are inferred from specific instances or observations. Inductive reasoning is probabilistic in nature, and the conclusions drawn are not necessarily certain but are based on the available evidence. In scientific investigations, inductive reasoning is often used to generate hypotheses or develop theories. It involves the following steps: Making observations- Specific observations or data are collected from empirical studies or experiments. Identifying patterns or trends- Through careful analysis of the data, patterns, trends, or regularities are identified. Formulating a hypothesis or theory- Based on the observed patterns, a general hypothesis or theory is formulated to explain the observed phenomena. Testing and refining the hypothesis- The formulated hypothesis is further tested and refined through additional empirical studies or experiments. Inductive reasoning allows researchers to generate new ideas or theories based on observed patterns or regularities. It is particularly valuable in exploratory research or when there is limited prior knowledge or established theories in a specific area. RM-2023-SOE 18

19. The Scientific Method… The scientific method is a systematic approach scientists use to investigate natural phenomena, acquire new knowledge, and advance scientific understanding. It is a structured and iterative process that involves the following key steps: Observation: The scientific method begins with careful observation of a phenomenon or a problem that sparks curiosity. Observations can be made through direct observation, experiments, measurements, or existing data. Formulating a Research Question: Based on the observations, a specific research question is formulated. The question should be clear, focused, and testable. Hypothesis Development: A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or prediction that seeks to answer the research question. It is based on existing knowledge, previous observations, or logical reasoning. A hypothesis should be specific, measurable, and capable of being tested. Designing and Conducting Experiments or Studies: Scientists design experiments or studies to test the hypothesis and gather empirical evidence. This involves defining variables, determining the appropriate methods and procedures, and ensuring proper controls and replication. Data Collection: Data is collected through observations, measurements, or experimental procedures. The data should be accurate, reliable, and relevant to the research question. RM-2023-SOE 19

20. The Scientific method Data Analysis: The collected data is analysed using appropriate statistical or analytical techniques. The analysis helps identify patterns, relationships, or trends in the data and provides evidence to support or refute the hypothesis. Drawing Conclusions: Based on the analysis of the data, scientists draw conclusions regarding the hypothesis and the research question. The conclusions may support the hypothesis, reject it, or suggest the need for further investigation. Communication and Peer Review: Scientists communicate their findings through scientific publications, presentations, or conferences. The scientific community critically evaluates and reviews the research through a peer-review process to ensure the quality, validity, and reliability of the research. Iteration and Further Research: The scientific method is an iterative process, meaning that the results and conclusions may lead to new questions, hypotheses, or experiments. Scientists continually refine and expand knowledge through further research and investigation. The scientific method provides a structured framework for conducting scientific investigations, ensuring rigour, objectivity, and reproducibility. It helps scientists approach problems systematically, make evidence-based claims, and contribute to the collective body of scientific knowledge. RM-2023-SOE 20

21. Defining and formulating the research problem… Defining and formulating the research problem is a crucial step in the research process. It involves identifying and clearly stating the issue or question that the research aims to address. Here's an overview of how to define and formulate the research problem: Identify a Broad Area of Interest: Start by identifying a broad area or topic of interest that aligns with your research goals, expertise, or curiosity. It could be a gap in knowledge, a practical problem, a phenomenon to be explored, or an opportunity for improvement. Review Existing Literature: Conduct a thorough review of existing literature related to the chosen area of interest. This step helps you understand the current state of knowledge, identify gaps or unresolved issues, and gain insights into previous research conducted in the field. Narrow down the Focus: Based on the literature review, narrow down the focus of your research to a specific research problem or question. Consider the gaps, controversies, contradictions, or areas that need further investigation within the chosen field. RM-2023-SOE 21

22. Defining and formulating the research problem Make the Problem Clear and Specific: Formulate the research problem in a clear and specific manner. The problem statement should be concise, focused, and capable of being addressed through research. It should reflect the unique contribution your research aims to make and the significance of the problem in the broader context. Ensure Feasibility: Assess the feasibility of addressing the research problem. Consider the available resources, data, time constraints, and ethical considerations. Ensure that the research problem is realistic and achievable within the given constraints. Refine and Revise: Continuously refine and revise the research problem statement as you gather more information and insights. Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or experts in the field to ensure clarity, relevance, and adequacy of the problem statement. Formulate Research Questions or Objectives: Based on the defined research problem, develop specific research questions or objectives that will guide your research efforts. Research questions should be focused, answerable, and aligned with the research problem. They serve as a roadmap for your research design and data collection. RM-2023-SOE 22

23. Research Problem- Selection… Selecting a research problem is a critical step in the research process. It involves choosing a specific area of study or a research question that is worth investigating and has the potential to contribute to existing knowledge. Here are some steps to help you in selecting a research problem: Identify your interests and expertise: Start by considering your personal interests, passion, and expertise. Selecting a research problem that aligns with your interests will keep you motivated throughout the research process. Conduct a literature review: Perform a comprehensive review of existing literature in your field of interest. This will help you identify gaps, unresolved issues, controversies, or areas that require further investigation. Look for research questions that have not been adequately addressed or areas where new insights are needed. Brainstorm and generate ideas: Engage in brainstorming sessions to generate potential research problem ideas. Consider the practical relevance, societal impact, and scientific significance of the proposed problems. Discuss your ideas with mentors, peers, or experts in the field to gain valuable insights and feedback. RM-2023-SOE 23

24. Research Problem- Selection Evaluate feasibility: Assess the feasibility of the research problem. Consider factors such as the availability of resources (including funding, data, and equipment), time constraints, and ethical considerations. Ensure that the research problem is realistic and can be effectively addressed within the available means. Consider the scope and significance: Evaluate the scope and significance of the research problem. Determine if it is of sufficient importance and relevance to warrant investigation. Consider the potential impact of your research on the field, potential applications, or benefits to society. Consult with experts: Seek guidance from experienced researchers, mentors, or experts in the field. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential research problems, and help you evaluate the feasibility and significance of your ideas. Refine and finalise the research problem: Based on the evaluation and feedback, refine and narrow down your research problem. Ensure that it is specific, well-defined, and capable of being addressed through research. The research problem should serve as a clear and focused guide for your research endeavours. RM-2023-SOE 24

25. Research Problem- Definition Defining the research problem is a crucial step in the research process as it lays the foundation for your study and guides your research efforts. Here are some steps to help you define the research problem effectively: Identify the Broad Research Area: Begin by identifying the general area or field of study that interests you. It could be a topic, issue, or phenomenon that you want to explore or investigate. Consider your personal interests, expertise, and the relevance of the area to your academic or professional goals. Conduct Preliminary Research: Conduct preliminary research to gain a basic understanding of the chosen area. Read relevant literature, scholarly articles, reports, or other sources to familiarize yourself with the existing knowledge and identify gaps, unresolved issues, or unanswered questions. Specify the Research Objectives: Clearly state the objectives or goals of your research. What do you aim to achieve through your study? Are you seeking to explain a phenomenon, explore a relationship, identify factors, develop a solution, or evaluate an existing practice? Ensure that your objectives are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). RM-2023-SOE 25

26. Research Problem- Definition Identify the Research Question(s): Based on the research objectives, formulate specific research question(s) that you want to address. Research questions should be clear, concise, and focused. They should be answerable through empirical research and aligned with the broader research problem. Consider Significance and Rationale: Assess the significance of the research problem. Why is it important to study? Consider the potential theoretical, practical, or societal implications of addressing the problem. Articulate the rationale for your study and explain why it is worth investigating. This will help justify the importance of your research. Define the Scope and Boundaries: Clearly define the scope of your research. Specify the specific aspects, variables, populations, or contexts that your study will focus on. This will help in narrowing down the scope of your research and making it more manageable. Be realistic about what you can accomplish within the available resources and time. Seek Feedback and Refine: Share your research problem with mentors, advisors, or colleagues and seek their feedback. Incorporate their suggestions, insights, and critiques to refine and improve the clarity and focus of your research problem. RM-2023-SOE 26

27. Literature Survey… A literature review is a critical component in defining a research problem for several reasons: Identifying existing knowledge: A literature review helps researchers gain a comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge on a particular topic. It allows them to identify key theories, concepts, and previous research findings related to their area of interest. This knowledge helps researchers avoid duplicating previous work and build upon existing knowledge. Identifying research gaps: By examining the literature, researchers can identify gaps or unanswered questions in the existing body of knowledge. These gaps represent areas where further research is needed and provide the foundation for defining a research problem. The literature review helps researchers understand what has already been studied and what areas have not yet been explored, enabling them to formulate a research problem that fills these gaps. Refining research questions: Through the literature review, researchers can refine their initial research questions and hypotheses. They can identify the specific aspects of the topic that require further investigation and narrow down the focus of their research. The literature review helps researchers develop well-defined research questions that are relevant, feasible, and contribute to the existing knowledge. RM-2023-SOE 27

28. Literature Survey Building a theoretical framework: A literature review helps researchers establish a theoretical framework for their study. It provides them with a foundation of existing theories, models, and frameworks that can be used to guide their research. By reviewing the literature, researchers can identify the most appropriate theoretical perspectives and conceptual frameworks that align with their research problem. Providing context and justification: A literature review allows researchers to place their research problem within the broader context of the field. It helps them understand the significance and relevance of their research in relation to previous studies. By citing relevant literature, researchers can provide a strong rationale for their research problem, demonstrating the importance of addressing the identified gaps in knowledge. RM-2023-SOE 28

29. Literature review – Primary and secondary sources… Primary Sources: Primary sources are original materials or firsthand accounts that provide direct evidence or data related to a research topic. These sources are created by individuals or entities directly involved in the event, research, or phenomenon being studied. Examples of primary sources include: Research studies and experiments: Original research studies conducted by researchers, including their methodologies, findings, and conclusions. Interviews and surveys: Raw data collected through interviews, surveys, questionnaires, or focus groups. Historical documents: Original manuscripts, letters, diaries, speeches, or official records from a particular time period. Original works of literature or art: Novels, poems, paintings, musical compositions, or other creative works produced by the author or artist. Raw data: Original data sets, measurements, observations, or experiments. Primary sources are essential for researchers because they offer firsthand information and data that can be analyzed, interpreted, and used as evidence in supporting or challenging a research problem or hypothesis. RM-2023-SOE 29

30. Literature review – Primary and secondary sources Secondary Sources: Secondary sources are interpretations, analyses, or evaluations of primary sources. These sources are created by individuals who did not directly participate in the event or research but instead gather information from primary sources to provide commentary, analysis, or summaries. Examples of secondary sources include: Review articles: Scholarly articles that summarize and analyze the existing body of research on a particular topic. Books and book chapters: Textbooks, monographs, or chapters that synthesize and interpret primary research studies. Literature reviews: Comprehensive reviews of relevant literature on a specific research topic. Magazine and newspaper articles: Articles that provide analysis or commentary on current events or research findings. Commentaries and critiques: Evaluative writings that analyze and interpret primary research from a specific perspective. Secondary sources are valuable for researchers as they provide a broader context, interpretation, and synthesis of existing knowledge. They help researchers understand the current state of research, identify key concepts and theories, and gain insights that can inform their own research. RM-2023-SOE 30

31. Literature survey-reviews, treatises, monographs-patents In a literature survey, researchers gather and analyze various types of sources to gain a comprehensive understanding of the existing knowledge on a specific research topic. These sources can include reviews, treatises, monographs, and patents, each of which serves a distinct purpose: Reviews: Reviews are scholarly articles or publications that provide a comprehensive summary and analysis of the existing research literature on a particular topic. They aim to synthesize and critically evaluate multiple primary research studies, identifying trends, patterns, gaps, and controversies in the field. Reviews can be systematic, meta-analytic, or narrative in nature, and they often provide valuable insights into the current state of knowledge and future directions for research. Treatises: A treatise is a comprehensive and in-depth scholarly work that provides a thorough analysis and discussion of a particular subject. Treatises are typically written by experts in the field and offer an authoritative examination of the topic. They often explore a specific aspect of a discipline in great detail, presenting original research, theoretical frameworks, and extensive references to support their arguments. Treatises are valuable sources for researchers seeking an in-depth understanding of a particular subject area. RM-2023-SOE 31

32. Literature survey-reviews, treatises, monographs-patents Monograph: Monographs are scholarly books or extended written works that focus on a specific topic or research area. They are usually authored by a single researcher or a small group of experts. Monographs provide a detailed exploration of a subject, presenting original research findings, theoretical frameworks, and analysis. They are typically more extensive than articles and offer a comprehensive treatment of the topic. Monographs can serve as valuable resources for researchers seeking a thorough understanding of a specific research area. Patents: Patents are legal documents that grant exclusive rights to inventors for their inventions. While patents primarily serve legal and commercial purposes, they can also be valuable sources of information for researchers. Patents contain detailed technical descriptions, diagrams, and specifications of inventions, providing insights into technological advancements and innovative solutions in various fields. Researchers can consult patents to understand the state of the art, identify emerging technologies, or explore potential applications for their own research. RM-2023-SOE 32

33. Literature Survey– Web as a source –Searching the web… In a literature survey, researchers often turn to the web as a valuable source of information. Searching the web allows researchers to access a wide range of online resources, including scholarly articles, conference papers, reports, books, theses, and other types of relevant publications. Here are some key considerations and approaches when using the web for a literature survey: Search Engines: Search engines like Google, Bing, and Yahoo are commonly used to find information on the web. Researchers can enter keywords or phrases related to their research topic and explore the search results. It is important to use specific and relevant search terms to obtain more accurate and targeted results. Online Databases: Many scholarly databases provide access to academic publications and research articles. Examples of widely used databases include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, ACM Digital Library, ScienceDirect, and JSTOR. Researchers can search these databases directly by entering keywords, authors' names, or specific journal titles to find relevant scholarly literature. Advanced Search Techniques: To refine search results and make them more specific, researchers can use advanced search techniques. These techniques include using Boolean operators (e.g., AND, OR, NOT), quotation marks to search for exact phrases, truncation or wildcards to capture variations of a term, and specifying search filters (e.g., publication date, author, journal). RM-2023-SOE 33

34. Literature Survey– Web as a source –Searching the web Open Access Resources: Open access resources, such as institutional repositories, preprint servers (e.g., arXiv , bioRxiv ), and open access journals, provide free access to scholarly articles and research outputs. Researchers can explore these resources to find relevant literature, especially if they need access to articles behind paywalls. Online Library Catalogs: University libraries and other academic institutions often have online catalogues that researchers can search to find books, theses, dissertations, and other print materials that may not be available online. These catalogues provide information about the location and availability of physical resources. Credibility and Evaluation: When using the web for a literature survey, it is essential to critically evaluate the credibility and reliability of the sources. Researchers should assess the reputation of the websites, authors' credentials, publication dates, peer-review processes (if applicable), and the presence of references and citations. Peer-reviewed journals and reputable academic institutions are generally more reliable sources of information. Citation Tracking: One useful technique when conducting a literature survey is citation tracking. Researchers can start with a relevant article or publication and examine its reference list to identify other sources that may be valuable for their research. Similarly, they can use citation databases (e.g., Google Scholar, Web of Science) to see who has cited a particular article or author, uncovering related publications and expanding their literature survey. RM-2023-SOE 34

35. Critical Literature Review – Identifying gap areas from literature review… A critical literature review involves analyzing and evaluating the existing literature on a specific topic to identify gap areas. These gap areas represent areas where further research is needed or where existing knowledge is limited. Here are some steps to identify gap areas from a literature review: Conduct a comprehensive literature search: Begin by conducting a thorough literature search using databases, search engines, and relevant scholarly sources. Collect a wide range of literature, including research articles, reviews, books, and other relevant publications. Read and analyze the literature: Carefully read and analyze the collected literature to gain an in-depth understanding of the current state of knowledge on the topic. Take notes on key findings, research methodologies, theoretical frameworks, and gaps that emerge from the literature. Identify recurring themes and patterns: Look for recurring themes, patterns, or conflicting findings across the literature. Pay attention to common research questions or issues that are repeatedly addressed or emphasized. These patterns can indicate areas where there may be a lack of consensus or where further investigation is needed. RM-2023-SOE 35

36. Critical Literature Review – Identifying gap areas from literature review … Evaluate the limitations of existing studies: Assess the limitations and weaknesses of the studies reviewed. Consider factors such as sample size, research design, methodology, data analysis techniques, and any potential biases. Identify areas where the current studies may have shortcomings or gaps in addressing the research topic. Identify unanswered research questions: Look for research questions or issues that have not been adequately addressed or explored in the literature. Consider whether the existing studies have left certain aspects of the topic unanswered or have raised new questions that warrant further investigation. These unanswered research questions can indicate gap areas. Consider emerging trends and developments: Pay attention to emerging trends, new theories, technologies, or methodologies mentioned in the literature. Identify areas where recent advancements have created opportunities for further research or where existing literature may not fully reflect the latest developments. RM-2023-SOE 36

37. Critical Literature Review – Identifying gap areas from literature review Compare and contrast different perspectives: Compare and contrast the viewpoints, arguments, and conclusions presented in the literature. Look for conflicting findings, divergent interpretations, or gaps in the existing theoretical frameworks. These discrepancies can highlight areas where further research is needed to reconcile or clarify conflicting perspectives. Summarize and synthesize findings: Summarize your findings from the literature review and synthesize the identified gap areas. Group the identified gaps into coherent themes or categories based on the nature of the research problem or the specific aspects of the topic that require further investigation. Justify the importance of the identified gap areas: Provide a rationale for why the identified gap areas are important and why they need to be addressed. Explain how addressing these gaps will contribute to the field, advance knowledge, or address practical implications. Justify the significance and relevance of the gap areas in the broader context of the research topic. RM-2023-SOE 37

38. Literature Survey- Development of working hypothesis... A literature survey can contribute to the development of a working hypothesis by providing researchers with valuable insights, evidence, and context related to their research topic. Here are steps to incorporate the literature survey into the development of a working hypothesis: Conduct a comprehensive literature review: Begin by conducting a thorough literature review to gather relevant research articles, books, and other publications related to your research topic. Read and analyze these sources to gain a comprehensive understanding of the existing knowledge and theories in the field. Identify key concepts and theories: Pay attention to the key concepts, theories, and models discussed in the literature. Identify the main ideas and approaches that have been explored by previous researchers. Consider how these concepts and theories are related to your research topic and what insights they provide. Identify gaps and inconsistencies: While conducting the literature survey, identify gaps, inconsistencies, or unanswered questions in the existing literature. Look for areas where the literature does not provide a clear consensus or where further research is needed. These gaps and inconsistencies can serve as starting points for developing your working hypothesis. Formulate research questions: Based on the gaps and inconsistencies identified in the literature, develop specific research questions that will guide your research. These questions should address the gaps or inconsistencies and seek to contribute new knowledge or provide clarity to the existing literature. RM-2023-SOE 38

39. Literature Survey- Development of working hypothesis... Synthesize findings and evidence: Synthesize the findings and evidence from the literature review. Look for patterns, commonalities, or trends across different studies. Identify the evidence that supports or contradicts existing theories or hypotheses. Generate a preliminary hypothesis: Based on the insights gained from the literature review and the research questions formulated, develop a preliminary hypothesis. This hypothesis should be a tentative statement that provides a possible explanation or relationship between variables related to your research topic. It should be grounded in the existing literature and address the identified gaps or inconsistencies. Refine the working hypothesis: Refine and revise the preliminary hypothesis based on feedback, discussions with colleagues or mentors, and further exploration of the literature. Consider additional evidence, alternative perspectives, or new insights gained from the literature survey to strengthen and refine your working hypothesis. Test and refine the hypothesis through research: Once you have developed a working hypothesis, it serves as a starting point for your research. Design and conduct empirical studies, experiments, surveys, or data analysis to test and validate your hypothesis. The results of your research will inform the refinement or revision of the hypothesis as you gain more insights and evidence. RM-2023-SOE 39

40. Research design – Basic Principles- Need of research design Research design refers to the overall plan or structure that guides the research process, including the selection of methods, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of results. It is a crucial component of any research study and serves as a roadmap for researchers to achieve their research objectives. The following are the basic principles and the need for a well-designed research design: Clear research objectives: A research design helps clarify the research objectives and goals. It ensures that the study is focused and specific, enabling researchers to address the research questions or problems effectively. Optimal data collection methods: A well-designed research design helps in selecting appropriate data collection methods. It determines whether qualitative or quantitative methods are more suitable, the sampling strategy, and the tools or instruments needed to collect data. This ensures that the data collected is relevant, reliable, and valid. Control over variables: Research design allows researchers to control and manipulate variables to establish causal relationships between them. By employing an appropriate research design, researchers can isolate specific variables of interest and minimize the influence of extraneous factors, enhancing the internal validity of the study. RM-2023-SOE 40

41. Research design – Basic Principles- Need of research design… Research design refers to the overall plan or structure that guides the research process, including the selection of methods, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of results. It is a crucial component of any research study and serves as a roadmap for researchers to achieve their research objectives. The following are the basic principles and the need for a well-designed research design: Clear research objectives: A research design helps clarify the research objectives and goals. It ensures that the study is focused and specific, enabling researchers to address the research questions or problems effectively. Optimal data collection methods: A well-designed research design helps in selecting appropriate data collection methods. It determines whether qualitative or quantitative methods are more suitable, the sampling strategy, and the tools or instruments needed to collect data. This ensures that the data collected is relevant, reliable, and valid. Control over variables: Research design allows researchers to control and manipulate variables to establish causal relationships between them. By employing appropriate research design, researchers can isolate specific variables of interest and minimize the influence of extraneous factors, enhancing the internal validity of the study. RM-2023-SOE 41

42. Research design – Basic Principles- Need of research design… Enhances reliability and validity: A robust research design enhances the reliability and validity of the study. By following standardized procedures, using valid measurement tools, and ensuring appropriate sampling techniques, researchers can increase the trustworthiness and accuracy of their findings. Time and resource efficiency: A well-designed research design ensures efficient use of time and resources. It helps researchers plan and allocate resources effectively, avoiding unnecessary data collection or analysis, and focusing on the essential aspects of the study. Ethical considerations: Research design incorporates ethical considerations, such as ensuring participant privacy, obtaining informed consent, and minimizing harm or risks. It helps researchers adhere to ethical guidelines and conduct their studies in an ethical and responsible manner. RM-2023-SOE 42

43. Research design – Basic Principles- Need of research design Generalizability of findings: Research design plays a critical role in determining the generalizability of research findings. By selecting appropriate sampling methods and ensuring a representative sample, researchers can increase the external validity of their study, allowing for broader generalizations and applicability of the findings. Feasibility and practicality: A well-designed research design takes into account the practical constraints and feasibility of the study. It considers factors such as time limitations, available resources, and access to participants, ensuring that the research can be conducted effectively within the given constraints. Replicability: A clear and well-documented research design enables other researchers to replicate the study and verify the findings. By providing detailed descriptions of the research methodology, procedures, and data collection methods, researchers contribute to the transparency and reproducibility of scientific knowledge. RM-2023-SOE 43

44. Research design – Features of good design… A good research design is characterized by several key features that contribute to the quality, rigor, and validity of a research study. These features include: Clarity and specificity: A good research design clearly outlines the research objectives, research questions, and the scope of the study. It provides a clear and specific plan for data collection, analysis, and interpretation of results. Alignment with research objectives: The research design should be aligned with the research objectives and research questions. It ensures that the design and methods employed are appropriate for addressing the research problem and achieving the desired outcomes. Adequate sample size and sampling method: A good research design includes a well-defined sampling method that ensures the selection of an appropriate sample size. The sample should be representative of the target population and provide sufficient statistical power to draw meaningful conclusions. Valid and reliable measurement instruments: The research design should include valid and reliable measurement instruments to collect accurate and consistent data. This may involve using established scales, questionnaires, or other measurement tools that have been tested for their reliability and validity. RM-2023-SOE 44

45. Research design – Features of good design… Clear operational definitions: A good research design provides clear operational definitions of key variables and concepts under investigation. It ensures that researchers have a common understanding and consistent usage of terms throughout the study, improving the reliability and replicability of the research . Appropriate data collection methods: The research design should include appropriate data collection methods based on the research objectives and nature of the research problem. This may involve qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, observations) or quantitative methods (e.g., surveys, experiments) or a combination of both, as deemed suitable for addressing the research questions. Control of confounding variables: A good research design incorporates strategies to control confounding variables that may influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. This may involve randomization, matching, or statistical techniques to account for potential confounders. RM-2023-SOE 45

46. Research design – Features of good design Consideration of ethical considerations: The research design should address ethical considerations, ensuring the protection of participants' rights, privacy, and confidentiality. It should adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain necessary ethical approvals before data collection. Analytical plan and statistical techniques: A good research design includes a well-defined analytical plan, specifying the statistical techniques and data analysis procedures to be employed. It ensures that appropriate statistical tests are applied to analyze the data and draw valid conclusions. Flexibility and adaptability: While a good research design provides a structured plan, it should also allow for flexibility and adaptability. Researchers may need to modify the design or methods based on emerging findings, unexpected challenges, or new insights gained during the research process. RM-2023-SOE 46

47. Research Design – Observation and Facts, Laws and Theories In research design, observation plays a crucial role in gathering data and generating empirical evidence. Observations involve systematically watching, recording, and analyzing phenomena or events to collect information. Facts, laws, and theories are concepts related to the interpretation and understanding of observed data. Here's how they are connected within the research design Observation: Observation is a fundamental data collection method in research design. It involves direct or indirect observation of phenomena, behaviours , or events in their natural or controlled settings. Researchers carefully observe and document what they see, hear, or otherwise perceive, using systematic techniques and tools to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the observations. Facts: Facts are empirical observations or data that are objectively verifiable and can be considered true. Through systematic observation, researchers aim to gather facts about the phenomena or events under investigation. Facts serve as the foundation of empirical research, providing the raw data upon which analysis and interpretation are based. RM-2023-SOE 47

48. Research Design – Observation and Facts, Laws and Theories Laws: Laws in scientific research refer to well-established generalizations or principles that describe regularities or patterns in observed phenomena. These laws are derived from repeated observations and experiments, often involving large datasets. Laws summarize and explain empirical regularities and help establish relationships between variables. They represent broad generalizations that hold true across various contexts and are considered to be reliable and valid. Theories: Theories are comprehensive explanations or frameworks that provide a systematic understanding of a set of related phenomena or events. Theories go beyond individual facts or specific observations and aim to explain the underlying mechanisms, processes, or principles that govern those observations. Theories often incorporate laws, concepts, and hypotheses, and provide a framework for organizing and interpreting empirical data. They offer a coherent and comprehensive understanding of the research area and guide further research and exploration. RM-2023-SOE 48

49. Research Design-Prediction and explanation… In research design, prediction and explanation are two key aspects that researchers aim to achieve. They represent different objectives and purposes within the research process. Let's explore each of them: Prediction: Prediction refers to the ability to forecast or anticipate future events or outcomes based on available data and patterns. In research design, prediction focuses on establishing relationships between variables and using this knowledge to make accurate predictions about future occurrences. Researchers seek to develop predictive models or algorithms that can reliably forecast outcomes or trends. To achieve prediction, researchers typically employ statistical techniques and data analysis methods. They collect data, identify patterns, and use statistical models to make predictions based on the relationships observed in the data. The goal is to develop predictive models that can generalize beyond the observed data and accurately forecast outcomes in new or future scenarios. RM-2023-SOE 49

50. Research Design-Prediction and explanation… Explanation: Explanation, on the other hand, aims to understand and provide insight into the underlying causes, mechanisms, or processes that generate the observed phenomena. Researchers seek to explain why certain events or outcomes occur and to uncover the underlying factors or variables that contribute to those occurrences. In research design, explanation involves developing theories or conceptual frameworks that provide a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Researchers gather data, analyze it, and seek to explain the observed patterns and relationships by identifying the causal factors or mechanisms that give rise to those patterns. Explanation often goes beyond mere prediction by delving into the deeper understanding of the research area. Researchers strive to uncover the reasons behind observed relationships, establish causal links between variables, and generate knowledge that explains the phenomena of interest. RM-2023-SOE 50

51. Research- Induction, Deduction, Development of Models… In research, induction, deduction, and the development of models are approaches or processes that researchers use to formulate and test hypotheses, make inferences, and generate knowledge. Let's explore each of these concepts: Induction: Induction is a reasoning process that involves drawing general conclusions or patterns from specific observations or data. In the context of research, induction starts with empirical observations and moves towards formulating generalizations or theories based on those observations. Researchers collect data, analyze it, identify patterns or trends, and then generalize those findings to make broader claims. The process of induction typically involves the following steps: Making specific observations or collecting data. Identifying patterns or regularities in the data. Formulating generalizations or hypotheses based on the observed patterns. Testing and refining those generalizations through further data collection and analysis. Inductive reasoning is often associated with qualitative research, exploratory studies, and the generation of new theories or hypotheses. It is a bottom-up approach that allows researchers to discover new insights or relationships from specific instances or observations. RM-2023-SOE 51

52. Research- Induction, Deduction, Development of Models… Deduction: Deduction is a reasoning process that moves from general principles or theories to specific predictions or observations. In deductive reasoning, researchers start with existing theories, principles, or models and use them to make specific predictions or hypotheses. Deduction involves testing these predictions through empirical observations or data collection to confirm or refute the hypotheses. The process of deduction typically involves the following steps: Starting with an existing theory or general principle. Formulating specific predictions or hypotheses based on the theory. Collecting data or making specific observations to test the predictions. Analyzing the data and comparing the results with the predicted outcomes. Deductive reasoning is often associated with quantitative research, hypothesis testing, and theory confirmation. It is a top-down approach that applies existing knowledge or theories to make specific predictions and verify their accuracy through empirical evidence. RM-2023-SOE 52

53. Research- Induction, Deduction, Development of Models Development of Models: The development of models is a process of constructing simplified representations or frameworks that capture the essential features or dynamics of a system, phenomenon, or relationship. Models help researchers conceptualize complex ideas, simulate scenarios, and test hypotheses. The development of models involves the following steps: Identifying the variables, relationships, or processes to be included in the model. Formulating equations, algorithms, or rules that represent those relationships or processes. Implementing the model using appropriate tools or software. Testing and validating the model by comparing its outputs with empirical observations or known data. Models can take various forms, such as mathematical equations, computer simulations, conceptual diagrams, or graphical representations. They serve as tools for understanding, predicting, and exploring the behavior of systems or phenomena under different conditions. Both inductive and deductive reasoning can contribute to the development of models. Induction can be used to identify patterns or relationships in observed data, which can then inform the construction of models. The deduction can be used to apply existing theories or principles to develop predictive models or simulate scenarios. RM-2023-SOE 53

54. Developing a research plan - Exploration, Description, Diagnosis, Experimentation… Developing a research plan involves careful consideration of the research objectives, the nature of the research problem, and the appropriate research methods and approaches to be employed. The research plan typically consists of several stages or components that guide the research process. Here are four common components often included in a research plan: Exploration: Exploration involves gaining a broad understanding of the research topic or problem. This stage focuses on the literature review, examining existing knowledge, theories, and prior research related to the topic. The goal is to identify gaps, unanswered questions, or areas that require further investigation. Exploration helps researchers formulate research questions or hypotheses and provides a foundation for the subsequent stages of the research plan. Description: The description stage aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive account of the research phenomena or variables of interest. It involves data collection and analysis methods that focus on describing and documenting the characteristics, patterns, or trends in the data. Descriptive research methods, such as surveys, observations, or content analysis, are often employed to gather data. The data obtained in this stage helps researchers gain a deeper understanding of the research problem and the variables involved. RM-2023-SOE 54

55. Developing a research plan - Exploration, Description, Diagnosis, Experimentation Diagnosis: Diagnosis focuses on identifying the causes, factors, or processes that contribute to the research problem. This stage aims to uncover the underlying mechanisms or reasons behind observed phenomena or patterns. It involves analyzing data and conducting in-depth investigations to diagnose the root causes or relationships between variables. Diagnosis may involve qualitative research methods, such as interviews, case studies, or focus groups, to explore the perspectives, experiences, or motivations of individuals or groups related to the research problem. Experimentation: Experimentation involves designing and conducting controlled experiments to test specific hypotheses or evaluate causal relationships. This stage often employs quantitative research methods and involves manipulating variables, selecting control groups, and collecting data in a controlled setting. Experimentation allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships, validate hypotheses, or test the effectiveness of interventions or treatments. The results of the experiments contribute to the generation of empirical evidence and help draw more definitive conclusions. It's important to note that these stages in a research plan are not always linear and can overlap or occur simultaneously depending on the research context. Additionally, not all research studies may require all four stages. The components of the research plan should be tailored to the specific research objectives, research problem, and available resources. RM-2023-SOE 55

56. Research Design-Determining experimental and sample designs… Determining experimental and sample designs is a crucial aspect of research design. These designs help researchers make informed decisions about how to structure their studies, select participants, and collect data. Let's explore each of these designs: Experimental Design: Experimental design refers to the structure or plan of a study that allows researchers to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. In an experimental design, researchers manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable while controlling for confounding factors. Key considerations in experimental design include: Independent and dependent variables: Identifying the variables of interest and determining how they will be manipulated and measured. Control group: Deciding whether to include a control group that does not receive the manipulation, providing a baseline for comparison. Random assignment: Randomly assigning participants to experimental and control groups to minimize bias and ensure group comparability. Replication: Considering the number of times the experiment will be conducted to ensure the reliability and generalizability of the findings. Internal validity: Taking measures to control extraneous variables and establish a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. There are various types of experimental designs, such as pre-post designs, factorial designs, and randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The choice of design depends on the research question, feasibility, ethical considerations, and available resources. RM-2023-SOE 56

57. Research Design-Determining experimental and sample designs Sample Design: Sample design refers to the selection and recruitment of participants or subjects from the target population for data collection. It involves making decisions about the sample size, sampling method, and sampling technique. Key considerations in sample design include: Target population: Defining the population of interest, which could be a specific group, geographical area, or organization. Sample size: Determining the appropriate number of participants that will provide sufficient statistical power and representativeness. Sampling method: Select the method to obtain a subset of participants from the target population. Common sampling methods include random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and convenience sampling. Sampling technique: Deciding how to reach and recruit participants, which may involve approaches such as online surveys, face-to-face interviews, or telephone interviews The choice of sample design should aim for a representative and diverse sample that reflects the characteristics of the target population. Researchers should consider the sampling error, generalizability of findings, and the practicality of data collection when determining the sample design. RM-2023-SOE 57

58. Research Design-Types of sampling… RM-2023-SOE 58

59. Research Design-Types of sampling… RM-2023-SOE 59 Systematic Sampling

60. Research Design-Types of sampling RM-2023-SOE 60 Convenience sampling- Units are selected for inclusion in the sample because they are the easiest for the researcher to access. Consecutive sampling- Samples are taken as in convenience sampling but from different groups . Judgment sampling is a type of non-probability sampling where the researcher selects a sample based on their own knowledge, experience, or intuition. Snowball Sampling- a non-probability sampling method where new units are recruited by other units to form part of the sample (a selected person selects others).