Issues in Qualitative Research - mata kuliah kualitatif.pptx

MAsalah masalah di kualitatif research

1. Issues in Qualitative Research Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif

2. Research methods: Definition Research methods provide ways of approaching, and hopefully answering our research questions. Research methods can be described as the way to the goal (Willig, 2013). Involve the forms of data collection, analysis, and interpretation that researchers propose for their studies (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

3. Qualitative Research Qualitative research begins with assumptions and the use of interpretive/theoretical frameworks that inform the study of research problems addressing the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. To study this problem, qualitative researchers use an emerging qualitative approach to inquiry, the collection of data in a natural setting sensitive to the people and places under study , and data analysis that is both inductive and deductive and establishes patterns or themes . The final written report or presentation includes the voices of participants, the reflexivity of the researcher, a complex description and interpretation of the problem, and its contribution to the literature or a call for change. (Creswell, 2013, p. 44)

4. Quantitative Research Approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables . These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments , so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures . Like qualitative researchers, those who engage in this form of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative or counterfactual explanations, and being able to generalize and replicate the findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

5. Quantitative – Qualitative research Quantitative Qualitative Pre-determined Emerging methods Instrument based questions Open-ended questions Data: performance, attitude, observational, and census Data: interview, observation, document, and audiovisual Statistical analysis Text and image analysis Statistical interpretation. Themes, patterns interpretation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018)

6. Contoh judul penelitian ( skripsi / tesis ) Hubungan Emotional Self-Disclosure dengan Kecemasan dalam Hubungan Romantis pada Dewasa Awal Strategi Koping pada Survivor Pendaki Gunung yang Tersesat . Peran Cyber Dating Abuse terhadap Kecemasan Sosial pada Individu Dewasa Awal. Relasi Sosial pada Mantan Pengguna Narkoba yang Diasingkan . Peran Perilaku Konsumtif dan Kontrol Diri dengan Fanatisme pada Penggemar K-Pop di Indonesia. Antara Adat, Keluarga , dan Diri : Ekspektasi Peran Gender Perantau Perempuan Minangkabau.

7. Putting a Context in Qualitative Research Reality as subjective and complex: Aims to represent reality through the eyes of research participants and attend to the complexities of behavior The importance of context emerged as a critique towards quantitative research that is often viewed as limited, mechanistic understanding of the complexity of human beings.

8. Qualitative Research – Issue and Critics Penelitian kualitatif sering dikritik karena kurang memiliki scientific rigor dengan justifikasi yang lemah atas metode yang digunakan, kurang transparan dalam prosedur analisis , dan temuan lebih merupakan kumpulan opini personal dari peneliti yang erat kaitannya dengan bias peneliti . Kritik terhadap penelitian kualitatif diantaranya adalah subjektif , anecdotal, bias peneliti , dan dengan memproduksi informasi mendetil tentang sebuah fenomena atau setting yang unik , maka hasilnya kurang dapat digeneralisasikan .

9. Posisi peneliti kualitatif dalam menanggapi issues dan critics: Penelitian kualitatif bukanlah metode yang inferior, tetapi adalah sebuah pendekatan ( approach ) yang berbeda untuk mempelajari manusia Penelitian kualitatif menitikberatkan pada pengalaman individual, menggambarkan fenomena dan pengembangan teori (Vishnevsky & Beanlands, 2004) . Namun demikian , issues dan critics tetap perlu dijawab untuk meningkatkan kualitas penelitian dan hasilnya . Perlu ada kriteria penilaian Qualitative Research – Issues and Critics

10. Appraisal Criteria Quantitative Qualitative Internal validity Credibility External validity Transferability Reliability Dependability Objectivity Confirmability

11. Ensuring Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research ( Lincoln & Guba, 1985 dalam Korstjens & Moser, 2018) Credibility The confidence that can be placed in the truth of the research findings. Credibility establishes whether the research findings represent plausible information drawn from the participants’ original data and is a correct interpretation of the participants’ original views. Transferability The degree to which the results of qualitative research can be transferred to other contexts or settings with other respondents. The researcher facilitates the transferability judgment by a potential user through thick description. Dependability The stability of findings over time. Dependability involves participants’ evaluation of the findings, interpretation and recommendations of the study such that all are supported by the data as received from participants of the study. Confirmability The degree to which the findings of the research study could be confirmed by other researchers. Confirmability is concerned with establishing that data and interpretations of the findings are not figments of the inquirer’s imagination, but clearly derived from the data. Reflexivity The process of critical self-reflection about oneself as researcher (own biases, preferences, preconceptions), and the research relationship (relationship to the respondent, and how the relationship affects participant’s answers to questions).

12. Ensuring Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research Criterion Strategy Definition Credibility Prolonged engagement Lasting presence during observation of long interviews or long-lasting engagement in the field with participants. Investing sufficient time to become familiar with the setting and context, to test for misinformation, to build trust, and to get to know the data to get rich data. Persistent observation Identifying those characteristics and elements that are most relevant to the problem or issue under study, on which you will focus in detail. Triangulation Using different data sources, investigators and methods of data collection. Data triangulation refers to using multiple data sources in time (gathering data in different times of the day or at different times in a year), space (collecting data on the same phenomenon in multiples sites or test for cross-site consistency) and person (gathering data from different types or level of people e.g. individuals, their family members and clinicians). Investigator triangulation is concerned with using two ore researchers to make coding, analysis and interpretation decisions. Method triangulation means using multiple methods of data collection. Member check Feeding back data, analytical categories, interpretations and conclusions to members of those groups from whom the data were originally obtained. It strengthens the data, especially because researcher and respondents look at the data with different eyes. ( Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Sim & Sharp, 1998 dalam Korstjens & Moser, 2018)

13. Ensuring Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research Criterion Strategy Definition Transferability Thick description Describing not just the behavior and experiences, but their context as well, so that the behavior and experiences become meaningful to an outsider. Dependability and Confirmability Audit trail Transparently describing the research steps taken from the start of a research project to the development and reporting of the findings. The records of the research path are kept throughout the study. Reflexivity Diary Examining one’s own conceptual lens, explicit and implicit assumptions, preconceptions and values, and how these affect research decisions in all phases of qualitative studies. ( Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Sim & Sharp, 1998 dalam Korstjens & Moser, 2018)

14. Research ethics ‘The moral principles guiding research from its inception through to completion and publication of results’ (Oates et al., 2021)

15. Research ethics principles (Oates et al., 2021) Respect for the Autonomy, Privacy, and Dignity of Individuals, Groups and Communities. Researcher have and show respect for the autonomy and dignity of persons. Respect the knowledge, insight, experience and expertise of participants and potential participants. Respect individual, cultural and role differences , including those involving age, disability, pregnancy and maternity, religion and belief, sex, education, language, socio-economic status, etc.

16. Research ethics principles (Oates et al., 2021) 2. Scientific Integrity Research should be designed, reviewed and conducted in a way that ensures its quality, integrity and contribution to the development of knowledge and understanding. Research that is judged within a research community to be poorly designed or conducted wastes resources and devalues the contribution of the participants . At worst it can lead to misleading information being spread and can have the potential to cause harm .

17. Research ethics principles (Oates et al., 2021) 3. Social Responsibility The discipline of psychology, both as a science and a profession, exists within the context of human society. The aim of generating psychological knowledge should be to support beneficial outcomes. Such outcomes can be broadly defined as those that not only support and reflect respect for the dignity and integrity of persons (both individually and collectively) but also have potential to contribute to the ‘common good’.

18. Research ethics principles (Oates et al., 2021) 4. Maximising Benefit and Minimising Harm Researchers should seek to maximise the benefits of their work at all stages, from inception through to dissemination and application. consider all research from the standpoint of the research participants , with the aim of maximising potential benefits and avoiding potential risks to psychological wellbeing, mental health, personal values, privacy or dignity Harm to research participants must be minimised . Where risks arise as an unavoidable and integral element of the research, robust risk assessment and management protocols should be developed and complied with.

19. Ethical Considerations (Oates et al., 2021) Informed Consent Researchers should ensure that every participants consents freely and voluntarily to participation, having been given sufficient information to make an informed choice. Participants should be free , during the data collection phase, to withdraw or modify their consent and to ask for the destruction of all or part of the data that they have contributed within agreed and consented limits. Consent should always be sought, regardless their age or competence , by means appropriate to their personal characteristics . Special safeguards for vulnerable groups , including but not limited to: children, persons lacking capacity, those in a dependent or unequal relationship, people with learning or communication difficulties, people in care, people in custody or on probation.

20. Ethical Considerations Confidentiality Subject to the requirements of legislation  Data Protection Act (UK), Personal Data Protection Law (Indonesia; Undang-Undang Data Pribadi, no. 27 tahun 2022) Information obtained from and about a participant during an investigation is confidential unless otherwise agreed in advance. Participants have a right to expect that information they provide will be treated confidentially and, if published, will not be identifiable as theirs. In the event that confidentiality and/or anonymity cannot be guaranteed, the participant must be warned of this in advance of agreeing to participate . The duty of confidentiality is not absolute in law and may in exceptional circumstances be overridden by more compelling duties (Oates et al., 2021)

21. Ethical Considerations (Oates et al., 2021) Risks the potential physical or psychological harm , discomfort or stress to human participants that a research project may generate. This is an important consideration in psychological research, where there is a wide range of potential risks. In psychological research include risks to the participant’s self-esteem, personal social status, privacy, personal values and beliefs, and personal relationships , as well as the adverse effects of the disclosure of illegal, sexual or deviant behavior .

22. Ethical Considerations Pertimbangan etik terkait dengan tahapan dalam penelitian: Pengajuan ethical clearance ke komite etik (institutional review boards) – upaya dari peneliti untuk memastikan penelitian yang dilakukan memenuhi kaidah etika penelitian. Rekrutmen dan akses terhadap partisipan Siapa partisipan yang akan dilibatkan ? Bagaimana peneliti akan mengidentifikasi dan mengakses mereka ? Kriteria inklusi dan eksklusi partisipan penelitian yang jelas Bagaimana informed consent diperoleh ? Bagaimana pengambilan data dilakukan ? (Creswell, 2007)

23. Ethical Considerations Informed consent: Menjadi penting untuk memastikan penghargaan terhadap otonomi partisipan Partisipan perlu mendapatkan informasi mencukupi sebelum dapat memutuskan apakah akan terlibat dalam penelitian atau tidak . Beberapa elemen dalam informed consent: Topik yang dieksplorasi dalam penelitian Hak partisipan untuk mengundurkan diri dari penelitian kapanpun mereka mau Menjaga kerahasiaan partisipan Risiko yang mungkin terjadi dalam penelitian Benefit atau keuntungan yang didapatkan oleh partisipan Tandatangan partisipan dan peneliti (Creswell, 2007)

24. Ethical Considerations Proses wawancara : Memperlakukan partisipan dengan hormat ( respect ) Memberikan kesempatan pada partisipan untuk bertanya Memberikan waktu kepada partisipan untuk beadaptasi (settle in) dan debriefing di akhir wawancara Bertanya dengan menggunakan pertanyaan terbuka (open) dan jelas (clear) Memastikan kesejahteraan ( well-being ) partisipan (Creswell, 2007)

25. Ethical Considerations Apa yang perlu dilakukan bila partisipan menunjukan tanda-tanda ketidaknyamanan ( distress ) dalam proses wawancara : Memberikan respon dengan empati dan sensitif Bertanya bila mereka ingin menghentikan wawancara dan istirahat sejenak Beralih ke pertanyaan lain Menunda wawancara dan menjadwalkannya di lain waktu . (Creswell, 2007)

26. Class activity Apakah kualitatif adalah metode yang tepat untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian dalam topik yang kalian pilih (sejauh ini)? Apa yang dapat kalian lakukan untuk meningkatkan kredibilitas ( rencana ) penelitian kalian? Sebutkan dan jelaskan secara singkat , pertimbangan etik yang perlu diperhatikan dalam pelaksanaan penelitian kalian

27. Reference Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches (Fifth). SAGE Publications, Inc. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among the five approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Oates, J., Carpenter, D., Fisher, M., Goodson, S., Hannah, B., Kwiatowski , R., Prutton , K., Reeves, D., & Wainwright, T. (2021). BPS Code of Human Research Ethics. Willig, C. (2013). Introducing qualitative research in psychology (3rd ed). McGraw-Hill Open University Press. Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2015). Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research. Evidence Based Nursing, 18(2), 34–35. https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2015-102054

28. Appendix A Quantitative research terminology and application to qualitative research Alternative terminology associated with credibility of qualitative research Validity The precision in which the findings accurately reflect the data. Truth value Recognises that multiple realities exist; the researchers’ outline personal experiences and viewpoints that may have resulted in methodological bias; clearly and accurately presents participants’ perspectives. (Noble & Smith, 2015)

29. Appendix A Quantitative research terminology and application to qualitative research Alternative terminology associated with credibility of qualitative research Reliability The consistency of the analytical procedures, including accounting for personal and research method biases that may have influenced the findings. Consistency Relates to the ‘trustworthiness’ by which the methods have been undertaken and is dependent on the researcher maintaining a ‘decision-trail’; that is, the researcher’s decisions are clear and transparent. Ultimately an independent researcher should be able to arrive at similar or comparable findings. Neutrality (or confirmability) Achieved when truth value, consistency and applicability have been addressed. Centres on acknowledging the complexity of prolonged engagement with participants and that the methods undertaken and findings are intrinsically linked to the researchers’ philosophical position, experiences and perspectives. These should be accounted for and differentiated from participants’ accounts. (Noble & Smith, 2015)

30. Appendix A Quantitative research terminology and application to qualitative research Alternative terminology associated with credibility of qualitative research Generalisability The transferability of the findings to other settings and applicability in other contexts. Applicability Consideration is given to whether findings can be applied to other contexts, settings or groups. (Noble & Smith, 2015)

31. Appendix B Truth value Reflexivity and reflection on own perspectives: Reflective journal maintained and decisions documented. Peer debriefing to assist the researcher to uncover taken for granted biases, or assumptions, for example, the initial qualitative interviews with patients were medically focused and subsequent interviews took a more holistic approach. Representativeness of the findings in relation to the phenomena: The sample of 19 carers of patients managed in a renal supportive care service and a willingness to share their experiences in depth and over time enabled clarification of findings as an ongoing process. Semistructured audio recorded interviews allow for repeated revisiting of the data to check emerging themes and remain true to participants’ accounts of caring for patients with renal disease managed without dialysis. Use of rich and thick verbatim extracts from carers of patients managed without dialysis assists the reader to make judgements about whether the final themes are true to participants’ accounts. Participants invited to comment on the research findings and themes. Strategies to enhance qualitative research credibility (Noble & Smith, 2015)

32. Appendix B Strategies to enhance qualitative research credibility Consistency/ neutrality Achieving auditability: Transparent and clear description of the research process from initial outline, through the development of the methods and reporting of findings. In addition maintaining a research diary documenting challenges and issues assisted in maintaining cohesion between the study’s aim, design and methods. Emerging themes discussed with research team members who had palliative and qualitative research expertise in an open process where assumptions could be challenged and consensus reached. Applicability Application of findings to others contexts: Rich detail of context, the renal setting, including the patients managed within the service, facilitates the evaluation of study conclusions and transferability to other renal units. (Noble & Smith, 2015)

33. Appendix C Timing During Research Process Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue •Prior to conducting the study Seek college or university approval. Examine professional association standards. Gain local access permissions. Select a site without a vested interest in the outcome of the study. Negotiate authorship for publication. Seek permission for use of unpublished instruments or procedures that other researchers might consider to be theirs. • Submit for institutional review board approval. • Consult types of professional ethical standards • Identify and go through local approvals for the site and participants; find a gatekeeper to help. • Select a site that will not raise power issues with researchers. • Give credit for work done on the project; decide on author order. • Obtain permission for use of any material that may be considered proprietary and give credit.

34. Appendix C Timing During Research Process Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue Beginning to conduct the study Disclose the purpose of the study. Refrain from pressure for participants into signing consent forms. Respect norms and charters of indigenous societies. Have sensitivity to the needs of vulnerable populations (e.g., children). • Contact participants and inform them of the general purpose of the study. • Assure participants that their participation is voluntary. • Find out about cultural, religious, gender, and other differences that need to be respected. • Obtain appropriate consent (e.g., parents as well as children). Collecting data Respect the study site and minimize disruptions. Avoid deceiving participants. Respect potential power imbalances and exploitation of participants. Do not “use” participants by gathering data and leaving the site without giving back. Store data and materials (e.g., raw data and protocols) using appropriate security measures. Build trust and convey the extent of anticipated disruption in gaining access. Discuss the purpose and use of the study data. Avoid leading questions, withhold sharing personal impressions, and avoid disclosing sensitive information. Provide rewards for participating, and attend to opportunities for reciprocity. Store data and materials in secure locations for 5 years (APA, 2010). ( Cresswell , 2013)

35. Appendix C Timing During Research Process Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue Analysing data • Avoid siding with participants and disclosing only positive results. • Respect the privacy of participants. • Report multiple perspectives, and also report contrary findings. • Assign fictitious names or aliases; develop composite profiles. Reporting data Avoid falsifying authorship, evidence, data, findings, and conclusions. Avoid disclosing information that would harm participants. Communicate in clear, straightforward, appropriate language. Report multiple perspectives, and also report contrary findings. Assign fictitious names or aliases; develop composite profiles. Report honestly. Use composite stories so that individuals cannot be identified. Use language appropriate for audiences of the research. See APA (2010) guidelines for permissions needed to reprint or adapt the work of others ( Cresswell , 2013)

36. Appendix C Timing During Research Process Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue Publishing study Share reports with others. Tailor the reporting to diverse audience(s). Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications. Complete proof of compliance with ethical issues and lack of conflict of interest. Provide copies of the report to participants and stakeholders. Share practical results, consider website distribution, and consider publishing in different languages. Refrain from using the same material for more than one publication. Disclose funders for research and who will profit from the research. ( Cresswell , 2013)