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1. CE 2728 TALL STRUCTURES
Dr. B. Kavitha
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
NIT Warangal
M Tech Engineering Structures -Elective Course (3 credit)
1

2. SYLLABUS:
•EvolutionofTallbuildings:Introduction-DesigncriteriaforstructuraldesignofTallbuilding-
Conceptofpremiumforheight-Developmentofhighrisearchitecture.
•AssemblyofBuildingandsiteinvestigation:Buildingperformance–cost,qualityandtime
•Environmentalrequirements:Industrialization&RoboticsinConstruction-Introductiontosafety
andHealthManagementSystem-StagesofsiteInvestigation-SiteReconnaissance&Ground
investigationFieldtests&Laboratorytests.Foundationsystems
•MaterialhandlingandMechanization:Materialhandlingconsiderations-Earthmovingequipment’s
-Horizontalandverticalmovements-Selection&UtilityofCranes(TowerCranes&Climbing
Cranes).
•Wind&seismiceffectsonbehaviorofTallStructures:OutlookofDesignconsiderationsand
Characteristicsofwind-Codalwindloadsandcladdingpressuresonbehavioroftallbuildings-
IntroductiontoTallbuildingbehaviorduringearthquakesandseismicdesignphilosophy.
•StructuralForms&FlooringSystems:IntroductionofVariousstructuralformsandtheirimportance
tohighrisearchitecture-IntroductiontovariousFlooringSystemsinconcrete&steel.
•Modellingforanalysis:Approachesforanalysis-Assumptionsinvolvedinmodeling-Reduction
techniques-ApplicationusingStructuralengineeringSoftware.

3. Text Books:
1.Feng Fu, Design and analysis of Tall and Complex Structures, ButterwothHeinemann, 2018.
2.TaranathB, Tall Building Design: Steel, concrete and composite system, CRC Press, 2016, 1
st
Edition.
3.White and Salmon, Building Structural Design Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 1987.
4.Wolfgang Schueller, The Design of Building Structures, Prentice Hall, 1996.
Reference Books:
1.Bryan Stafford Smith and Alex Coull, Tall Building Structures: Analysis and Design, Wiley, 1991, 1st
Edition.
2.Michael J Short, Planning for Tall Buildings, Routledge, 2012.
3.YitLin Michael Chew Construction Technology for Tall Buildings, World Scientific Publication, 2017.
4.B S Taranath, Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings, CRC Press, 2010.
5.IS 16700:2023 -Criteria for Structural Safety of Tall Concrete Buildings
6.IS 875 (Part 3): 2015 –Indian Standard Code of Practice for Wind Loads on Buildings and Structures
Online Resources:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/124/107/124107012/
Pre-requisites:CE2603 [Behavior of Concrete Structures]

4. Unit 1
Introduction to tall structures
•Evolution of Tall buildings
•Design criteria for structural design
•Concept of premium for height
•Development of high rise architecture
•Assembly of Buildings
•Building performance,cost,quality and time
4

5. What is a tall Structure?
•Definition:
higher than the surrounding
its proportion is slender enough
40 storeys (150m)
•Enggdef:ifstructuralanalysesanddesignareaffectedbythesway
fromlateralloads
•Astheheightincreases,theforcesduetowind,begintodominate.
Therefore,structuralframeworkfortallbuildingsisdevelopedaround
conceptsassociatedwithresistancetoturbulentwind.
5
Category Height Exceeding
Tall building 50m
Supertall building 250m
Megatall building 600m

6. Need?
•urbanization and industrialization
•Population growth
6

7. 1950
supercities > 2 million
megacities > 8 million
Prof. Roger Bilham
7

8. 15
2000
140 supercities > 2 million
28 megacities > 8 million
(325 cities > 1 million)
2050 urban population >5 billion (≈ half the world total).
Prof. Roger Bilham
8

9. 9

10. 10

11. History
•The construction of high-rise buildings started at the end of the 19th
century in Chicago
•This was made possible because of new inventions
elevator-1853, telephone-1876 -enabled transport of building
materials and ability to communicate to higher levels.
•materials changed -from wood and masonry to concrete-steel frames
with lighter masonry walls.
11

12. Home Insurance Building
•It is considered as the world's first skyscraper.
•Located in Chicago( 1885)
•Ten stories and 138ft(42.1m) tall, it was designed byWilliam
Le Baron Jenney
•Two floors were added in 1891, bringing it to 180 feet (54.9
metres).
•It was supported both inside and outside by a
fireproofstructural steeland metalframe, which
includedreinforced concrete.
12

13. 13
Evolution of tall structures

14. •First -the Home Insurance Building in Chicago(1885)
•The Chrysler Building was the first building in the world to break the 300m (984ft) barrier
•The Empire State Building in New York City was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It
stands at 381m (1,250ft) and has 102 floors.
•The next tallest skyscraper was theWorld Trade Center (1971). The north tower was 417m
(1,368ft) and the south 415m (1,362ft) tall.
•The Sears Towerwas built in Chicago (1974), standing at 442m (1,450ft) with 110 floors, surpassing
the height of the World Trade Center by 25m (82ft).
•ThePetronasTowersrose 10 meters above the Sears Tower, standing at a height of 452m (1,483ft)
and each having 88 floors.
•In 2004, the Taipei 101 brought the height of skyscrapers to a new level, standing at 508m (1,667ft)
with 101 floors. It is 59m (194ft) taller than the PetronasTowers.
•BurjKhalifasurpassed the height ofTaipei 101by 319m (1,047ft) in 2009, making it 60% taller.
14

15. Burj Khalifa is almost twice as tall as the Empire State Building. However the majority of that height increase (29%) is
gained fromvanity height, the Burj Khalifa's highest occupiable floor is only 585m (1,919ft) above ground. This would
still make it the tallest building in the world but only by 2 meters over theShanghai Tower, a substantially smaller
margin than before.
15

16. 16

17. Tallest buildings

18. -FoundationDesign:Reinforcedconcretematwithboredpilesextending50mintosandysoil.
-WindEngineering:Y-shapeddesignminimizeswindvortexeffects.
-Materials:High-performanceconcretewithstandsextremetemperatures.
-PumpingConcrete:Record-breakingheightof601mduringconstruction.
1. Burj Khalifa (Dubai, UAE) -828 m (2010)
2. Merdeka 118 (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia) –678.9 m (2024)
-FoundationChallenges:Deeppilefoundationsandurbanexcavation.
-VerticalTransport:High-speedelevators,includingdouble-deckerlifts.
-FacadeEngineering:Triangularglassfacadeenhancesintegrityand
energyefficiency.
3. Shanghai Tower (Shanghai, China) –632 m (2015)
-Twisting Design: 120°twist reduces wind loads by 24%.
-Core-Outer System: Concrete core with steel outer frame for stability.
-Green Engineering: Rainwater harvesting and wind turbines included.

19. 4. Abraj Al-Bait Clock Tower (Mecca, Saudi Arabia) –601 m (2012)
5. Ping An Finance Centre (Shenzhen, China) –599.1 m (2017)
6. Lotte World Tower (Seoul, South Korea)-554.5 m (2017)
-Structural Load: Innovative techniques to support the massive clock face and spire.
-Fast Construction: Precast concrete method used for speed.
-Unique Materials: Reflective glass reduces heat gain in desert conditions.
-Seismic Design: Mega-frame with diagonal
braces for earthquake resistance.
-Facade Innovation: Stainless steel facade
resists corrosion in humid climate.
-Tall Construction Techniques: Automatic
jacking cranes for material efficiency.
-ExtremeTemperatures:High-performanceconcreteandsteelfor
seasonalvariation.
-WindResistance:Tapered,aerodynamicdesignreduceswindloads.
-SafetySystems:Advancedfireproofingandevacuationsystems
included.

20. 7. One World Trade Center(New York City, USA)-541.3 m (2014)
8. Guangzhou CTF Finance Centre (Guangzhou, China)-530 m (2016)
9. Tianjin CTF Finance Centre (Tianjin, China)-530 m (2019)
-Blast Resistance: Reinforced concrete base for protection.
-Innovative Use of Steel: High-strength steel reduces weight, improves integrity.
-Sustainable Design: Energy-efficient glass, rainwater collection, on-site power
generation.
-Advanced Core Wall System: Combines steel and concrete for seismic resilience.
-Efficient Cooling: Double-layer glass panels reduce energy consumption.
-Speed of Construction: Slip-form technology expedited central core construction.
-Aerodynamic Design: Curved facade reduces wind drag, improves
energy efficiency.
-Foundation Engineering: Deep pile foundations for soft soil conditions.
-High-Speed Elevators: Among the fastest elevators globally.
10. CITIC Tower (Beijing, China)-527.7 m (2018)
-Zun-Shape Design: Inspired by ancient artifacts, enhances stability.
-Mega-Column Structure: Columns transition from base to top for load management.
-Air Quality Control: Advanced HVAC systems address air pollution.

21. •Evolution of Tall buildings ✓
•Design criteria for structural design
•Concept of premium for height
•Development of high rise architecture
•Assembly of Buildings
•Building performance,cost,quality and time
21
•Site
•Purpose
•Appearance
Unit 1
Introduction to tall structures

22. Design Philosophy-Lateral load design
•Lateralloads-quitevariableandincreaserapidlywithheight.
•underauniformwindloadtheover-turningmomentatthebasevariesinproportion
tothesquareoftheheight,lateraldeflectionvariesasthefourthpower.
•Fourconsiderationsinthedesignoftallbuildings:strength,rigidity,stability,legality.
•Thestrengthrequirementisthedominantfactor
Fortallstructures,therigidityandstabilityrequirementsoftencontrolthedesign.
•Tosatisfyrigidityandstabilityrequirements
1)Increasethesizeofmembersaboveandbeyondthestrength
requirements.(impracticaloruneconomical)
2)Changetheconfigurationofthestructureintoinherentlyrigidandstable.
•Tallbuildingundertheactionofwindwillreachastateofcollapsebytheso-calledP-Δ
effect,inwhichtheeccentricityofthegravityloadincreasestocrushingofcolumns
22

23. •Stabilitycriterion-toassurethatpredictedwindloadswillbebelowtheload
correspondingtothestabilitylimit.
tolimitthelateraldeflectiontoalevelthatwillensure
thatarchitecturalfinishesandpartitionsarenotdamaged.(economy,comfort)
•Slenderhigh-risebuildings-frequencyofvortexsheddingdoesnot
correspondtothenaturalfrequencyofthestructure.
•Lateraldeflectionsandaccelerations(fromfrequentwindstorms)-ofthe
buildings’topfloorsshouldbeconsideredfromthestandpointof
serviceabilityandoccupantcomfort.
•InERD,collapse-ductility-largeinelasticdeformations-severeseismicactivity
nonstructuraldamage-frequentearthtremors.
23

24. •Evolution of Tall buildings ✓
•Design criteria for structural design ✓
•Concept of premium for height
•Development of high rise architecture
•Assembly of Buildings
•Building performance,cost,quality and time
24
Unit 1
Introduction to tall structures

25. Premium Height
25

26. •Minimumrequiredmaterialforabuilding-requiredforgravityloads-mostefficientor
optimumsystem.
•Lowriseormidrisebuilding(gravityloaddesign)-sustainlateralloadswithouta
premium.
•high-risebuilding-resistancetooverturningmoment,limitinglateraldeflections-
additionalmaterial–overgravityloadrequirement
•Floordesign-nodifferenceintherequiredmaterialquantities-7
th
flooror70
th
floor-
functionofthecolumn-to-columnspan–notheight.
•Columnsandwalls-increasesintheratio(n+1)/2,wherenisthenumberoffloors-the
loadsfromthefloorabovealsoconsidered.
•lateralloadsisevenmorepronounced–exceedsallotherstructuralcostsifonlyrigid
frameactionconsidered.
•Lateralloadsbegintoshowdominanceataround50storiesandbecomeincreasingly
importantwithgreaterheight.
•Solution-Bracings-Economical-Selection–materialreduction
26
Premium Height

27. •Astheheightofabuildingincreases,thedifferencebetweenthe
amountofmaterialrequiredtoaccountfortheeffectoflateralloads
tothatneededforonlygravityloadsincreases.Thisdifferenceis
calledthestructuralheightpremium.
27
Premium Height

28. •Evolution of Tall buildings ✓
•Design criteria for structural design ✓
•Concept of premium for height ✓
•Development of high rise architecture
•Assembly of Buildings
•Building performance,cost,quality and time
28
Unit 1
Introduction to tall structures

29. Development of high-rise architecture
•5 stages
First stage –Rectangular-corridor-1940s (No ac, fluorescent light) -Natural daylight
and ventilation –no sprayed fireproof metal deck
width limited-55–60 ft -double-loaded corridor –rectangular or square block-
central core and radiating wings, site area is not utilized fully-closely spaced
column layout of 20–25 ft-heavy masonry walls-heavy dead load –advantage-
counteract uplift effects of loads-
Fireproof: Enclosing the structural steel beams and columns with concrete-stiffness
increased-limited the wind drift.
steel and concrete composite benefits-sourrounding concrete treated as additional
dead load-
29

30. Stage 2 –Ac and fluorescent lighting-maximize the area
This phase is the modern movement in architecture stressing the aesthetic
value of simplicity in facade treatment –simple rectangles, squares,
circles, ovals.
The wall were thin-max outer-height increased-buildings had regular
prismatic shape.
Showcase framework-(International Style)-displayed the structural muscle-
Glass boxes with exposed structural steel or concrete -
30

31. Stage 3: Interaction between marketing experts and architects-landmark-No more
boxes
•simplerectangular-fourcorners-4corneroffices-corercolumnsdisplayed
•Rental&Leasing-officeswithviewsontwosides-unobstructedview(single
view)-demand
•Urbanization-view-wallsofotherbuildings
•Manycornerofficeswithtwosideview-marketing
•Undulatingtheexteriorbyprovidingnicks,notches,andothercontortionsatthe
perimeterofthebuilding.(polygon)
•Elevation-setbacksareprovidedatintermediatelevels.
•planisslicedanddiced-additionalcorneroffices.
31

32. Stage 4-postmodern architecture -daringly articulated buildings-1970s (Aesthetic)
•stepbacks, angles, notches, and curves, combinations
3 phases-1. Flat roof (1950s and 1960s)-peaked roof, a pyramid, a dome, combination
2. elaborate entrances-an effort to give it a street-level identity.
3. battle for identity-Land mark
The whole architectural façade needs to proclaim the identity of the building.
•terracing of building plans, cutouts, slicing and dicing, overhanging features
32
Stage 5-Energy Conservation
natural daytime lighting with court-yards, light wells, and skylights. (Instead mechanical heating and
cooling and electric light-solar controls-Green Building materials
The principles of sustainable construction are:
1. Reduce resource consumption (reduce).
2. Reuse resources (reuse).
3. Use recyclable resources (recycle).
4. Protect nature (nature).
5. Eliminate toxics (toxics).
6. Apply life-cycle costing (economics).
7. Focus on quality (quality).

33. •Evolution of Tall buildings ✓
•Design criteria for structural design ✓
•Concept of premium for height ✓
•Development of high rise architecture ✓
•Building performance, Assembly of Buildings,cost,quality and
time
33
Unit 1
Introduction to tall structures

34. Assembly of Buildings
34
Bottom up Construction ( or ) Top Down Construction
1. Cast in situ Construction
•PT Slab and Beams
•Alu form work/Mivan
•Jump form technique and slip form technique
•Tunnel form work
2. Pre-Cast Construction
•RCC panels
•Prestressed panels
•EPS panels
•GFRG panels

35. Building Performance and System Integration
•Performance-measurementofachievementagainstintention.
•Buildingsystemintegration-actofcreatingawholefunctioningbuildingincludingbuildingsystemsin
variouscombinations.
•Thevariouscriterias-energyconservation,functionalappropriateness,strengthandstability,durability,
firesafety,weathertightness,visual/acoustical/thermal/lightingcomfortandeconomicefficacy,are
onlydeliveredwhentheentirebuildingperformsasanintegratedwhole.
•Understandingthecombinationeffectofthevarioussystemsonthedeliveryofeachperformanceis
thusimportant.
•Fortallerandsmarterbuildings,integrationbetweenvariousaspectsinphysiology,psychology,
sociology,economics,availabletechnologyisneeded.
•Abuildingneedstoperformthefunctionsofbuildingenclosureagainstenvironmentaldegradation
throughmoisture,temperature,airmovement,radiation,chemicalandbiologicalattackor
environmentaldisasterssuchasfireorflood.Italsoneedstoprovideinterioroccupancyrequirements
andtheelementalparametersofcomfort.
•Toachievetheseperformancesrequiresgoodintegrationamongallparticipantsinvolvedinthe
buildingprocess,fromdevelopers,designers,buildingprofessionals,fabricatorstoworkmenonthesite.
•Abuildingprofessionalunderstandstheimplicationsoftheseperformancestothedesign,construction
aswellasmaintenanceofabuilding.
35

36. Structural Problems of Construction
–Load bearing: stability develops during construction
–Frame -temporary provisions for stability, rigid joints, bracing, shear walls.
–Special structure (bridges)provision for erection stresses, sensitivity to construction or uneven loading.
Safety Margins (reduced by accurate design), Construction Instability(appropriate temporary support,
e.g. Shell construction)
Settlement of Structures-Ground conditions: flexibility of structure where settlement occurs.
Services Installation-Provision of services —horizontal, vertical ducting, ceiling spaces, penetration of
slabs, beams
–Integration of installation.
Construction Accuracy
–Effect of shape and configuration on floor and wall area
–Cast in situ versus prefabrication.
–Degree of restraint and critical dimensioning (Accuracy)
–Joints: structural separation between building elements to allow independent movements.36
Considerations:

37. 37
Wall area
influences the
quantity of
construction
work

38. 38

39. 39

40. Cost-Quality-Time
•The triangle –cost, quality and time is well known with priority between
the three depend on the client’s objectives
•Buildings related to commerce (shopping complexes)-time-top priority-the
building commence operating before certain festive seasons-reduce
financing bills etc.
•With a limited budget, cost may be the top priority.
•Quality will be emphasised -monumental or iconic in terms of height,
architecture, appearance and background.
•Economic buildings do not necessarily mean unsafe or low quality buildings.
•Through proper design, management and execution, an economic building
can provide the required standard at the lowest cost.
40

41. Cost-Quality-Time
41
Low
Quality
Cost?

42. 4Ms and their relations
The basic resources for a building are:
(1)Money
(2)Man power ie labour (employed and paid)
(3)Materials and (purchased)
(4)Machinery (bought or hired)
Themannerinwhichmaterialsareincorporatedintheconstructionfromthe
designstageandinwhichmaterialsarehandledandequipment
deployedonthesiteorinafactoryallaffectthedegreeofexpenditureof
moneyandtheoveralleconomyofabuildingproject.
42