Learning in Psychological Perspectives.pdf

In psychology, "learning" refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, or capability resulting from experience. Learning involves the acquisition of new information, skills, attitudes, or behaviors through various processes. Psychologists study learning to understand how individuals or animals acquire, retain, and apply knowledge or behaviors.

1. Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning
By
KhemrajSubedi
Associate Professor
TikapurMultiple Campus
Far Western University

2. Content Outline
Concepts and Importance of Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning
Applications of Learning theories in real life
situations

3. Concept of Learning
In psychology, "learning" refers to a relatively permanent change in
behavior, knowledge, or capability resulting from experience.
Learning involves the acquisition of new information, skills,
attitudes, or behaviorsthrough various processes. Psychologists
study learning to understand how individuals or animals acquire,
retain, and apply knowledge or behaviors.
According to behaviorists, “Learning is the modification of
behavior as a result of experience. The child brings changes in his
behavior after gaining experiences from the environment.”
According to Gestalt’s view,“The basis of learning is to gain
knowledge after observing the whole structure. Responding towards
the entire situation is learning.”
Accordingto G.D. Boaz (1984)“Learning is the process by which
the individuals acquires various habits, knowledge, and attitudes
that are necessary to meet the demands of life, in general.”

4. Concept of learning cont…
In conclusion, we can make points to give clear cut
view about learning as follows:
Learning is a Continuous Process.
Learning is a universal process.
Learning is Purposive and Goal-oriented.
Learning is a process through which the behavior of the
learner changes or modifies.
Learning is predicted on the basis of change in
behavior.
The change due to learning is permanent.
The change in behavior are the result of experience.
Learning can be termed as mental process.

5. Importance of Learning
Learning is crucial for adaptation and survival.
Learning Plays a Role in Getting Access to New Opportunities.
Learning plays a central role in cognitive development.
Learning influences behavior modification and shaping human actions.
Learning helps individuals understand and regulate their emotions.
Learning is integral to the socialization process abiding by societal
norms, values, and cultural practices.
Learning is crucial for closely tied to encoding, storage, and retrieval of
information, enhancing memory capabilities as a process of memory
formation.
Learning provides individuals with coping mechanisms to deal with
stress, challenges, and adversity.
Learning is key for personality development.
Learning ensures professional development.
Learning is Important in acquiring leadership qualities

6. Classical ConditioningTheory of
Learning
Ivan PetrovichPavlov(1849–
1936)was a Soviet and
Russianphysiologistknown
primarily for his work inclassical
conditioning.
Classical conditioningis a learning
process in which an association is
formed between a naturally
occurring stimulus and a previously
neutral stimulus. Once this
association has been made, the
neutral stimulus becomes a
conditioned stimulus that capable of
invoking a conditioned response.
6

7. Classical ConditioningTheory of Learning
Classical conditioning was first studied in detail byIvan
Pavlov, who conductedexperimentswith dogs and
published his findings in 1897. Classical
conditioning(Pavlovianorrespondent conditioning) refers
to alearningprocedure in which a biologically
potentstimulus(e.g. food) is paired with a previously
neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell).
It also refers to the learning process that results from this
pairing, through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit
a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually similar to the
one elicited by the potent stimulus.

8. Classical Conditioning cont…
Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is
paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the conditioned
stimulus is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the
unconditioned stimulus is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food)
and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is
an unlearnedreflexresponse (e.g., salivation).
After pairing is repeated the organism exhibits a conditioned response
(CR) to the conditioned stimulus when the conditioned stimulus is
presented alone. (A conditioned response may occur after only one
pairing.) Thus, unlike the UR, the CR is acquired through experience,
and it is also less permanent than the UR.
Usually, the conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned
response, but sometimes it is quite different. For this and other
reasons, most learning theorists suggest that the conditioned stimulus
comes to signal or predict the unconditioned stimulus and go on to
analyze the consequences of this signal.

9. Pavlov’s Classical conditioning

10. Characteristics of classical conditioning
The type of behaviourin classical conditioning is reflexive and
involuntary behaviors.
The source of behaviourin classical conditioning is elicited by
the stimulus.
They exhibit both psychological and emotional responses.
Innate predispositions influence how easily an association is
formed between a particular stimulus and response.
It usually associates two stimuli i.e. conditioned stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus.
It expects that conditioned stimulus reliably predicts the
unconditional stimulus.
Conditioned response decreases when the conditioned stimulus
is repeatedly presented alone.

11. Conclusion of Pavlov's Experiment
Pavlov's several experiments found that the recovery of a CR that had
been first conditioned and then extinguished. This illustrates that the
extinction procedure does not completely eliminate the effect of
conditioning. These procedures are the following:
Reacquisition: If the CS is again paired with the US, a CR is again
acquired, but this second acquisition usually happens much faster than
the first one.
Spontaneous recovery: Spontaneous recovery is defined as the
reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a
rest period. That is, if the CS is tested at a later time (for example an
hour or a day) after extinction it will again elicit a CR. This renewed CR
is usually much weaker than the CR observed prior to extinction.
Disinhibition: If the CS is tested just after extinction and an intense but
associatively neutral stimulus has occurred, there may be a temporary
recovery of the conditioned response to the CS.

12. Conclusion of Pavlov's Experiment
Reinstatement: If the US used in conditioning is
presented to a subject in the same place where
conditioning and extinction occurred, but
without the CS being present, the CS often
elicits a response when it is tested later.
Renewal: Renewal is a reemergence of a
conditioned response following extinction when
an animal is returned to the environment in
which the conditioned response was acquired.

13. Application of Classical Conditioning Theory
of Learning in Business Management
Employee Training and Development.
Customer Service and Satisfaction.
Marketing and Advertising.
Management change, consistent and positive
communication, and positive associations with
the change.
Team Building, recognizing and rewarding
teamwork, cohesion and encouraging
collaboration in the future.

14. B.F.Skinner(1904-1990)
Operantconditioningwasfirst
described by
behavioristB.F.Skinner(1904-
1990),thisisthereasonwhy,it
isreferredtoasSkinnerian
conditioning.Asabehaviorist,
Skinnerbelievedthatitwasnot
necessarytolookatinternal
thoughtsandmotivationsto
explainbehavior.Instead,he
suggested,weshouldlookonly
attheexternal,observable
causesofhumanbehavior.

15. Operant Conditioning Theory of Learning
cont…
Operant conditioningis a learning process that
involves either reinforcing or punishing a
behavior. Reinforcement makes it more likely that
the behavior will occur again in the future, where
punishment makes it less likely that the behavior
will be repeated.
Unlike classical conditioning, which emphasizes
the association between stimuli and responses,
operant conditioning is concerned with the
relationship between behaviorand its
consequences.

16. Operant Conditioning Theory of Learning
cont…
Skinner believed that classical conditioning was too simplistic to
be used to describe something as complex as human behavior.
Operant conditioning, in his opinion, better described human
behavior as it examined causes and effects of intentional
behavior. To implement his empirical approach, Skinner
invented theoperant conditioning chamber, or "Skinner Box", in
which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated and could
be exposed to carefully controlled stimuli.
Unlike Thorndike's puzzle box, this arrangement allowed the
subject to make one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the
rate of such responses became Skinner's primary behavioral
measure.Another invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a
graphical record from which these response rates could be
estimated.

17. Operant Conditioning Theory of Learning cont…
These records were the primary data that Skinner and
his colleagues used to explore the effects on response
rate of various reinforcement schedules.A
reinforcement schedule may be defined as "any
procedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism
according to some well-defined rule".The effects of
schedules became, in turn, the basic findings from
which Skinner developed his account of operant
conditioning. He also drew on many less formal
observations of human and animal behavior.

18. Skinners Experiment on Rat
Skinnershowed howpositive reinforcement
worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner
box.
The box contained a lever on the side, and as the
rat moved about the box, it would accidentally
knock the lever.
Immediately it did so that a food pellet would
drop into a container next to the lever.

19. Skinners First Experiment on Rat

20. Skinner’s Second Experiment on Rat

22. Characteristics of operant conditioning
To be a reinforce stimuli, it must immediately follow the response
and must be perceived as contingent upon the response.
In operant conditioning source of behaviouris emitted by
organism.
Biological predispositions behavioursare similar to natural or
instinctive behavioursare more readily conditioned.
In operant conditioning performance of behaviouris more
influenced by the expectation of reinforcement or punishment.
Operant conditioning is non-reflexive and of voluntary behaviours
Operant conditioning exhibits active behavioursthat operate on
the environment

23. Applications of Operant Conditioning
learning in Business Management
Employee Motivation and Productivity:
Positive Reinforcement:Offering bonuses, promotions, or recognition for
achieving specific goals or milestones to motivate employees.
Negative Reinforcement:Removing obstacles or unpleasant conditions
when employees meet performance expectations.
Performance Management:
Feedback Systems:Providing timely and constructive feedback to
reinforce positive behaviorsand correct negative behaviors.
Recognition Programs:Implementing employee-of-the-month awards or
acknowledgment ceremonies to reinforce exceptional performance.
Sales and Marketing:
Commission Structures:Offering sales representatives commissions based
on their performance, encouraging them to increase sales.
Discounts and Promotions:Providing discounts for prompt payment or
repeat business to reinforce customer loyalty.
.

24. Applications of Operant Conditioning Learning in
Business Management
Safety and Compliance:
Safety Incentives:Rewarding employees for adhering to safety protocols
and maintaining a safe work environment.
Penalties for Non-Compliance:Implementing consequences for violating
safety or compliance regulations to discourage unsafe behavior.
Customer Loyalty Programs:
Reward Systems:Loyalty programs that offer discounts, points, or exclusive
benefits for repeat customers, reinforcing their loyalty.
Feedback Loops:Encouraging customers to provide feedback and rewarding
positive reviews to reinforce desirable behaviors.
Leadership and Team Building:
Leadership Style:Leaders can use reinforcement techniques to shape the
behaviorof their teams, fostering a positive and collaborative work
environment.
Recognition and Appreciation:Expressing appreciation for team efforts
and accomplishments can reinforce positive collaboration and performance

25. Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant
Conditioning

26. Observational Learning
Albert Bandura(1925-
2021) was a Canadian-
American psychologist
who developed
Observational learning.
Observational learning
describes the process
oflearningby watching
others, retaining the
information, and then later
replicating the behaviors
that were observed.

27. Observational Learning cont…
Observational learning is a type of learning that occurs
by watching and imitating the actions of others. It is a
form of social learning where an individual learns new
behaviors, skills, or information by observing the
behaviorof others, known as models. The person who is
observing and imitating is referred to as the learner or
observer.
Albert Bandura, a psychologist, is widely known for his
work on observational learning. His social learning
theory, which incorporates observational learning,
emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes such
as attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation in
the learning process.

30. Key concepts related to observational learning include:
Models:These are individuals whose behavioris observed and imitated by others.
Models can be real-life figures, such as parents, teachers, or peers, or they can be
portrayed in media, like characters in movies or television.
Attention:Observational learning begins with the learner paying attention to the
model. The learner must focus on the model's behaviorto gain an understanding
of the actions and their consequences.
Retention:After paying attention, the learner needs to remember the observed
behavior. This involves encoding the information in memory for later retrieval.
Reproduction:Once the behavioris retained in memory, the learner must be
capable of reproducing or imitating the behavior. This requires the physical and
mental ability to perform the observed actions.
Motivation:The observer is more likely to imitate a behaviorif there is
motivation to do so. Motivation can come from various sources, such as
reinforcement, punishment, or identification with the model.
Reinforcement:The consequences of the observed behaviorinfluence whether
the learner is likely to repeat the behaviorin the future. Positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, or lack of reinforcement can impact the likelihood of the
behaviorbeing repeated.

31. Application of Observational Learning in business
management
Leadership Development:
Training and Skill Development:
ConflictResolution:
Customer Service Training:
Change Management:
Decision-Making:
Innovation and Creativity:
Ethical Behavior:
Management teams can benefit from observational learning by
observing successful team dynamics.
Sales and Marketing Techniques:

32. Application of Learning Theory in Real Life Situation
Classical Conditioning:Real-LifeApplication:
i.Employee Motivation:
ii.Anxietydisorders systematic desensitization.
iii.Advertising and Marketing:
iv.ProductPackaging and Design:
Operant Conditioning:Real-LifeApplication:
Employee Performance Management
Operant conditioning principles are applied in
performance management systems. Rewards,
recognition, and feedback are used to reinforce positive
behaviorsand improve employee performance.

33. Application of Learning Theories in real life
situation
Observational learning to facilitate the acquisition of new
skills and knowledge.
Observational learning is evident in children acquiring
language, social behaviors, and various life skills by
watching and imitating their parents or older siblings.
Employee training programs can incorporate observational
learning to teach new skills and workplace behaviors.
Leadership training often involves observational learning.
Marketers often leverage observational learning by
showcasing desired behaviorsor lifestyles in advertising.

34. References
Akpan, B. (2020). Classical and Operant Conditioning—Ivan Pavlov; Burrhus
Skinner.Science Education in Theory and Practice: An Introductory Guide to
Learning Theory, 71-84.
Bander, M., Silverman, D., Klima, B., & Maor, U. (1984). Relativistic
treatment of quark-antiquark spectra in quantum chromodynamics.Physical
Review D,29(9), 2038.
Blackman, D. (2022). Conditioned suppression and the effects of classical
conditioning on operant behavior.
Bouton, M. E., & Moody, E. W. (2004). Memory processes in classical
conditioning.Neuroscience & BiobehavioralReviews,28(7), 663-674.
Greer, R. D., Dudek-Singer, J., & Gautreaux, G. (2020). Observational learning.
InBehaviorAnalysis Around the World(pp. 486-499). Psychology Press.
Kirsch, I., Lynn, S. J., Vigorito, M., & Miller, R. R. (2004). The role of
cognition in classical and operant conditioning.Journal of clinical
psychology,60(4), 369-392.
Fryling, M. J., Johnston, C., & Hayes, L. J. (2011). Understanding observational
learning: An interbehavioralapproach.The Analysis of verbal behavior,27,
191-203.