Learning.pptx for physiotherapy and sarcoma in physiotherapy

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1. Learning : Introduction

2. Meaning A relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of activity, training , practice and experience

3. Outline Meaning Definition Nature and characteristics Learning and maturation determinants of learning Types of learning factors affecting learning

4. Definition According to Underwood (1965): “learning is the acquisition of new responses or the enhanced execution of old ones”. According to M. L. Munn (1961): “learning is comparatively a permanent progressive modification of behavior. This is a special process which results from observation or training”.

5. Nature and Characteristics Learning involves change. All learning involves activities. Learning Requires Interactive Learning is a Lifelong Process.

6. Continue Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life. Learning Involves Problems Solving. Learning is the Process of Acquiring Information. Learning Involves far more than Thinking. Experience is Necessary for Learning

7. Learning and maturation According to Boring and his associates (1962) – “ Maturity is a primary development which should exist before the learned action and behavior. The development of physical abilities is called maturation.” It is seen that unless all physical organs and muscles are not matured , correction in behavior is not possible. It is necessary for a person to learn that he or she should be matured physically or mentally.

8. Difference in learning and maturation MATURATION LEARNING BEHAVIORAL CHANGES ARE NATURAL EFFORTS ARE MADE TO LEARN ANY NEW BEHAVIOR OR TO CHANGE CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR ARE RACIAL CHANGES ARE ONLY IN PERSON WHO LEARNS PRACTICE IS NOT NECESSARY PRACTICE IS NECESSARY TAKES PLACES UPTO AGE OF 25 KEEPS ON LEARNING FOR LIFETIME ALIKE IN ADVERSED AND FAVOURED SITUATION ONLY POSSIBLE IN FAVOURABLE SITUATION NO MOTIVATION IS NEEDED MOTIVATION IS NECESSARY

9. Determinants of learning Motives : motives are of two types : Physical: Food, thirst, sex, rest and sleep etc Social : rewards and punishment 2. Nature of learning material : learning is fast in meaningful material and slow in nonsense syllables it should be rational and continued. 3. Practice : By practice learning is sharpened

10. Continue 4.Learner : humans are more expert in learning than animals. Similarly age, sex, intelligence, mental abilities , feelings , wishes and aspiration level of the learner also effects learning. 5. Environment : quantity of learning is increased in peaceful environment 6. Physiological Factors : physical condition, receptors, effectors etc. if the learner’s sensory organs are defective , fatigued or he has used any intoxicant then the quality and quantity of work is effected.

11. Continue 7. Learning and nervous system : autonomous nervous system has an important role in learning with the central nervous system. 8. Learning method : Learning method and the factors related to it also effects learning

12. Types of learning Motor Learning : Nature and Speed of learning are taken into consideration. For example : learning to ride bike, playing instruments etc Verbal learning : Human learning is mostly verbal . It includes rote learning and rote memorization. Such learning is by the use of signs, pictures, words, figures , voices etc.

13. 3. Problem solving : correct response is selected out of many responses.

14. Learning curve and plateau of learning The two dimensions time and amount of learning are represented on graph Definition of learning curve: If the progress of learning is recorded on the graph the obtained curve line is called learning curve. There are 3 types of curve: Negative accelerated curve Positive accelerated curve S shaped curve

15. Plateau of learning There is a stage in learning where no progress is seen No matter how many trials are given to learner he shows no change Some of the main reasons for this are as follows: Division or disturbance of attention Incomprehensive learning material Excess fatigue Polluted atmosphere Emotional tension

16. Methods of learning Massed and distributed learning Whole and part method Active and passive method

17. Massed and Distributed Learning Massed method : Task learned in a stretch without rest is massed method. Distributed method : Material is learnt with rest in between and with different learning method in number of sessions Massed method is useful in some task and distributed in some other Method to be used depends on the nature of learner and learning material

18. Continue Massed method is more useful in meaningful learning material and with learner having good capacity to learn Distributed method is more useful when the material is not meaningful or is difficult

19. Whole and part method Whole method : the entire learning material is learnt as whole and then whole is revised. This method is more effective in motor learning Part method: the method of learning in which student divides the material to be learned. For example in learning the poem an individual learns one stanza of the poem at once

20. Active and passive method Active method : the learner repeats and re-repeats the material and learns it in active method Passive method : the learner learns it in his mind. When there are more distraction in the external environment active method is useful When the learning method is more difficult and requires attention passive method is useful

21. Theories of learning TRIAL AND ERROR THEORY : This theory was developed by E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949) He argued that learning takes place through trial and error method according to him learning is a gradual process where the individual will make various attempts to learn.

22. Thorndike’s law of learning Law of readiness Law of effect Law of exercise

23. Law of readiness The ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner.

24. Law of exercise The ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning According to Thorndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Examples : Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc.

25. Law of effect The ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection, whereas dissatisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. The ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while those which are not satisfying are eliminated.

26. Evaluation of Thorndike's theory It emphasis on random activities, which is a sheer wastage of time This theory is descriptive so it tells how an organism learns, but it does not clears in what way a organism learns. This theory neglects the mental process of learning It emphasize on learning with making trials again and again.

27. Classical conditioning leaning theory • Ivan Petrovich Pavlov Classical conditioning : A basic form of learning in which one stimulus comes to serve as a signal for the occurrence of a second stimulus. During classical conditioning organisms acquires information about the relation between various stimulus not simple association between them. Stimulus : A physical event capable of affecting behavior.

28. terminologies Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) : A stimulus that can evoke an unconditioned (natural) response for the first time it is presented. Unconditioned response (UCR) : The response evoked by an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus (CS) : The stimulus that is repeatedly paired with UCS Conditioned response (CR) : In classical conditioning the response to the unconditioned stimulus.

29. Basic principles Acquisition : it is the process by which a conditioned stimulus acquired the ability to elicit a conditioned response through repeated pairings of an unconditioned stimulus with the conditioned stimulus Stimulus generalization : the tendency of stimulus similar to a CS to evoke CR Stimulus discrimination : the process by which an organism learns to respond to certain stimuli but not to others.

30. Temporal arrangement of CS-UCS pairing Forward conditioning Simultaneous conditioning Backward conditioning

31. Forward conditioning In this the presentation of CS always precedes the presentation UCS It is of two types : Delay conditioning : in this the onset of UCS begins while the CS is still present Trace conditioning : the onset of the CS precedes the onset of UCS and they do not overlap

32. Simultaneous conditioning In this the CS and UCS begins and end at the same time Backward conditioning A type of conditioning in which the presentation of UCS, precedes the presentation of CS

33. Educational significance of the theory Language learning by associating words with pictures or meanings and audio-visual aids To develop favorable attitude towards learning, teachers, subjects, school etc Developing good habits Breaking of bad habits – deconditioning process

34. Instrumental conditioning or Operant conditioning Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. It was developed by B.F. Skinner

35. Examples of Operant Conditioning children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions a child who lost recess privileges because he talk out of turn in class

36. Components of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement : A kind of stimulus that aims to increase the strength in behavior due to its consequence Punishment : Any event that causes a decrease in the behavior

37. Types of reinforcement Positive Reinforcements are favorable events that are presented after the behavior (Reward Learning) After executing the learning plan, the principal said “Great job”. Negative Reinforcement a response or behavior is strengthened by stopping, removing or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus (escape-avoidance learning) Examples: – You leave your house early to avoid being late – You clean up your mess in the kitchen to avoid in a fight with your roommate

38. When is positive reinforcement most effective? When it occurs immediately after the behavior When the reinforcement is presented enthusiastically and frequently When is negative reinforcement most effective? it is most effective when reinforcers are presented immediately following a behavior

39. Punishment Punishment is a kind of stimulus that aims to decrease the strength in behavior due to its consequence.

40. Types Positive punishment involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following an undesirable behavior (punishment by application) Example: wearing favorite dress to class but reprimanded by the teacher for violating the school’s dress code

41. Negative punishment It involves taking something good or desirable away to reduce the occurrence of particular behavior. (punishment by removal) Example: after getting low grades in her subjects because of spending more time in texting rather than in studying, her mother takes her cell phone away. Negative punishment is more effective if: • It immediately follows a response. • It is applied consistently.

42. Schedules of reinforcement (A) Continuous Reinforcement An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behaviour occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off. Response rate is SLOW Extinction rate is FAST

43. (B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Behaviour is reinforced only after the behaviour occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly. Response rate is FAST Extinction rate is MEDIUM

44. (C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is shut off. Response rate is MEDIUM Extinction rate is MEDIUM

45. (D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement Behaviour is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing. Response rate is FAST Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)

46. E) Variable Interval Reinforcement Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times. Response rate is FAST Extinction rate is SLOW

47. Basic principles Shaping : A technique in which close and closer approximations to desired behavior are required for the delivery of positive reinforcement Chaining : a procedure that establishes a sequence of responses, which leads to a reward following the final response in the chain

48. INSIGHT FOR LEARNING Insight learning is a type of learning or problem solving that happens all-of-a-sudden through understanding the relationships of various parts of a problem rather than through trial and error Wolfgang Köhler was a psychologist who conducted experiments in which insight learning was observed in animal behavior. .

49. Learning by Insight Kohler ’s Experiment In one experiment Kohler put the chimpanzee ,sultan ,inside a cage & a banana was hung from the roof of the cage . A box was placed inside the cage. The chimpanzee tried to reach at the banana by jumping but could not succeed.. Suddenly ,he got an idea & used the box as a jumping platform by placing it just below the hanging banana

50. Learning by Insight Kohler ’s Experiment In other experiment , Kohler made this problem more difficult Now it required two or three boxes to reach the bananas . Moreover the placing of one box on the other required different specific arrangement. Banana was placed outside the cage of the chimpanzee. Two sticks ,one larger than the other ,were placed inside the cage. One was hollow at one end so that the other stick could be thrust into it to form a longer stick. The banana was so kept that it could not be picked up by any one of the stick.

51. Insight involves following criteria (a)The situation as a whole is perceived by the learner. (b)The learner tries to see and judge the relationships between various factors involved in the situation. (c)As a result, the learner is helped in the sudden grasping of the solution of the problem.

52. Factors affecting Insight (a)Experience: Past experiences help in the insightful solution of the problems. A child cannot solve the problems of Modern Mathematics unless he is well acquainted with its symbolic language. (b) Intelligence: Insightful solution depends upon the basic intelligence of the learner .The more intelligent the individual is the greater will be his insight . (c) Learning situation : How insightfully the organism will react , depends upon the situation in which he has to act. Some situations are more favorable than the others for insightful solution. As a common observation ,insight occurs when the learning situation is so arranged that all the necessary aspects are open for observation.

53.  (d)Initial efforts Insightful learning has to pass through the process of trial & error .But this stage does not last long .These initial efforts ,in the form of simple trial & error mechanism, open the way for insightful learning. (e) Repetition & Generalization After having an insightful solution of a particular type of problem, the organism tries to repeat it in another situation ,demanding similar type of solution .The way found in one situation helps him to react insightfully in the other identical situations.

54. Educational Implication 1The whole is greater than the parts and, the situation should be viewed as whole. 2.The use of blind fumbling and mechanical trial and error should be minimized. The learner should try to see relevant relationship and act intelligently. 3.The purpose or motive plays the central role in the learning process.