Lecture_6_-_Memory_LTM_W6 (2).pcccccccccccccccccccccccptx

cccccccccccccccccccc

1. Memory (LTM) WID2003 (Fundamentals of Cognitive Science)

2. Learning objectives Distinguish the differences between STM & LTM Understand how information is stored and retrieved in LTM Able to define the factors that aid encoding

3. Topics LTM vs STM Coding in LTM Types of LTM How are information stored in LTM? Factors that aid encoding How do we retrieve information from LTM?

4. Give some examples of your childhood memory?

5. LTM LTM : “archive” of information about past events in our lives and knowledge we have learned

6. LTM works closely with WM to create ongoing experience Provides both an archive that can be referred to when remembering events from the past , and a wealth of background information that we are constantly consulting as we use working memory to make contact with what is happening at a particular moment .

7. LTM vs STM (Activity) Listen/read to the words read to you. Right after the last word, write down all of the words you can remember in the correct order. *words on next slide

8. List of words Fish Watch Car Television Shoe Carrot Mouse Pen Door Fan Scissors Ticket Burger Sofa Apple Now, write the words…

9. List of words Fish Watch Car Television Shoe Carrot Mouse Pen Door Fan Scissors Ticket Burger Sofa Apple

10. LTM vs STM (Activity) Listen to the words read to you. Right after the last word, write down all of the words you can remember in correct order. how many words you remembered from the first five entries on the list, the middle five, and the last five

11. Serial Position Curve (Murdoch, 1962) memory is better for words at the beginning of the list( pe ) and at the end of the list( re ). Primacy effect – had time to rehearse & transfer to LTM Recency effect – words are still in STM pe re

12. Serial Position Curve ( Glanzer and Cunitz , 1966) Hypothesis : rehearsal of the early words might lead to better memory by presenting the list at a slower pace, so there was more time between each word and participants had more time to rehearse Conclusion : Primacy effect due to longer time presented between words Recency effect is due to storage of recently presented items in STM

13. Coding in LTM Similar to that in STM Auditory Visual Semantic (predominant in LTM) As demonstrated by Sachs (1967) Read the following

14. Sach (1967) There is an interesting story about the telescope. In Holland, a man named Lippershey was an eyeglass maker. One day his children were playing with some lenses. They discovered that things seemed very close if two lenses were held about a foot apart. Lippershey began experimenting and his “spyglass” attracted much attention. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. Galileo at once realized the importance of the discovery and set about to build an instrument of his own.

15. Which of the following sentences is identical to a sentence in the passage and which sentences are changed. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it. A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it. Outcome : Correct (1) , Changed (2) ; Many also identified 3 = 4  remembered meaning, not word

16. Which movie did this scene come from?

17. Types of LTM

18. Episodic / Semantic / Procedural

19. Declarative memory Declarative : conscious recollection of events we have experienced or facts we have learned Episodic : personal experience events / memory of specific events including when and where they occurred E.g. : remember eating Nasi Lemak yesterday Semantic : facts and knowledge about the world including numbers, concepts, and vocabulary, not skills / memory of general knowledge not associated with a particular context E.g.: knowledge about how a computer works the oil & gas company associated to KLCC the famous character of Disneyland

20. What’s the right pair for the following words? Doctor – ______ Bread – ______ Black – ______ Salt – _______

21. What’s the right pair for the following word? Doctor – Nurse Bread – Butter Black – White Salt – Pepper

22. Implicit (non declarative) memory occurs when a past experience influences behavior, but unaware that the experience influences behavior Repetition priming : when the response to an item increases in speed or accuracy because it has been encountered recently Shows list of words (very short presentation time) like “Robot”, then ask you later to complete the stem: “Ro____” you are more likely to fill in the word “robot” even though you don’t recall the earlier presentation. Procedural memory : memory that is expressed through performance rather than recollection / memory for actions, skills and operations E.g. : typing, riding bicycle

23. List of words Anatomy Chimney Avocado Bachelor Cabaret Hibiscus Carrot Filtrate Copycate Fan Scissors Ticket Burger Sofa Apple Now, complete the words…

24. Complete the following words _V__AD_ __IMN_Y AN___MY C__AR_T __B_SC_S _LL_P_E _S_RES_O _L_MI_G_ _NE_T_A G__DO_A

25. _V__AD_ = AVACADO __IMN_Y = CHIMNEY AN___MY = ANATOMY C__AR_T = CABARET __B_SC_S = HIBISCUS _LL_P_E = ELLIPSE _S_RES_O = ESPRESSO _L_MI_G_ = FLAMINGO _NE_T_A = INERTIA G__DO_A = GONDOLA

26. Implicit memory : Repetition priming Tulving (1962) Presented words and then fragments to be completed Participants completed many more primed words than new words Did performance on the word-completion task depend on conscious remembering of the words? Recognition vs recall Recall : presented with stimuli, after a delay, are asked to remember as many of the stimuli as possible - eg : facts Recognition : present stimuli during a study period and then, later, present the same stimuli plus other stimuli not initially presented ; participant pick correct stimulus – eg : MCQ

27. Implicit memory : Procedural memory of how to do things do things without being consciously aware of how they do them E.g. : writing – can’t remember learning, but can do it, riding a bike, tying shoes – balance? tying steps?

28. How does information becomes stored in LTM? Encoding : process of acquiring information and transforming it into LTM Retrieval : process of transferring information from LTM back into WM , where it becomes accessible to consciousness Rehearsal doesn’t guarantee that information will be transferred into LTM (e.g. Pizza phone number) Maintenance rehearsal : helps maintain information in memory, but not effective for transferring information into LTM Elaborative rehearsal : associate meaning of an item or make connections between the item, effective for encoding info into LTM

29. Elaborative vs Maintenance rehearsal https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A_0yvNrW-tM

30. Task 1 Count the number of vowels in each word : chair mathematics elephant lamp car elevator thoughtful cactus Now, write down/say the words

31. Task 2 Visualize how useful the item might be if you were stranded on an uninhabited island : umbrella exercise forgiveness rock hamburger sunlight coffee bottle Now, write down the word

32. Which task was easier to process? Task 2 memory for words is better when the words are processed by relating them to other knowledge, such as how useful an object might be on an uninhabited island, than when processed based on a non meaningful characteristic such as the number of vowels

33. Levels of processing ( Craik and Lockhart, 1972) memory depends on how information is encoded (depth-of processing) Shallow processing : involves little attention to meaning E.g. task 1 ; maintenance rehearsal Deep processing : involves close attention to meaning and relates it to something else E.g. Task 2 ; eloborative rehearsal ; better memory Craik & Tulving (1975) – demonstrates how depth of processing can be varied? Ask different questions abt a word. Shallow – word’s physical characteristics Deeper – word’s sound Deepest – word’s meaning

34. Is memory performance determined by depth of processing only? How abt relationship btwn how info is encoded vs retrieved?

35. Transfer Appropriate-Processing memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval Morrison et al (1977) – 2 tasks Shown 32 target words, 32 new words Recognition test : indicate whether words had been presented Type of task during encoding Sentence Target Answer Meaning task The ____ rode the bicycle boy “yes” Rhyming task ______ rhymes with toy boy “yes”

36. Outcome : Meaning task (a): results in deeper processing than rhyming task (consistent with Levels of processing) Rhyming task (b) : focus on word’s sound, able to remember more words (inconsistent with LoP ) Meaning in (b) : “shallower” processing than sound Thus, memory depends: Level of processing How well conditions at encoding and retrieval match

37. 3 Factors that aid encoding 1. Forming connections with other information (a) Craik & Tulving , (1975) Which is easier to remember? She cooked the chicken. The giant bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken. Memory better when presented within complex sentence Creates more connections between words to be remembered and other information(cues during retrieval)

38. (b) Bower & Winzenz (1970) : whether or not imagery helps to create connections to enhance memory 2 groups : 1) studied pairs of nouns (e.g.: boat and tree) 2) form mental imagery Outcome : Participants who created images remembered more than twice of those who repeated word pairs

39. (c) Rogers et al (1979) Self-reference effect : memory is better if asked to relate a word to yourself Method of exp similar to Craik & Tulving’s (1975) (Cue question – word – apply question – answer (y/n)) e.g “Is the word long” vs “Does the word describe you” Why? Depth of processing Describe you – deeper processing Word length – shallower Self (cue) info that links to word

40. 2. Generating information Own generated material enhances learning and retention rather than passively receiving it Slameka and Graf (1978) : generation effect 1. Read group: Read these pairs of related words. king–crown; horse–saddle; lamp–shade; etc. 2. Generate group: Fill in the blank with a word that is related to the first word. king– cr _____ ; horse– sa ______ ; lamp– sh _____ ; etc. After studying in any of these two, presented wt first word of each pair, indicate the pairing word Outcome : generate group (28%) > read group (study tips!!)

41. 3. Organizing information apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants, grape, hat, melon, table, gloves Write down the items. Did you group similar items together? Apple, plum, cherry ; Shoe, coat, pants Remembering words in a category serve as a retrieval cue for other words in that category (a) Gordon and Bower et al (1969) Present organized items in organized tree structure (e.g. : minerals, animals, clothing, transportation)

42. Outcome : Recall similar to tree organization (e.g. minerals – metals – common) Organized tree (Average recall : 73 words from all 4 trees) Random words (21 words) (study tips!!)

43. Organization as below may help you during studying ...

44. (b) Bransford & Johnson (1972) If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn’t be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on the steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that the string could break on the instrument. Then there would be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong. (p. 719)

45. What was that all about?! Problems understanding the passage? Difficult to remember? Outcome : See pic before read passage (remember 2x) as Did not see picture / After passage Key : ORGANIZATION Pic as framework to help reader link sentences to understand/create meaningful story

46. How do we retrieve info from LTM? Retrieval cues : info that help us remember other information stored in memory What is your experience that reminds you of something else? E.g : hearing Hari Raya song, brings back memories for events Recall procedures Free recall – asked to recall stimuli in any order Cued recall – presented wt cues(word/phrase) to aid recall (e.g. : “birds” (pigeon, eagle) , “furniture” (chair, table)) Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) Free call : 40% Cued recall : 75%

47. Mantyla (1986) – presented list of 600 nouns Learning stage : participants write 3 words associated wt each noun (e.g. : 3 words for banana) Yellow, bunches, edible Memory test : presented the 3 words, asked to produce the word Outcome : 90% of 600 words

48. Encoding specificity Information is learned together with its context Playing firecrackers during Hari Raya/CNY Godden & Baddeley (1975) : diving experiment G1 : Put on diving equipments, studied list of words whilst underwater G2 : study words on land Recall : G1 (underwater) , G2 (on land) Outcome : best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same condition Similar outcome by Grant et al (1998) Studying in different environment

49. Godden & Baddeley Grant et al (1998) https://youtu.be/em5sjX9NYy8?si=a_DBrVVOu57XTVHk

50. Summary - Memory https://youtu.be/bSycdIx-C48?si=o63pA69vP54X8gSY https://youtu.be/HVWbrNls-Kw?si=_cAeRvRs3jyuJXt0

51. Reading list Essential Stillings et al. (1995). Cognitive Science: An Introduction, Chapter 3, section 3.2 Supplementary The Serial Position Effect in Free Recall,” by B. B. Murdoch, Jr., Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64, pp. 482–488.

52. How to study for exams.... http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NJR0igXs6Wc&feature=endscreen&NR=1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xDfzxXXJdw