Linkers

A detailed guide to study linkers

1. Different Ways and P urposes for Using Linkers A Presentation by: Mrs. Mousmi Majumdar Master Trainer Department of English D. A. V. Public School, Hehal , Ranchi

2. What are Linkers? Linkers are words or phrases that we use to link (i.e. connect or join) ideas. They relate one idea or sentence of the text with another. They connect the ideas logically and give paragraphs coherence. Linkers can be conjunctions, connectors, prepositions, adverbial expressions or simply discourse markers .

3. Why are they used? Linkers make it easy for us to compare, contrast, illustrate, define, and summarize our thoughts and develop coherent paragraphs . They help us in listing facts chronologically, linking events across time, comparing and contrasting sketches, explaining graphic images and illustrating the main idea.

4. Main types of L inking Words Conjunctions Connectors Prepositions Adverbials Discourse Markers Note: The words used as linkers may appear in multiple categories. They overlap.

5. Conjunctions   Conjunctions join sentences together and make them more compact. Usually they appear in the middle of a sentence. However, sometimes they appear at the beginning also.

6. Conjunctions   Conjunctions may take a comma before them(if the following clause is a long one; but never after.) The minister paused briefly before he started to speak. The results were disappointing for the third year running, so it was decided to close three of the smaller branches . They are also called subordinators if they introduce subordinate clauses.

7. connectors   C onnectors are words or phrases used to link ideas from one sentence to the next and to give paragraphs coherence. Sentence connectors perform different functions and are placed at the beginning of a sentence .

8. connectors Connectors are followed by a comma. They are used to introduce, order , contrast, sequence ideas, theory, data etc. Connectors are ,sometimes, taken as a sub category of adverbs.

9. Difference between Conjunctions and Connectors

10. Clauses joined by Conjunctions are together in the same sentence. CONJUNCTION: Mount Kilimanjaro is on the Equator, but it has a covering of snow. Connector ones are separate. CONNECTOR : Mount Kilimanjaro is on the Equator. Nevertheless, it has a covering of snow. The main other differences concern punctuation and sentence positions.

11. The link is physical and mental. The link is mental. ( Linguists would call physical linking “syntactic” and the mental kind “semantic ”. The fact that connectors show only a meaning link is probably the reason why some people call them “logical” connectors .) Difference between Conjunctions and Connectors

12. A Conjunction does not usually have a following comma. A Connector is followed by a comma. Difference between Conjunctions and Connectors

13. A Conjunction is always placed before the subject of its verb. A Connector may, quite often, come after the subject (but never after the main verb), in which case, it must be separated by comma on either side. Difference between Conjunctions and Connectors

14. Most Conjunctions may go either before or between the two verbs that they join ( but  is actually one of the exceptional conjunctions that cannot go before the two verbs). Connectors must go between the two verb they join….albeit separate sentences. Difference between Conjunctions and Connectors

15. Conjunctions have many different meanings. but  can express either “contrast” or “concession” and  can express not only addition but also result if  can show different types of condition Connectors tend to have a more precise meaning than Conjunctions . Difference between Conjunctions and Connectors

16. Linking with Prepositions Some linkers are  prepositions . They can link the same kinds of ideas as conjunction and adverbs, but the grammar is different . They don’t link clauses or sentences. They show a link between a word or phrase, usually a  noun  or  noun phrase , and the whole sentence . Example: After, before, Since, besides, etc.

17. Linking with Prepositions I went for a walk despite the rain. In spite of her heavy cold, she managed to give a brilliant presentation. Note that the ideas following despite (the rain) and in spite of (her heavy cold) are not clauses, they are  nouns  or  noun phrases .

18. Linking with Prepositions Due to the terrible weather we have cancelled the picnic . Note that the idea following due to (the terrible weather) is a noun phrase.

19. Linking with Prepositions Besides  can be used as a preposition to add ideas (it can also be used as an adverb). Besides the problem with transport, we also had to deal with a difficult financial situation. Note how the idea following  besides  (the problem with transport) is a noun phrase.

20. Linking with adverbials Some L inkers are  adverbials . They can make meaning connections but not grammatical. They do not join clauses in sentences. There is either a full stop or a semi colon(careful writing) before it. They are followed by a comma. Example: However, then, therefore, meanwhile, consequently, in fact, also, as a result, on the other hand, indeed, etc.

21. Discourse Markers A  discourse marker  is a word or a phrase that plays a role in managing the flow and structure of discourse. Since their main function is at the level of discourse (sequences of utterances/sentences) rather than at the level of utterances or sentences, discourse markers are relatively  syntax-independent. Most of the discourse markers are adverbials. Some are conjunctions also. Example: as a matter of fact, more importantly, at first, first of all, in the first place, to begin with, in the beginning, once upon a time, in conclusion, finally, to sum it up, in the end, lastly, in short, eventually, etc.

22. Discourse Markers The term  discourse marker  was coined by Deborah Schiffrin  in her 1988 book  Discourse Markers .

23. [friends are talking] A: So ,  I’ve decided I’m going to go to the bank and ask for a car loan . B: That sounds like a good idea . C: Well ,  you need a car . B: Right . A: Anyway ,  I was wondering if either of you would teach me how to drive . The discourse markers in this extract have a number of uses : so  marks the beginning of a new part of the conversation. well  marks a change in the focus (from getting a car loan to needing a car). right  marks a response (B is agreeing with C). anyway  marks a shift in topic (from buying a new car to having driving lessons). Usage of Discourse Markers

24. Different Usages of Linkers

25. Reason and Effect So Since As Because Because of Therefore Accordingly Consequently   On account of   In order to  So as to   In order that   So that   Owing to   Due to Due to the fact that Owing to the fact that Seeing that Thus Hence As a consequence As a result  

26. Reason and Effect It was raining(reason). I stayed at home(result). It was raining, so I stayed at home . (conjunction) It was raining. Therefore, I stayed at home . (connector) We could also change the order and put the result before the reason and use a linker such as  because . I stayed at home because it was raining . (conjunction) The linkers  so, because  and  therefore  show a relationship of  reason and result , or cause and effect .     Because of  /  On account of  /  Owing to  /  Due to introduce a noun phrase.    

27. Reason and Effect Purpose In order to  /  So as to  Introduce an infinitive of purpose. In order that  /  So that  Introduce a sentence.  She opened the window in order that/so that the wind could come in. Consequence   Consequently  /  As a consequence  /  As a result  /  Therefore As a consequence of  /  As a result of   is followed by a noun phrase . Hundreds of people became sick as a consequence  of/ as a result of the poor sanitary conditions .

28. Giving a Reason Due to / Owing to ( must be followed by a noun ) Due to the fact that / O wing to the fact that “Due to the fact that oil prices have risen, the inflation rate has gone up by 1%25.” “Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the company has been unable to fulfill all its orders.” Because (can be used at the beginning or the middle of a sentence) Because of, on account of, owing to, due to (followed by a noun) “Because of bad weather, the football match was postponed .”

29. Contrast However   Nevertheless   Still   Even so  On the contrary  Otherwise After all For all of that Notwithstanding   While But Although / even though Despite / despite the fact that In spite of / in spite of the fact that Nonetheless While Whereas Unlike In theory… in practice… Though Instead of alternatively In contrast On the one hand ... On the other hand. In contrast to / Contrary to. (Followed by a noun phrase) Whereas (Not separated by commas) Yet Since So… that

30. Contrast BUT/ALTHOUGH/HOWEVER It was raining. I went for a walk.(Contrasting ideas ) It was raining, but I went for a walk. Although it was raining, I went for a walk. It was raining. However, I went for a walk . BUT/ YET I was born in England but I feel more Spanish I was born in England yet I feel more Spanish .

31. Contrast HOWEVER/NEVERTHELESS I wanted lamb for my wedding dinner. Nevertheless, I agreed to pork. I wanted lamb for my wedding dinner. However, there was none at the butchers .

32. Contrast THOUGH / ALTHOUGH / EVEN THOUGH Although he looks innocent, he’s actually a complete trickster. I’m going to buy you a present even though you didn’t buy me one.

33. Contrast ‘In spite of’ or ‘ despite’ is always followed by a gerund or ‘the fact that’ or a noun +  clause. Despite arriving late, he acted like nothing was wrong. I’m proceeding in spite of your objections. Despite my misgivings, I agreed to hire him for the job.  

34. Comparison Similarly While Unlike In theory… in practice … Likewise Whereas But On the other hand Except By comparison When compared to Equally In the same way

35. Comparing Sometimes we want to compare two things that are different: I always go to bed early. My sister goes to bed very late. This is also a kind of contrast and we can make the relationship clear using linkers such as  while, whereas, but, however  or  on the other hand. I always go to bed early, whereas my sister goes to bed very late. I always go to bed early. My sister, on the other hand, goes to bed very late.

36. Time   At once Immediately Meanwhile At the same time At length In the meantime In the end Then As Before that After that After When Until Whenever Before Unless

37. Adding points As well as Too Apart from Besides And Also Even Again Moreover Further Furthermore Similarly In addition as well as

38. Adding points One other common relationship between ideas is  addition , when we want to add ideas. These can be very simple : I like seafood. I like spicy food . We could add these ideas with linkers such as  and, also  and  too : I like seafood and spicy food. I like seafood. I also like spicy food. I like seafood. I like spicy food too.

39. Adding points Moreover  /  Furthermore  /  In addition  /  Besides  /  What's more   Used after a strong pause and separated from the sentences. They are introduced by a comma. As well as  /  In addition to  /  Besides   Used to add one more piece of information. Followed by a noun phrase.

40. Adding points In formal writing we can join ideas like these with linkers such as  furthermore, moreover, what is more, in addition  and  besides. The cost of relocation would be very high. There are no suitable premises currently available. A move would be unpopular with staff. The cost of relocation would be very high. Furthermore, there are no suitable premises currently available and a move would be unpopular with staff.

41. Giving examples For example Such as For instance In this case In another case On this occasion In this situation In this manner To illustrate N amely

42. Giving examples The most common way to give examples is by using  for example  or  for instance . Namely  refers to something by name. “There are two problems: namely, the expense and the time.” Exemplification   For example  /  For instance  Introduces an example referring to previously stated ideas. Such as  Introduces an example referring to the last idea.

43. Summarising In short In brief In summary To summarise In a nutshell To conclude In conclusion To sum up Thus On the whole

44. Sequencing ideas The former, … the latter Firstly, secondly, finally The first point is Lastly/ At last F ollowing/ The following First of all / Firstly / To begin with / First  …. Second / Secondly / Then  … Third / Thirdly / After that ... Next/The next stage  … Finally / in short / to sum up / in conclusion / lastly / last but not least … Then Now At this point After this Subsequently/Eventually/Previously

45. Order of Importance Most / more importantly Most significantly Above all Primarily Essentially

46. Case Study

47. Activity 2: Identify the linking words / phrases Do teams in organisations need leaders ? How and why the leader was selected also appears to affect the leader’s effectiveness. Addison (1996), for instance , asserts that if a leader is elected democratically by the team and from within the team , there is more likelihood of an effective work relationship between team members. However, Smith (1996 ) notes that more than 60% of 500 workplace teams studied operate with team leaders chosen by the middle or upper management. Furthermore, in more than half of these, the team leaders did not have the confidence of the team members to the extent that effectiveness and efficiency was compromised .

48. Activity 3: Identify the linking words / phrases Here is some advice for you to follow when doing grammar exercises. First , put everything you need on your desk: your book, a pencil and an eraser. Then, read the instructions of the activity carefully. After that, read the whole exercise and the grammar rules and start writing the answers. Finally, check your answers with the answer key or with your teacher

49. Activity 4: Match the clauses and linkers. Although I felt tired, I decided to go to the party. She didn't go to the party because she felt tired. Due to the bad weather the picnic was cancelled Despite feeling tired I went to the party. She felt tired after her long journey. Therefore she decided not to go to the party. I felt tired after a long day at work. However, I went to the party because I wanted to see Janine. Parties can be fun when you're in the right mood. On the other hand, when you're tired they can be a strain.

50. Activity 5 : Join the clauses using suitable linkers. The Crown Plaza is popular with shoppers. The Crown Plaza has good public transport. Most tourists go to Golden Sands Beach. Golden Sands Beach is one of the most polluted in the country. I'm going to do a course in Italian next year. I'm going to improve my Mandarin next year. I'm not very good at languages. I'm going to do a course in Mandarin next year. I'm quite good at languages. I'm going to take courses in Korean, Japanese and French next year.

51. Activity 5 : Join the clauses using suitable linkers. The traffic was terrible this morning. I managed to get to work on time. The traffic was terrible this morning. I was about 25 minutes late for work. Smoking is bad for your health. Smoking is antisocial because many people find it unpleasant. Smoking is a waste of money. I don't think Charlie Wong would be a good candidate for this job. He is hard working and reliable. He has no experience in this area. He has never shown the slightest interest in this kind of work. He is rather old.

52. Activity 6: Write a story using linkers for coherence.