MEMORY, PROCESS AND FOGETTING IN PSYCHOLOGY

MEMORY IN PSYCHOLOGY

1. MEMORY AYO NELSON CLINICAL INSTRUCTOR LIRA INSTTITUTE OF HEALTH AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES EMAIL: [email protected]

2. Memory LESSON OUTLINE Definition of memory Stages of memory/ stages of information processing (i.e. encoding , storage and retrieval .) Characteristics of memory in terms of encoding , duration and capacity Describe the multi-store model of memory: Atkinson and Shiffrin . Describe the theories of forgetting: Decay theory , Motivated forgetting theory, Interference theory, and Cue-dependent forgetting theory. Outline the types of memory disorders .

3. Memory Memory: It is defined as the ability to encode, store and retrieve information and past experiences over time. Cognition : defined as the processes of acquiring and using knowledge. Que: Differentiate btn Human brain and Computer

4. Stages of Memory There are three stages of memory processing and they include: Encoding: process of receiving input and transforming it into a form or code, which can be stored. Storage: process of actually putting coded information into memory Retrieval: process of gaining access to stored, coded information when it is needed.

5. Stages of Memory ENCODING When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored. (Think of this as similar to changing your money into a different currency when you travel from one country to another) For example , a word which is seen (on the whiteboard) may be stored if it is changed (encoded) into a sound or a meaning (i.e. semantic processing)

6. Stages of memory There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed): Visual (picture) Acoustic (sound) Semantic (meaning) For example, how do you remember a telephone number you have looked up in the phone book? If you see it then you are using visual coding , but if you are repeating it to yourself you are using acoustic coding (by sound).

7. Stages of memory Evidence suggests that the principle coding system in short term memory ( STM ) is acoustic coding. When a person is presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to hold them in STM by rehearsing them ( verbally ) Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of whether the list of items is presented acoustically ( someone reads them out ), or visually (on a sheet of paper). The principle encoding system in long term memory ( LTM ) appears to be Semantic coding (by meaning). However, information in LTM can also be coded both visually and acoustically .

8. Stages of memory 2. STORAGE AND MEMORY This concerns the nature of memory stores , i.e. where the information is stored, how long the memory lasts for ( duration ), how much can be stored at any time ( capacity ) and what kind of information is held. The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it. There has been a significant amount of research regarding the differences between Short Term Memory ( STM ) and Long Term Memory ( LTM ).

9. Stages of memory Most adults can store btn 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. Miller put this idea forward: he called it the magic number 7. He thought that short-term memory capacity was 7 (plus or minus 2) items because it only had a certain number of “ slots ” in which items could be stored.

10. Stages of memory For Short-term memory ; Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in each slot . Indeed, if we can “ chunk ” information together we can store a lot more information in our short-term memory . In contrast the capacity of Long Term Memory ( LTM ) is thought to be unlimited. Information can only be stored for a brief duration in STM (0 – 30 seconds) , but LTM can last a lifetime .

11. Stages of memory 3. RETRIEVAL AND MEMORY This refers to getting information out of storage. If we can not remember something, it may be because we are unable to retrieve it. When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the differences between STM and LTM become very clear.

12. Stages of memory STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. For example , if a group of participants are given a list of words to remember, and they are asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants go though the list in the order they heard it in order to retrieve the information. LTM is stored and retrieved by association. This is why you can remember what you went upstairs for if you go back to the room where you first thought about it.

13. Stages of memory Organizing information can help aid retrieval . You can organize information in sequence (such as alphabetically, by size or by time) Imagine a patient being discharged from the hospital whose treatment involved taking various pills at various times, changing their dressing and doing exercise. If the doctor gives these instructions in the order which they must be carried out throughout the day (i.e. in sequence of time), this will help the patient remember them.

14. Characteristics of memory in terms of encoding, duration and capacity Capacity How much information it can store. Duration How long the information stays in the store for. Encoding The way we store that particular information.

15. Characteristics of memory in terms of encoding, duration and capacity SENSORY MEMORY Duration: small Capacity: small Encoding: Haptic: encodes information from touch Iconic: encodes what you see Echoic: encodes things by sound

16. Characteristics of memory in terms of encoding, duration and capacity SHORT TERM MEMORY Duration: 2-30 seconds Peterson & Peterson concluded that information disappears rapidly, when rehearsal is prevented. Capacity: Average 7 2 is the average pieces of information for individuals with the help of Digital Span Technique, which is where someone will read something in a sequence either by: Serial Recall: same order Free Recall: any order. Encoding : Echoic Conrad concluded that we must convert visual presented material to an acoustic code.  

17. Characteristics of memory in terms of encoding, duration and capacity LONG TERM MEMORY Duration: unlimited and relatively permanent. Capacity: unlimited Encoding: Mainly semantic (by meaning), Baddeley 1966

18. Multi store model of memory: Atkinson and Shiffrin Multi store model ( A tkinson and Shiffrin, 1968 ) is a classical model of memory. It is sometimes called the Modal model or the dual process model. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggested that memory is made up of a series of stores. Multi store model describes memory in terms of information flowing through a system. Information is detected by the sense organ and enters the sensory memory. If attended to this information enters the short term memory.

19. Multi-store model of memory: Atkinson and Shiffrin Information from the short term memory is transferred to the long term memory only if that information is rehearsed . If rehearsal does not occur, then the information is forgotten, lost from short term memory through the process of displacement or decay . Modifying the model: More goes on in short-term memory besides rehearsal; this is now called working memory. Some information seems to get straight from sensory experience into long-term memory; this is automatic processing.

20. Working memory Although it is called “memory,” working memory is not a store of memory like STM. It is a set of memory procedures or operations. One way to prevent the decay of information from short-term memory is to use working memory to rehearse it. Maintenance rehearsal It is the process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory. We engage in maintenance rehearsal to keep a something that we want to remember (e.g., a person’s name, e-mail address, or phone number) in mind long enough to write it down, use it, or potentially transfer it to long-term memory.

21. Theories of Forgetting Forgetting ( retention loss ) refers to apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual’s long term memory . It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from the memory storage. The theories of Forgetting are : The memory Trace Decay Theory The I nterference Theory The Repression or Motivated Forgetting Theory The displacement Theory The Theory of Storage Failure. Cue-dependent forgetting

22. The Decay theory/ Memory Traces Decay theory Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of automatic decay or fading of the memory traces. Trace decay theory focuses on time and the limited duration of short term theory The theory suggests that short term memory can only hold information for between 15 and 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. After this time the information/ trace decays and fades away. Older memories can be stronger than most recent memories. Decay theory mostly affects short term memory. Long-term memory is often more resistant to shocks or physical attacks on the brain.

23. Motivated forgetting theory Also called the R epression theory. Motivated forgetting arises from strong motive or desire to forget, usually because the experience is disturbing or upsetting to remember. By result we push the unpleasant & painful memories into the unconscious and thus try to avoid at least consciously the conflicts that bother us. This is well motivated and intentional. This is because we like to see the world around us as quite pleasant and reasonable. For example, We forget death of dearest ones/ relatives and friends. We consciously forget marriage party which we don’t want to occur.

24. Interference Theory Interference theory is also known as retrieval interference. Interference theory (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006) refers to the idea that forgetting occurs because the recall of certain items interferes with the recall of other items. In nature, the interfering items are side to originate from an over stimulating environment.

25. Interference Theory TYPES OF INTERFERENCE Proactive interference : (pro = forward) Underwood (1957) provided early evidence that things you’ve learned before encoding a target item can worsen recall of that target item. In a meta-analysis of multiple experiments, he showed that the more lists one had already learned, the more trouble one had in recalling the most recent one. This is proactive interference , where the prior existence of old memories makes it harder to recall newer memories .

26. Interference Theory Retroactive interference: (Retro = backward) Retroactive interference occurs when later learning interferes with the previous learning; i.e., learning new things somehow overwrites or obscures existing knowledge.

27. Interference Theory Output interference : Output interference occurs when the act of retrieving interferes with the retrieval of the actual information needed in the first place. Primarily, this is caused by the limited capacity of the short-term memory.

28. Cue-dependent Forgetting It is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded. It is one of the five cognitive psychology theories of forgetting. It states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can bring it to mind. A good metaphor for this is searching for a book in the library without the reference number, title, author or even subject.

29. Cue-dependent Forgetting The information still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely. Further more, a good retrieval cue must be consistent with the original encoding of the information. If the sound of the word is emphasized during the encoding process, the cue that should be used should also put emphasis on the phonetic quality of the word.

30. Summary for theories of forgetting Decay theory: which states that time alone causes memory traces to fade. Interference theory : which suggests that other memories interfere with remembering Motivated forgetting theory : which suggests that we forget information that is unpleasant or threatening. Retrieval failure theory : which proposes that information memory must be distorted when we attempt to recall it. Cue-dependent theory : absences of stimulus that can help you to remember information.

31. A list of Types of memory disorders