Microplastics: Environmental Impact and Remediation Strategies

Microplastics (MPs), synthetic polymer particles smaller than 5 mm, have emerged as a pervasive
pollutant with profound implications for ecosystems and human health. Originating from primary sources
like cosmetics and industrial applications, and secondary sources such as the degradation of larger plastic
waste, MPs are now ubiquitous across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments. This paper
examines the lifecycle of microplastics from their generation and environmental distribution to their
ecological and physiological impacts. The ingestion of MPs by marine organisms and terrestrial species
leads to bioaccumulation, posing serious health threats throughout the food chain, including humans.
Furthermore, the presence of MPs in the atmosphere raises concern for inhalation exposure. Despite
global initiatives to curb plastic use, effective remediation remains a complex challenge. Current and
emerging strategies, including membrane bioreactors, microbial degradation, and nanomaterial-based
filtration, are evaluated for their potential in mitigating microplastic pollution. The paper also emphasizes
the critical role of public education, policy development, and cross-sector collaboration in addressing this
escalating crisis. A call is made for more integrated research to close knowledge gaps, especially
regarding human health risks and terrestrial ecosystem impacts.

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©IDOSR PUBLICATIONS
International Digital Organization for Scientific Research IDOSRJCAS10200
IDOSR JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND APPLIED SCIENCES 10(2):1 5-21, 2025.
https://doi.org/10.59298/JCAS/2025/1021521

Microplastics: Environmental Impact and
Remediation Strategies

Mugisha Emmanuel K.

Faculty of Science and Technology Kampala International University Uganda
ABSTRACT
Microplastics (MPs), synthetic polymer particles smaller than 5 mm, have emerged as a pervasive
pollutant with profound implications for ecosystems and human health. Originating from primary sources
like cosmetics and industrial applications, and secondary sources such as the degradation of larger plastic
waste, MPs are now ubiquitous across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments. This paper
examines the lifecycle of microplastics from their generation and environmental distribution to their
ecological and physiological impacts. The ingestion of MPs by marine organisms and terrestrial species
leads to bioaccumulation, posing serious health threats throughout the food chain, including humans.
Furthermore, the presence of MPs in the atmosphere raises concern for inhalation exposure. Despite
global initiatives to curb plastic use, effective remediation remains a complex challenge. Current and
emerging strategies, including membrane bioreactors, microbial degradation, and nanomaterial-based
filtration, are evaluated for their potential in mitigating microplastic pollution. The paper also emphasizes
the critical role of public education, policy development, and cross-sector collaboration in addressing this
escalating crisis. A call is made for more integrated research to close knowledge gaps, especially
regarding human health risks and terrestrial ecosystem impacts.
Keywords: Microplastics, Environmental Pollution, Marine Ecosystems, Terrestrial Contamination,
Human Health, Nanoplastics, Plastic Degradation.
INTRODUCTION
Plastics have become an intrinsic part of daily life due to their utility, durability, and versatility. Plastics
were commercially produced in 1907, but production surged after WWII. Global production reached 368
million metric tons (MMT) in 2019 and is on track to exceed 1,600 MMT by 2030. Plastics are derived
from fossil fuels, and their continuous injection into the environment has raised global concern.
Microplastics (MPs) are synthetic polymeric particles with a diameter of 1 µm to 5 mm. They originate
from industrial processes, such as resin pellets in production and shipping, or from the breakdown of
larger plastic (>5 mm) waste. As plastics deteriorate, they enter the ocean and waterways, affecting
aquatic and human health. MPs are harmful to the environment and health. They are widely found in
oceans, waterways, and soil, posing health risks to aquatic and terrestrial animals. Despite their small
size, MPs remain in the environment for years, delivering pollutant toxins and physical effects harmful to
human health. MPs also carry other pollutants, introducing ecosystem change. Plastic litter has a lower
density than seawater, allowing it to float and build up in gyres. Although a global treaty prohibiting
further plastic generation was proposed at the 2023 UN Environmental Assembly, remediation and
prevention will continue for many years. Physical techniques including dredging or skimming particles
from the surface, or using nets or booms, have proven ineffective. Protection of the most fragile parts of
the environment would be helpful in the short term. Floating drones are planned to patrol ocean debris
by moving to lumps and sucking it out from boats [1, 2].
Sources of Microplastics
Plastics, known for their durability and versatility, are prevalent in the environment due to rising demand
and inadequate waste disposal. They fragment into microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) through
©IDOSR PUBLICATIONS ISSN: 2579-0803

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mechanochemical processes like erosion. While biodegradable plastics can lessen visible waste, they
primarily break down into MP fragments. MPs serve as significant microbial habitats in oceans, where
bacteria utilize carbon from plastics. As disposal increased, so did plastic pollution, triggering ecological
inquiries. Ocean waste disposal in deep areas sparked interest in sea lettuce near shallow waters (<60 m),
with fish in plastic-littered zones consuming it. Potential sources of plastic contaminants in fish include
wastewater, solid waste, and agricultural runoff. Microplastics are widespread environmental
contaminants, originating from various sources, persisting and accumulating in ecosystems. They range
from macroplastics (over 5 mm) to microplastics (under 5 mm) and nanoplastics (under 20 nm).
Microplastics arise from larger plastic breakdown, cosmetics, clothing, and tire wear, with "microbeads"
specifically relating to paint. These contaminants have been documented from sea surfaces to deep waters,
ingested by organisms and causing harmful effects. Nanoplastics are concerning due to their size, being
comparable to biological cells and capable of absorbing toxic materials that may impact health [3, 4].
Environmental Distribution of Microplastics
Microplastics, measuring less than 1 mm, result from plastic fragmentation or are manufactured for use in
cosmetics, paints, and other products. Their prevalence has raised environmental concerns, particularly in
marine settings, with studies estimating up to 580 million pieces per square kilometer. They harm marine
life, ecosystems, and human health by providing surfaces for biofilms and serving as reservoirs for
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). They can accelerate the spread of harmful microbes and parasites,
altering ecosystems. Microplastics can absorb POPs, which enter food webs when ingested by marine
species. The dynamics of microplastics at sea are becoming clearer. Ocean currents, upwelling, and wind-
driven gyres dictate their distribution over timeframes ranging from weeks to thousands of years. Marine
organisms contribute to the transport and accumulation of microplastics, which can be consumed or
sedimented onto the seabed. The sedimentation process remains poorly understood and often lacks size
measurement for particles smaller than 63 μm. This analysis aims to gather data from global ocean
basins, revisiting locations where microplastic samples were collected in the last two years to depict the
current marine situation. It proposes a qualitative risk assessment framework to evaluate the risks of
accumulated microplastics on coastal ecosystems, integrating exposure and toxicity information across
various biological levels. This framework aims to make risk more comprehensible for stakeholders,
highlighting critical areas for management [5, 6].
Impact on Marine Life
The ubiquity of MPs poses a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems and human health, as these particles
were ingested by various marine organisms—including zooplankton, crustaceans, and fish—that
eventually entered the human food chain. These contaminated organisms can also trigger other self-
defense strategies against environmental stresses from chemical and physical pollutants, thus threatening
the whole ecological balance. Since there is no route for cleaning up massive displaced MPs, developing
effective MP removal technologies has become a critical area of research. In addition, some strategies
combining physical and chemical pretreatments with subsequent microbial degradation can be used for
decomposing MPs from the environment. For instance, microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, or specific
enzymes are leveraged to remove MPs. Furthermore, some recent advancements also focused on some
innovative methods, such as membrane bioreactors, synthetic biology, and nanomaterial-enabled
strategies. Among these techniques, nano-enabled technologies will be a promising technology with
substantial potential for enhancing the efficiency of MP removal. Plastic was invented around 100 years
ago and has been widely used in various applications for its advantages. Many plastics have high stability
or are not biodegradable under natural environmental conditions; thus, they gradually accumulate in
various environmental niches worldwide, becoming persistent pollutants. Microplastics (MPs), which
usually range from 1 µm to 5 mm in size, have increasingly become a prevalent type of plastic in the
environment. Owing to their small size, MPs can easily enter various environmental compartments like
air or aquatic systems. In particular, since they could be ingested by aquatic organisms, MPs have
received significant attention as pollutants in water bodies. The existence of environmentally relevant
micro-nano MPs has raised serious concerns due to their notable impacts on the health of aquatic
organisms. In natural aquatic environments, drastic concentration gradients of MPs are commonly
observed [7, 8].
Impact on Terrestrial Ecosystems
The environmental impacts of microplastics received widespread attention after a novel technique was
developed in 2004 to sample and analyze microplastics from aquatic systems. Consequently, new and
extensive datasets on microplastics in oceans, lakes, and rivers are becoming available, enabling a
worldwide overview of microplastic distribution, concentration, and ecotoxicological effects. Although
aquatic ecosystems are becoming progressively plastic polluted, the terrestrial environment is

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acknowledged to be an essential but poorly understood sink of plastics. After it has been manufactured
and used for a range of societal applications, plastic pollution occurs across a spectrum of particle sizes,
from macroplastics (> 5 mm) to microplastics (1 µm-5 mm) to nanoplastics (< 1 µm). Studies of how
plastics are allocated and transported in the terrestrial environment are difficult and rare, and to date
there is no review of the sources of plastic pollution in terrestrial ecosystems, their transport and storage
processes, and the state of knowledge of how plastics affect terrestrial environments. The scope of this
review is to provide a critical overview of the scientific evidence that plastic pollution enters and affects
terrestrial systems, as well as to identify knowledge gaps for future research and monitoring. Specific
questions addressed are where plastic pollution in terrestrial environments comes from and what
pathways transport microplastics from source to sink, how and where plastics are retained, and what the
state of knowledge is on the environmental effects of plastics. Most of the knowledge of plastic pollution
is derived from studies undertaken in aquatic systems, given that they are generally regarded as the sink
of plastic pollution. However, there is a rising body of knowledge that terrestrial systems, land, and land
use are a critical input, transport, and storage zone for plastics in inland areas [9, 10].
Health Implications for Humans
Recent studies have shown that microplastics circulate in the human body. The most worrying fact is that
inhaled microplastics can be translocated from the airway and olfactory cavity to the brain. Overall, the
evidence on the risk from microplastics to human health is still rather limited and sizable questions
remain to be addressed, such as the ingestion of nanoplastics, the cumulative interactions and
toxicological mechanisms of microplastics with other environmental co-exposures, and the consequences
of climate change on the microplastic problem. Trends in the scientific literature pattern reveal that as a
newly emergent environmental pollutant, there is increasing awareness of microplastics as a potential
threat to both environmental and human health. Chemical status, size and shape distributions, habitat and
uptake routes, removal mechanisms, transport vectors, health effects of microplastics, and remediation
will all be explored in detail. The emerging environmental pollutants microplastics are used to refer to
plastic debris with diameter less than 5 mm. Owing to both its ubiquitous presence and imperishable
chemical structure, microplastics as one type of anthropogenic multiphase contaminants in the
environment have raised worldwide public concerns regarding their potential adverse effects on
environmental systems and health. While hunting the sources and behavior of microplastics, studies have
started to examine their transport and accumulation in atmosphere, soil, freshwater and marine
ecosystems, which consequently raises the question of their potential risk to human health. Although
studies on microplastics in the environment and biota have skyrocketed recently, there is still a myriad of
knowledge gaps regarding their impact on human health. A major difficulty is to collect sufficient
evidence on their occurrence, exposure levels and toxicity in human or related biofluids, which would
facilitate the assessment of the potential risk of microplastics to human health. Current background
knowledge around the health implications of microplastics for humans is reviewed. Impacts from inhaled
microplastics on human respiratory systems and concerns regarding marine microplastics on human
digestive systems and health are elucidated. Gaps in knowledge and frontiers for future research
directions are also highlighted to inspire further attention and investigation [11, 12].
Regulatory Frameworks
The impact of plastic pollution on the environment is undeniable, prompting government action to
establish laws aimed at reducing plastic use. Recent legislation targeting single-use plastics has sparked
debate over their social, environmental, and economic benefits. Regulatory authorities must foster
constructive dialogues on these issues that affect human and planetary health. Microplastics (MPs) have
gained public attention due to their association with ecological problems, but the link between media
attention and policy enforcement remains unexplored. This study analyzes media focus on MPs through
news articles from major sources and quantitatively assesses the relationship between attention and
regulation by collecting extensive public policy documents. While MPs attract less media attention than
other debris, their regulation has been notably influenced by media coverage over time. Legislative
proposals related to science policy and sustainable development goals have raised awareness among
scientists. This finding shed light on the media-politics-science interface in scientific matters, potentially
inspiring timely policy updates. Plastics and MPs are persistent pollutants increasingly found in
environments worldwide, causing significant harm to aquatic life and humans. Three main plastic types
include polyolefins (polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene), polyvinyl compounds (PVC, PVA), and
polyesters (PLA, PET, PBS). More than 70 plastic types are documented in water bodies, with
polyethylene, polypropylene, and PVC being the most prevalent [13, 14].

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Current Remediation Strategies
Membrane technology, particularly ultrafiltration, has shown promise in microplastic removal due to its
ability to filter microparticles and high-water flux capability. Crossflow filtration systems improve water
treatment efficiency, and recent improvements in operational costs and membrane life extension have
been developed. Membrane fouling, however, affects stability, resistance, and permeability. Fouling
mechanisms depend on factors like membrane properties and microbial community, and different cleaning
strategies can be applied to restore membrane performance. Membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology
combines biological and membrane filtration processes to treat municipal and industrial wastewaters.
MBRs have advantages over conventional processes, including high pollutant and suspended solid
removal rates, limited sludge production, and lower land area requirements. However, MBRs are not
widely accepted in wastewater treatment due to poor understanding of pore structure, fouling prediction,
and high operational costs. Recent research focuses on MP concentration effect on MBR performance
parameters. The dominating mechanism for improving MBR performance is believed to be microbial floc
size enlargement and lower permeate water resistance [15, 16].
Innovative Approaches to Remediation
Microplastics (MPs) are a significant environmental concern in both aquatic and terrestrial systems,
consisting of plastic particles smaller than 5 mm. They can originate from the weathering of larger
plastics or be produced intentionally for use in various consumer products, including cosmetics and
household items. With hydrophobic surfaces and large surface areas, MPs attract persistent organic
pollutants (POPs), toxic metals, and pathogens, which can adversely affect ecosystems and human health.
Despite global bans on certain plastics, many developing countries continue to use plastic bags,
contributing to fragmentation and degradation of plastics into MPs, which enter water bodies.
Additionally, wastewater irrigation of agricultural lands can introduce MPs into soil. MPs serve as
transport media for POPs and human pathogens, posing risks to the biosphere. Accurate detection and
characterization of MPs in environmental samples are essential to understand their environmental fate.
MPs, often in the sub-micron range, are difficult to detect using conventional light microscopy due to
their similarity to natural organic particles. Advanced techniques such as mass spectrometry (Raman,
FTIR, LDI-MS) and microscopy methods (SEM, AFM, TEM) are utilized for the quantification of MPs
in terms of size, number, density, and surface properties. Research is ongoing to study the release of MPs
from various products and the effectiveness of biological treatment processes in wastewater treatment
plants. This includes investigating the fate of MPs during sewage treatment, the mechanics of filtration
processes, and exploring adsorbent modifications for enhanced MP removal from contaminated
environments. Although there is a growing body of research on MPs in environmental matrices,
comprehensive studies on their entry routes and detection methods remain limited [17, 18].
Public Awareness and Education
Public awareness and education are crucial in combating microplastics. Although many studies address
related issues, few focus on broad public awareness. These studies highlight microplastics in aquatic
systems and provide reassurance about potential solutions. Various disciplines are converging to create an
Online Resource Hub for Microplastics and Aquatic Systems, serving as a comprehensive knowledge
base. Schools and community programs should receive support akin to climate change initiatives to
encourage individual actions. Demonstrating that plastic pollution can be solved is vital. Plastics enter
aquatic environments through multiple pathways and undergo weathering, making them more appealing
to marine life due to low density and increased surface area. As they degrade, plastics can accumulate
toxins and microbes. Biodegradation, viewed as the ultimate fate of plastics, is complex, leading to more
unchanged or altered microplastics. Although biodegradable plastic pathways and their aquatic effects are
not well understood, this review proposes a conceptual framework to better grasp this emerging issue. It
recommends laboratory and field studies to enhance groundwater and water treatment designs and solid
waste management methods. The review concludes by suggesting ways to measure and mitigate
microplastics, advocating for high-level research to overcome existing knowledge gaps and effectively
address this pressing societal challenge [19, 20].
Future Research Directions
The research field of microplastics is rapidly progressing. Much attention has been devoted to
embedding, accumulation, toxicology, and transport of microplastics. With regards to methods, future
studies need to harmonise protocols for extraction and detection of microplastics. A complete guide of
sampling, extraction, and detection methods for microplastics is presented, with discussion on their
advantages and disadvantages. A set of guidelines should be laid in terms of matrix and location
combined, and it should include time, size, quantity, and other factors expressed here. Before designing
the method, the following key points should be given utmost importance and consideration: goal of the

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study; scientific hypothesis; experimental factors: dependent and independent variables, repeatability, and
reproducibility; time efficiency; cost of the procedure and reagents; environmental health and safety:
toxicity of reagents; sample size; large-scale applicability; long-term goal; qualitative and quantitative
aspects. From the results above, the researchers hope for the microplastics research community to come
together. It is recommended that raw data be shared among researchers on a common platform to assure
that the findings can be replicated, as MP research is highly variable across space and time. Another
aspect is to have experts in bioinformatics, ML, AI, and deep learning work closely with environmental
scientists, chemists, and biologists to write excellent research regarding the phenomenological aspects of
microplastics in the environment. Moreover, it is a top priority to control the sources of plastic
particularly in developing countries, and to regulate land-based sources of microplastics runoff and
leaching. Thus, a dialogue in developing innovative, specific, accessible, and scalable remediation
approaches involving the collaboration of engineering and social scientists is needed. On another hand,
proof-of-concept studies need to be encouraged as a strategic framework to help environmental and
analytical researchers to make decisions about future research and monitoring to develop models to help
understand the implications of research on MPs and below-aquires [21, 22].
Case Studies
Microplastic research studies focused on their presence in textiles highlight a significant environmental
issue, as washing textiles releases substantial microplastic fibers daily. Initial studies investigated
synthetic microplastics, particularly fibers, which were dissolved for identification and analyzed using
various methods. Techniques such as FTIR and Raman Spectroscopy were utilized, with detailed
explanations of the procedures. Plastic pollution has garnered attention from researchers, policymakers,
and organizations worldwide, recognized as a pressing global challenge. Microplastics, prevalent across
ecosystems, can be categorized by source, shape, size, and density. They may adversely affect organisms
through direct interactions and serve as carriers for pollutants and pathogens. Although microplastics are
widely detected in the environment, clear regulations for monitoring and controlling them remain
lacking. Several methods are employed for sampling microplastics, and selection should align with the
matrix of interest. This study aims to summarize extraction methods for microplastics from complex
environmental samples, considering sample types and complexities while addressing current knowledge
gaps and suggesting future research directions and recommendations [23, 24].
Challenges in Microplastics Research
Despite rising concerns about microplastics, understanding their fate, transport, and degradation is still
inadequate. This hasn't stopped a surge in research on their environmental impact, largely disconnected
from the mechanisms involved. The growing public awareness of plastic pollution has triggered
numerous legislative efforts to limit plastic use, like banning microbeads. Diverging views between
scientists and legislators can lead to misguided precautionary measures and ineffective remediation
strategies for microplastics in waste management. Addressing these knowledge gaps is vital for ecology,
conservation, and toxicity studies. A critical review could outline essential research directions to better
inform regulatory policies on microplastics and inspire similar approaches in related fields like chemistry
and toxicology. In upstream research, models predicting microplastic release during the plastic lifecycle
have been developed, but data gaps remain in understanding the means and locations of releases. This has
led to prioritization of categories and field trials aimed at reducing microplastic pollution. Reviewing the
processes of microplastic generation for various plastics like PE, PVC, PS, and PP has highlighted
reduction opportunities and existing knowledge deficiencies, suggesting the potential for strategies
similar to those used for other marine pollutants [25, 26].
Global Collaboration and Initiatives
Plastic pollution is an urgent global issue that has led to calls for clean-up actions in aquatic and
terrestrial environments, as part of the global solution to mitigate plastic pollution. To address this
pressing crisis, the United Nations Environment Assembly is currently moving towards the
establishment of an international legally binding treaty to address plastic pollution by 2024. Although
plastic clean-up technologies hold great potential to mitigate plastic pollution, there is a growing need for
research on their deployment. Plastic remediation technologies have been developed and deployed
globally, with an increase in interest and investment by governments and businesses during the past few
years. A mapping study was conducted to understand the diverse landscape of plastic clean-up
technologies. Based on the most recent available knowledge, this text covers plastic remediation
technologies focused on clean-up of plastic litter already in the environment and lists examples of
mitigation technologies that tackle the plastic problem through a reduction in waste. The text provides
recommendations for evaluation, data collection and research needs for future actions to understand the
effectiveness of clean-up technologies. The most commonly deployed plastic clean-up technologies are (i)

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passive (fixed) clean-up systems, which use barriers to collect plastics and (ii) mobile clean-up systems,
which seek to collect plastics from the water column. Other technologies also target plastics on the
surface, in sediment or in water column within aquatic environments, including (i) interventions, which
involve changes in the environment to prevent plastics from accumulating, and (ii) plastic-processing
clean-up systems, which are designed to remove plastics post-collection. A small but growing number of
technologies have been deployed in non-aquatic environments, including (i) filtration for sand, (ii) mobile
ball-cleaners, (iii) vacuums for undeveloped areas and (iv) incinerators aiming to process and convert
litter into fuel and energy. However, different development stages and locations of deployment render it
difficult to assess and compare the effectiveness of the varied plastic clean-up technologies [27, 28, 29]
CONCLUSION
Microplastics have transitioned from a localized pollution issue to a global environmental crisis with
long-lasting ecological and health repercussions. Their minute size allows them to permeate air, water,
and soil, where they act as vectors for toxic compounds and pathogens, infiltrating food webs and human
biological systems. While research has illuminated the environmental footprint of microplastics, critical
knowledge gaps remain especially concerning their long-term health implications and behavior in
terrestrial environments. Although promising remediation techniques such as membrane bioreactors,
microbial treatment, and nanotechnology have emerged, they require further optimization and scaling.
Addressing microplastic pollution demands a multipronged strategy: stronger regulatory action,
innovation in waste management, and proactive public education. Collaborative global efforts must be
intensified to reduce plastic production, enhance environmental monitoring, and invest in sustainable
alternatives. Only through an integrative approach can we mitigate the pervasive threat of microplastics
and protect ecological and human health for future generations.
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CITE AS: Mugisha Emmanuel K. (2025). Microplastics: Environmental Impact and Remediation
Strategies. IDOSR JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND APPLIED SCIENCES 10(2): 15-21.
https://doi.org/10.59298/JCAS/2025/1021521