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1. Recommended Dietry Allowance(RDA) The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) is the average daily dietary intake level that suffices to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97–98%) healthy persons of a specific sex , age , life stage , or physiological condition (such as pregnancy or lactation)

2. Minerals and trace elements

3. Minerals Inorganic substance Required in human nutrition Necessary for body functions

4. Classification Macro or Major minerals Body needs relatively more Present in body tissues at concentrations >50 mg/kg Requirement of these is >100 mg/d Micro or Trace minerals Body needs relatively less Present in body tissues at concentrations <50 mg/kg Requirement of these is <100 mg/d

5. Examples of Minerals Macro Major minerals Microminerals/Trace element Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur Sodium Chlorine Magnesium Iron Zinc Copper Manganese Iodine Selenium Molybdenum Cobalt Fluorine Chromium

6. Minerals in a 60 kg human body

7. Deficiencies and Excesses Most minerals have an optimal range Below leads to deficiency symptoms Above leads to toxicity symptoms

8. H   He Li Be   B C N O F Ne Na Mg   Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba * Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra ** Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo     * La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb   ** Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No The four basic organic elements Quantity elements Essential trace elements Possible structural or functional role in mammals

9. Functions of Minerals Some participate with enzymes as cofactors, e.g. Mg, Mn , Cu, Zn, K Some have structural functions e.g. Ca , P in bone; S in keratin Acid-base and water balance e.g. Na, K, Cl Nerve & muscle function e.g. Ca , Na, K Unique functions: (Fe) Hemoglobin, (Co) Vitamin B 12 , (I)Thyroxine

10. Macro or Major Minerals Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur Sodium Chlorine Magnesium

11. Calcium ( Ca ) Most abundant mineral in animal tissues 99% Ca in skeleton 1% Present in: Blood & other tissues Lots of functions Bone structure Nerve function Blood clotting Muscle contraction Cellular metabolism

12. Dietary requirements Dietary requirements: Adult : 800 mg/day; Women during pregnancy, lactation and post-menopause: 1.5 g/day; Children (1-18 yrs ): 0.8-1.2 g/ day; Infants: (< 1 year): 300-500 mg /day Food Sources: Best sources : milk and milk product; Good sources: beans, leafy vegetables, fish, cabbage, egg yolk.

13. Absorption of calcium: In small intestine (duodenum), first half jejunum against electrical and concentration gradient, by an energy dependent active process , influenced by several factors. Mechanism Simple diffusion An active transport involving Ca pump

14. Factor promoting Ca absorption 1. Vit.D promotes Ca absorption. 2. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) enhances Ca absorption 3 . Acidity (low pH) is more favorable for Ca absorption 4. Lactose promotes calcium uptake by intestinal cell 5. Lysine and arginine facilitate Ca absorption

15. Plasma calcium : Three forms of plasma calcium: ① Ionized Ca (diffusible): about 50% is ionized from which functionally the most active . ② Complex Ca with organic acid (diffusible): about 10% is found in association with citrate or phosphate. ③ Protein bound Ca (non-diffusible): about 40% is found in association with albumin and globulin.

16. Excretion of Ca Partly through the kidney . Mostly through the intestine . Notice: E xcretion of Ca into the feces is a continuous process and this is increased in vitamin D deficiency .

17. Calcium Deficiencies -Rickets weakness and deformity of the bones that occurs from vitamin D deficiency or dietary deficiency of Ca and P in a growing person or animal.

18. Calcium Deficiencies -Osteoporosis progressive loss of bone density, thinning of bone tissue and increased vulnerability to fractures in the elderly people of both sexes.

19. Calcium and Osteoporosis Around age 40, bone breakdown exceeds formation. By age 65, some women have lost 50% of bone mass. Bone growth is greatest during “ linear growth ” Peaks out at around age 30

20. Phosphorus

21. Phosphorous (P) 80% of P occurs in combination with Ca in the bone and teeth . About 10% is found in muscles and blood in association with proteins, carbohydrate and lipids. The remaining 10% is widely distributed in various chemical compounds.

22. Functions of Phosphorus Essential for the development of bones and teeth Phospholipids, Phosphoproteins Component of: DNA & RNA ATP, NAD + , NADP + Energy metabolism: ATP, GTP Maintenance of blood pH: phosphate buffer system

23. Dietary requirements The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of phosphate is based on the intake of calcium . For adult , the ratio of Ca:P of 1:1 is recommended (800mg/day); For infant , however, the ratio is around 2:1 , which is ratio found in human milk. Sources: milk, cereals, leafy vegetable, meat, eggs.

24. Absorption and Excretion Absorption: Phosphate absorption occur from jejunum 1. Calcitriol promotes phosphate uptake along with calcium. 2. Absorption of P and Ca is optimum when the dietary Ca:P is 1:2-2:1 . 3. Acidity favors while phytate (phytic acid) decreases phosphate uptake by intestinal cells. Excretion: About 500 mg phosphate is excreted in urine per day. The reabsorption of phosphate by renal tubules is inhibited by PTH.

25. Microminerals or Trace elements Iron Copper Iodine Manganese Zinc Molybdenum Cobalt Fluorine Selenium Chromium

26. Trace Elements (minerals) Need small amounts of these. Found in plants and animals. Content in plant foods depends on soil content (where plant was grown). They are difficult to quantify biochemically. Bioavailability often influenced by other dietary factors (especially other minerals)

27. Iron

28. Heme and Non-Heme Iron in food

29. Iron The total content of iron in an adult body is 3-5 g . 1. About 70%: in the erythrocytes of blood as a constituent of hemoglobin ( Hb) . 2. At least 5%: in Myoglobin ( Mb) of muscle. 3. Heme is the most predominant iron containing substance: e.g. Hb, Mb, cytochromes . 4. Non-heme iron: e.g. transferrin, ferritin .

30. Iron

31. Iron Meat, Fish and Poultry

32. Iron

33. Iron storage Iron can be stored by ferritin (a protein) Stored in liver, bone marrow A apoferritin molecule can combine with 4,000 atoms of iron. Ferritin Ferritin

34. Iron

35. Iron

36. Iron

37. Iron

38. Functions O 2 and CO 2 transport via hemoglobin Thus, necessary for ATP production! Essential component of many enzymes Immune function Brain function Iron deficiency/toxicity thought to slow mental development in kids.

39. Dietary requirements Dietary requirements: Adult man: 10 mg/day lactating woman: 40 mg/dl Sources: Rich source : organ meats (liver, heart, kidney). Good source : leafy vegetables, pulses, cereals, fish, apple, dried fruits, molasses. Poor sources : milk, wheat, polished rice.

40. Iron absorption Iron is mainly absorbed in the stomach and duodenum . mostly found in the food in ferric form (Fe 3+ ), bound to protein or organic acid. In the acid medium provided by gastric HCl , the Fe 3+ is released from food. Iron in ferrous form (Fe 2+ ) is soluble and readily absorbed . How much do we absorb? We absorb iron from the diet only when we need it In normal people, about 10% of dietary iron is usually absorbed. Those with LOW stomach acid secretions absorb less.

41. Elements dietary requirements, functions, toxicity and deficiency

42. Dietary element RDA/AI (mg) Description Function High nutrient density dietary sources Insufficiency Excess Potassium 4700 mg Quantity is a systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with sodium. Legumes , potato skin , tomatoes , bananas , papayas, lentils, dry beans, whole grains, avocados, yams, soybeans, spinach, chard, sweet potato, turmeric. hypokalemia hyperkalemia Chlorine 2300 mg Quantity is needed for production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach and in cellular pump functions. Table salt (sodium chloride) is the main dietary source. hypochloremia hyperchloremia Sodium 1500 mg Quantity is a systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with potassium. Table salt (sodium chloride, the main source), sea vegetables , milk , and spinach . hyponatremia hypernatremia Calcium 1300 mg Quantity is needed for muscle, heart and digestive system health, builds bone, supports synthesis and function of blood cells. Dairy products , eggs, canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines), green leafy vegetables , nuts , seeds , tofu, thyme, oregano, dill, cinnamon. hypocalcaemia hypercalcaemia

43. Phosphorus 700 mg Quantity is a component of bones (see apatite ), cells, in energy processing and many other functions. Red meat, dairy foods, fish , poultry, bread, rice, oats. [5] [6] In biological contexts, usually seen as phosphate . hypophosphatemia hyperphosphatemia Magnesium 420 mg Quantity is required for processing ATP and for bones. Raw nuts , soy beans , cocoa mass , spinach, chard, sea vegetables, tomatoes, halibut, beans, ginger, cumin, cloves. hypomagnesemia , magnesium deficiency hypermagnesemia Zinc 11 mg Trace is pervasive and required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase , liver alcohol dehydrogenase , and carbonic anhydrase . Calf liver, eggs, dry beans, mushrooms, spinach, asparagus, scallops, red meat, green peas, yogurt, oats, seeds, miso. zinc deficiency zinc toxicity Iron 18 mg Trace is required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin to prevent anemia . Red meat, fish (tuna, salmon), grains, dry beans, eggs, spinach, chard, turmeric, cumin, parsley, lentils, tofu, asparagus, leafy green vegetables, soybeans, shrimp, beans, tomatoes, olives, and dried fruit. anemia iron overload disorder

44. Manganese 2.3 mg Trace is a cofactor in enzyme functions. Spelt grain, brown rice, beans, spinach, pineapple, tempeh, rye, soybeans, thyme, raspberries, strawberries, garlic, squash, eggplant, cloves, cinnamon, turmeric. manganese deficiency manganism Copper 0.900 mg Trace is required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase . Mushrooms, spinach, greens, seeds, raw cashews, raw walnuts, tempeh, barley. copper deficiency copper toxicity Iodine 0.150 mg Trace is required not only for the synthesis of thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine and to prevent goiter , but also, probably as an antioxidant, for extrathyroidal organs as mammary and salivary glands and for gastric mucosa and immune system (thymus): Iodine in biology Sea vegetables, iodized salt, eggs. Alternate but inconsistent sources of iodine: strawberries, mozzarella cheese, yogurt, milk, fish, shellfish. iodine deficiency iodism Selenium 0.055 mg Trace a cofactor essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase . Brazil nuts, cold water wild fish (cod, halibut, salmon), tuna, lamb, turkey, calf liver, mustard, mushrooms, barley, cheese, garlic, tofu, seeds selenium deficiency selenosis Molybdenum 0.045 mg Trace the oxidases xanthine oxidase , aldehyde oxidase , and sulfite oxidase . Tomatoes, onions, carrots. molybdenum deficiency

45. Element Description Excess Sulfur Relatively large quantities of sulfur are required, but there is no RDA, as the sulfur is obtained from and used for amino acids , and therefore should be adequate in any diet containing enough protein . ( primarily associated with compounds ) Cobalt Cobalt is required in the synthesis of vitamin B 12 , but because bacteria are required to synthesize the vitamin , it is usually considered part of vitamin B 12 deficiency rather than its own dietary element deficiency. Cobalt poisoning Nickel There have been occasional studies asserting the essentiality of nickel, but it currently has no RDA. Nickel toxicity Chromium Chromium has been described as nonessential to mammals. Some role in sugar metabolism in humans has been invoked, but evidence is lacking, despite a market for the supplement chromium picolinate . Chromium toxicity Fluorine Fluorine (as Fluoride) is not generally considered an essential element because humans do not require it for growth or to sustain life. However, if one considers the prevention of dental cavities an important criterion in determining essentiality, then fluoride might well be considered an essential trace element. However, recent research indicates that the primary action of fluoride occurs topically (at the surface). Fluoride poisoning Boron Boron is an essential plant nutrient , required primarily for maintaining the integrity of cell walls. In animals, supplemental boron has been shown to reduce calcium excretion and activate vitamin D. However, whether these effects were conventionally nutritional, or medicinal, could not be determined. Lithium It is not known whether lithium has a physiological role in any species, but nutritional studies in mammals have indicated its importance to health, leading to a suggestion that it be classed as an essential trace element with an RDA of 1 mg/day. Observational studies in Japan, reported in 2011, suggested that naturally occurring lithium in drinking water may increase human lifespan. Strontium Strontium has been found to be involved in the utilization of calcium in the body. It has promoting action on calcium uptake into bone at moderate dietary strontium levels, but a rachitogenic (rickets-producing) action at higher dietary levels. Rachitogenic Other Arsenic , silicon , and vanadium have established, albeit specialized, biochemical roles as structural or functional cofactors in other organisms, and are possibly, even probably, used by mammals (including humans). By contrast, tungsten , bromine , and cadmium have specialized biochemical uses in certain lower organisms, but these elements appear not to be utilized by humans. Multiple

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