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1. Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists (Open
Elective)
Course Code: MM445
Credits: 03
23 August 2024 1
Course Instructor:
Dr. Brahma Raju Golla
Associate Prof., MMED
NIT Warangal
Email: [email protected]
Mob: [phone]

2. METALLURGY

3. 23 August 2024 3
MM 440: Syllabus & Lecture Plan
S. No. Module No. Lectures
Unit 1: Introduction to Metallurgy and Structure of Metals/Alloys
1 Introduction to Metallurgy
a.Metals and Alloys classification
b. Engineering applications of metals/alloys
4
2 Structure of Metals and Alloys
a. Nature of Metallic Bonding
b. Crystal Structures of Metals
c. Structure of Alloys
d. Imperfections in Crystals
8

4. 23 August 2024 4
MM 440: Syllabus & Lecture Plan
Module No. Lectures
Unit 2: Mechanical Properties and Strengthening Mechanisms of Metals
3. Mechanical Properties
a. Plastic Deformation Mechanisms
b. Tensile, Creep
c. Fatigue
d. Fracture
6
4. Strengthening Mechanisms
a. Strain Hardening
b. Grain Size Refinement
c. Solid Solution Strengthening
d. Precipitation Hardening
3

5. 23 August 2024 5
MM 440: Syllabus & Lecture Plan
Unit 3: Fabrication and Testing of Metals
5. Fabrication and Finishing of metal products
a. Metal Working
b. Machining
4
6. Heat Treatment
Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening and Tempering
3
7. Testing of Metals
Destructive and Non-Destructive Testing, Inspection and
Quality Control of Metals
6
Module No. Lectures

6. 23 August 2024 6
MM 440: Syllabus & Lecture Plan
Module No. Lectures
Unit 4: Applications of Metals and Alloys
8. Engineering Alloys
a. Steel Products and Properties
b. Cast Irons
c. Alloy steels: Tool Steels and High Speed Steels, Stainless Steels
d. Selective non-ferrous metals and alloys
7
9. Material selection processes:Case studies 3

7. 23 August 2024 7
MM 440: Reading Books
1. M. F. Ashby, Engineering Metals, 4
th
Edition, Elsevier, 2005.
2. R. Balasubramaniam(Adapted): Calister’sMaterials Science and
Engineering, 7
th
Edition, Wiley India (P) Ltd, 2007.
3. R. Abbaschian, L. Abbaschian, R.E. Reed-Hill, Physical Metallurgy Principles,
East-West Press, 2009.
4. V Raghavan, Elements of Materials Science and Engineering-A First Course,
5
th
Edition, PHI Publications, 2011.

8. ➢What is metallurgy?
➢Is metallurgy relevant for your branch of engineering?
➢How study of metallurgy is useful in your specialization?
23 August 2024 8
Topic 1: Introduction to Metallurgy

9. ➢What is metallurgy?
Metallurgyisabranchofscienceandtechnologythatdeals
withextractionofmetals/alloyswithrequiredpropertiesand
shaping/treatingthemintousefulcomponentsforvarious
engineeringapplications.
23 August 2024 9
Topic 1: Introduction to Metallurgy

10. ➢What is metallurgy?
Minerals/Ores
Metalextraction/refiningandorAlloying
Fabricationofmetals/alloys
Obtainmentofthedesiredproperties
Applications
23 August 2024 10
Topic 1: Introduction to Metallurgy

11. 23 August 2024 11
Minerals/Ores
https://www.123rf.com/photo_62950173_various-raw-minerals-and-ores-with-
names-isolated-on-white-background.html

12. 23 August 2024 12
Metalextraction/refiningandorAlloying
https://www.topperlearning.com/answer/extraction-of-
iron/eewvx55
Steel Making: Refining and alloying
http://www.profisol.gr/en/production/steelmaking.aspx

13. 23 August 2024 13
Fabricationofmetals/alloys
https://www.newsteelconstruction.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/SFL1807.gif

14. 23 August 2024 14

15. 23 August 2024 15
Obtainmentofthedesiredproperties
Physicalproperties
Mechanicalproperties
Chemicalproperties
High/Lowtemperatureproperties
Wearproperties
Electrical/magneticproperties
Biologicalproperties

16. ➢Is metallurgy relevant for your branch of engineering?
➢How study of metallurgy is useful to your specialization?
(OR)
The Applications of Metals
23 August 2024 16
Topic 1: Introduction to Metallurgy

17. 23 August 2024 17
Metals in CIVIL Engineering Applications
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=Metals+in+civil+Engineering+applications&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjc
wJ-w-NrrAhURzDgGHe08BoEQ_AUoAXoECB0QAw&biw=1242&bih=486

18. 23 August 2024 18
Metals in MECHANICAL Engineering
Applications
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=Metals+in+machinery+applications&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjPwr-b-
trrAhUon0sFHQMnB5EQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Metals+in+machinery+applications&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoECAAQQzoFCAAQsQM6AggAOgQIABAYOgYIABAFEB
5Q2qgDWPflA2DJ6ANoAHAAeAGAAZEEiAGoFpIBCDIxLjMuNS0xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=QjRYX8-
ZL6i-rtoPg86ciAk&bih=486&biw=1242#imgrc=U8BTdf6NAa7-lM

19. Metals in ELECTRICAL Engineering
Applications
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=Metals+in+electrical+applications&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwi-3vm5-
trrAhUrHHIKHXN1AWkQ2-cCegQIABAA&oq=Metals+in+electrical+applications&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1Da-
SZY7Y4nYMGjJ2gAcAB4AIABvgGIAb0IkgEDOC4ymAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=gjRYX76VJ6u4yAPz6oXI
Bg&bih=486&biw=1242

20. Metals in CHEMICAL and BIO Engineering
Applications
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=metals+in+biological+implants&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjy-Za0_9rrAhXqi0sFHW0cBxEQ2-
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=Metals+in+chemical+industries&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwimzr7t_NrrAhVHRysKHTtFDbcQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Metals+in+chemical+industries&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1D2pwlYne4JYMHwCWgAcAB4AIABrgGIAZgNkgEEMTUu
M5gBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=BzdYX-auJMeOrQG7irW4Cw&bih=486&biw=1242

21. 23 August 2024 21
➢What is a metal?
➢How metals are classified?
➢What are the advantages and limitations of metals?
➢What are its applications?

22. 23 August 2024 22
➢What is a metal?
Any element which has metallic bonding is known as ametal.
In the periodic table different types of elements are present.
Ex: Fe, Al, Cu, Au, Ag, Ni, Zn, Cr, Mo, Zretc.

23. 23 August 2024 23
How metals are classified?
I. Broad/General classification
➢Ferrous Metals (Fe)
➢Non-Ferrous Metals (Al, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr etc.)
II. Based on properties
➢Light Metals
➢Heavy Metals
➢Refractory Metals

24. 23 August 2024 24
III. Based on applications
➢Transportation applications (Automotive, rail, marine, aerospace etc.)
➢Structural
➢High temperature
➢Cryogenic
➢Bearing
➢Wear resistant
➢Corrosion/oxidation resistant
➢Nuclear applications
➢Energy applications

25. 23 August 2024 25
➢What are the advantages and limitations of metals?
I. Advantages:
➢Good deformability
➢Good conductors
➢High ductility and malleability
➢Moderate strength and toughness
II Limitations:
➢Poor corrosion and oxidation resistance
➢Low strength
➢Little expensive than other competing materials like polymers

26. 23 August 2024 26
Properties of metals

27. Density of Metals and other materials

28. Materials Density

29. Thermal expansion of some materials

30. Electrical conductivity of Materials

31. High temperature applications

32. 23 August 2024 32
➢
➢What are its applications?

33. METALLURGY

34. 23 August 2024 34
➢What is an alloy?
➢How the alloys are classified?
➢What are the advantages and limitations of alloys?
➢What are the applications of alloys?

35. 23 August 2024 35
Whatisanalloy?
Analloyisacombinationoftwoormoreelementsofwhichatleastone
isametalandexhibitsmetalliccharacteristics.
Ex:Fe-C,Fe-Cr-C,Al-Cu,Al-Mg,Cu-Al,Cu-Zn,Cu-Sn,Ni-Cuetc.
Whatisacomposite?
Acompositeisacombinationoftwoormorematerialswithmatrix
(basematerial)andreinforcementanditmayormaynotexhibit
metalliccharacteristics.
Ex:Fe-SiC,Fe-TiB
2,Al-SiC,Al-Cu-SiC,HDPE-Fe,HDPE-TiO
2,HDPE-C,C-C

36. 23 August 2024 36
➢How the alloys are classified?
Ferrous Alloys
•Steels, Cast irons
Non-ferrous alloys
•Al alloys, Cu alloys, Ni alloys, Ti Alloys, W
alloys, Mo alloys

37. 23 August 2024 37
➢How the alloys are classified?
Based on no. of elements
•Binary alloys (2), ternary alloys (3), Quaternary alloys (4) etc
Based on structure
•Homogeneous or heterogeneous alloys

38. 23 August 2024 38
➢What are the advantages of alloys?
Alloys possess enhanced properties.
Alloying helps in overcoming the limitations of pure metals
↑Strength/Mechanical properties
↑Machinability
↑Temperature dependent properties
↑Corrosion resistance

39. 23 August 2024 39
➢What are the advantages of alloys?
↑Oxidation resistance
↑Wear resistance
↑↓Physical properties (conductivity, density, thermal
expansion etc.)
↑Appearance/colouretc.

40. 23 August 2024 40
➢What are the limitations of alloys?
→A very careful alloy preparation/processing
(nonhomogeneous, segregation etc.)
↓Physical properties (conductivity, density, thermal
expansion etc.)
↑Cost

41. 23 August 2024 41
➢What are the applications of alloys?
Applications requiring
↑High strength/structural Applications
↑High Temperature Applications (Heat resistant)
↑ Creep Resistance Applications (high temp deformation resistance)
↓Low Temperature Applications (Cryogenic)
↑Corrosion Resistance Applications

42. 23 August 2024 42
➢What are the applications of alloys?
Applications requiring
↑ Oxidation Resistance Applications
↑ Wear Resistance Applications
↑↓ Applications requiring controlled physical properties
↑Jewelry (aesthetic) Applications

43. Mechanical properties of Cu-Al alloys (mixed)
Fig. Stress-strain plot of Cu-Al alloys
(Mixed)
EffectofAlonvariouspropertiesofCuprocessedviamixingcondition
0351015Al (wt.%)
CS: 1.6 times
Fig. Effect of Al content on hardness of Cu-
Al alloys (mixed)
•Highhardness(4.56GPa),highcompressivestrength(747MPa)andlowstrain
obtainedduetohighamountofintermetalliccompounds

44. Wear properties of Cu-Al alloys (mixed)
44
Fig. Effect of Al content on COF of Cu-Al
alloys
Fig. Specific wear rate of Cu-Al alloys
•The COF of Cu-Al alloys (mixed) decreased with Al addition
•The specific wear rate varied from 197.8 to 3.8 ×10
-3
mm
3
/Nm
•Cu-15Al alloy (mixed) exhibited high wear rate by 4.75 times compared to
Cu-15Al alloy (milled)
EffectofAlonvariouspropertiesofCuprocessedviamixingcondition

45. Electrical properties of Cu-Al alloys
45
Fig. Effect of Al content on electrical
properties on Cu-Al alloys (milled)
•TheelectricalconductivityofCu-Al
alloys(milled)foundtodecreased
withtheadditionofAl
•Theelectricalconductivityofalloys
drasticallyreducedfrom75.7to
12.3%IACSduetoformationof
solidsolutionsandintermetallic
phases
•Increasedlatticestrainand
reductionin densification
contributedelectronscattering
Microstructure,densificationandlatticestrainsplayedsignificantroleonthe
conductivityofCu-Alalloys
EffectofAlonvariouspropertiesofCuprocessedviamillingcondition

46. Electrical properties of Cu-Al alloys (mixed)
46
Fig. Effect of Al content on electrical
conductivity of Cu-Al (mixed) alloys
•TheelectricalconductivityofCu-Al
alloysdecreasedwiththeaddition
ofAl
•Theelectricalconductivityofalloys
reducedfrom97.0to29.5%IACS
duetoformationofsolidsolutions
andintermetallicphases
•Cu-Alalloys(mixed)havehigh
electricalconductivitycomparedto
Cu-Alalloys(milled)
EffectofAlonvariouspropertiesofCuprocessedviamixingcondition

47. 47
Fig. Effect of Al content on electrical
properties on Cu-Al alloys (milled)
Fig. Effect of Al content on electrical
conductivity of Cu-Al (mixed) alloys

48. Electrical properties of Cu-ZrB
2composites (mixed)
48
Fig. Effect of ZrB
2content on electrical
conductivity of Cu-ZrB
2(mixed) composites
•TheelectricalconductivityofCu-
ZB
2compositesreducedfrom97.0
to68.2%IACS
•Theintrer-connectednetworkof
Cuinsamplesenhancesthe
electricalconductivityofCu-ZrB
2
composites
•Theelectricalconductivityof
compositespreparedthrough
mixingroutewashighcompared
tomilledsamples
EffectofZrB
2onvariouspropertiesofCuprocessedviamixingcondition

49. Cu-ZrB
2composites (Milled Vs. Mixed)
49
Fig. Comparison of mechanical and wear properties of Cu-ZrB
2composites (milled
and mixed)
EffectofZrB
2onvariouspropertiesofCuprocessedviamixingcondition

50. 23 August 2024 50
➢Differentiate between metals / alloys and composites?
➢Applications of metals and alloys
➢How metals/alloys are different from other engineering materials?
Assignment (Date of Submission: 27
th
Sept 2020) and Discussion

51. 23 August 2024 51
➢Summary of the topics
Metallurgy, Metal, Alloy, Composite
Alloy: Base metal, Alloying element
Composite: Matrix, reinforcement

52. 23 August 2024 52
➢What is metallic bonding?
➢What is structure of metals and alloys?
➢Microstructure of metals and alloys
➢Crystal structure of metals and alloys
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys

53. 23 August 2024 53
➢What is metallic bonding?
Positive ion
Electron
Theattractiveforcebetween
positiveionsandfreeelectrons
bindsthemetalatomstogetherin
thecrystal

54. 23 August 2024 54
➢What is structure of metals and alloys?
➢Microstructure of metals and alloys
➢Crystal structure of metals and alloys
The microstructure of a metal/alloy deals with its internal
structure that is observed by microscope.
-Metallographic sample preparation is very essential to reveal
the microstructure.
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys

55. 23 August 2024 55
➢What is structure of metals and alloys?
Microstructure of materials reveals/consists of grains, grain
boundaries, microstructural phases, interfaces, defects etc.
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys

56. 23 August 2024 56
➢What is structure of metals and alloys?
Microstructure of materials reveals/consists of grains, grain
boundaries, microstructural phases, interfaces, defects etc.
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys
Pure
metal
Alloy

57. 23 August 2024 57
Microstructure of steel
Optical Microscope SEM image

58. 23 August 2024 58
➢What is structure of metals and alloys?
Microstructure of materials reveals/consists of grains, grain
boundaries, microstructural phases, interfaces, defectsetc.
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys

59. 23 August 2024 59
➢Coarse and fine microstructure of steel?
Microstructure of materials reveals/consists of grains, grain
boundaries, microstructural phases, interfaces, defects etc.
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys
Corse
Microstructure
Fine
Microstructure

60. 23 August 2024 60
➢Why to study the microstructure of metals and alloys?
The microstructure of a metal/alloy determines or controls its
properties.
-Mechanical
-Physical
-Chemical
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys

61. 23 August 2024 61
➢How Metallographic sample preparation is done?
1) Sampling
2) Sectioning/Cutting
3) Mounting
4) Grinding
5) Polishing
➢Coarse polishing
➢Fine polishing
6) Etching
7) Microscopy
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys
2)
3)
4) 5) 5)

62. 23 August 2024 62
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys
➢How Metallographic sample preparation is done?
➢Sampling
➢Sectioning/Cutting
➢Mounting
➢Grinding
➢Polishing
➢Coarse polishing
➢Fine polishing
➢Etching
➢Microscopy

63. 23 August 2024 63
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys
Optical Microscope (OM)

64. 23 August 2024 64
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

65. 23 August 2024 65
Cu-3Al
Cu-5Al

66. 23 August 2024 66
Cu-15Al

67. 23 August 2024 67
Sample
reference
Theoretic
al density
(g/cc)
Bulk
density
(g/cc)
Relativ
e
densit
y (%)
XRD phases
Wt.% of phase
based on Rietveld
analysis of XRD
patterns
Cu (ML) 8.96 8.84 98.66 Cu
100.00
C3Al (ML) 8.38 8.07 96.30 Cu
0.92Al
0.08
100.00
C5Al (ML) 8.38 7.97 95.16 Cu
0.92Al
0.08
100.00
C10Al (ML) 7.37 7.01 95.10
Cu
0.78Al
0.22
86.60
Cu
9Al
4
13.30
C15Al (ML) 6.98 6.61 94.60
Cu
0.78Al
0.22
24.70
Cu
9Al
4
75.30

68. 3µm
1
5µm
1
2
4
3
3
Ti
MoB
Ti
1
Ti
Si
O
MoTi
4Mo
Si
Ti
B
Mo
3
2
Mo
Si
5 µm
3
3
1
2
4
Monolithic TiB
2
TiB
2-5 % MoSi
2
TiB
2-10 % MoSi
2
SEM-EDS of TiB
2-MoSi
2samples after hot pressing (1700
o
C)

69. 2N
5N
10N
250 µm
100 µm
250 µm
250 µm
100 µm
100 µm
(a)
(e)
250 µm
(f)
(c)
250 µm
(d)
250 µm
(b)
Worn surfaces of TiB
2after fretting against steel

70. 100 µm
25 µm
1
2
1
2
Ti
Ti
Ti
Ti
O
B
B
(a)
(b)
SEM image from the cross section of TiB
2after oxidation
G. B. Raju, B. Basu, A.K. Suri : J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 91 [10] (2008) 3320-3327.

71. 70 µm
50 µm010203040506070
Distance, m


cps

Ti
O
Si
B
Mo

(a) (b)
(c)
SEM image from the cross section of TiB
2-10 % MoSi
2

72. 200 µm
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(d)
(f)
Over view Ti
Si O
MoB
X ray mapping on the oxidisedsurface of TiB
2-10 % MoSi
2

73. 23 August 2024 73
Topic 1: Structure of Metals and alloys
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

74. Finer scale Microstructure (TiB
2-10% MoSi
2)
(c)
MoSi
2
MoSi
2
TiB
2
TiB
2
TiB
2
0.5µm
MoSi
2
0.5µm
Ti
5Si
3
TiB
2
Mo
5Si
3
0.2µm
(b)
(a)
Microcrack
MoSi
2

75. Transmissionelectronmicrographshowing
dislocationsinaTiAlloy

76. Crystal Structure of Metals

77. A unit cell with x, y, and z coordinate axes, showing axial lengths (a, b,
and c) and inter axial angles (α, , and ).
The unit cellis the smallest unit which, when repeated in space
indefinitely, will generate the space lattice.
The space latticeis defined as an infinite array of points in three
dimensions in which every point has surroundings identical to that of
every other point in the array.

78. 23 August 2024 78
Unit Cell and Space lattice

79. Figures Showing Unit Cell Geometries for the Seven Crystal Systems
(Lattice Parameter Relationships )

80. Bodycentredcubiccrystalstructure,(a)ahardsphereunitcell
representation,(b)areduced-sphereunitcell,and(c)anaggregateof
manyatoms.

81. Facecentredcubiccrystalstructure,(a)ahardsphereunitcell
representation,(b)areduced-sphereunitcell,and(c)anaggregateof
manyatoms.

82. Hexagonalclosepackedcrystalstructure,(a)areduced-sphereunitcell,
and(b)anaggregateofmanyatoms.

83. 23 August 2024 83