Morphological typology/ Morphological Operations

Linguistics

1. 1- MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY 2-MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES/OPERATIONS Level-5

2. Introduction What is Morphology? What is Typology? What is Morphological Typolog y ? Morphology Across Languag e .

3. Morphology How language users understand complex words and how they create new ones. The study of the patterning of morphemes within a word and how morphemes combine to form new complex words .

4. Typology Typology is the classification of languages on the basis of shared formal characteristics. The ultimate goals of typology are to ascertain the ways in which languages are similar in structure and to determine just how different human languages can be .

5. Morphological Typology The study of differences and similarities among the world’s languages and their classification relating to the ways in which words are formed from smaller meaningful units referred to as ‘morphemes’.

6. Goals of morphological typology Investigating the composition of human languages. Cross linguistic comparison . (Comparative Linguistics) Structural similarities between languages has fundamental properties that can be generalized .

7. Morpology Across Languages Types of Languages Isolating or A nalytic Inflectional or Synthetic Agglutinating Fusional Polysynthetic

8. 1. Isolating (or analytic) language An isolating language is a language in which almost every word consists of a single morpheme. An analytic language conveys grammatical relationships syntactically — that is, via the use of  free morphemes, which are separate words, rather than via bound morphemes, which are inflectional prefixes, suffixes or infixes.

9.  Vietnamese khi tôi dên nhà ban tôi , chúng tôi bát dâu làm bài .   when I come house friend I, Plural I begin past do lesson When I came to my friend's house, we began to do lessons.  Chinese ta bu hui yong dao chi fan he no can use knife eat rice He cannot eat rice with a knife

10. 2. Inflectional (synthetic) Inflectional or synthetic languages often use affixes and internal modifications of roots for those purposes.

11. 3. Agglutinating In agglutinative languages, each affix typically represents one unit of meaning (such as "diminutive", "past tense", "plural", etc.), and bound morphemes are expressed by affixes (and not by internal changes of the root of the word, or changes in stress or tone). In agglutinating languages, morphemes are strung together to create complex words. Any number of morphemes can be added in this way. All morphemes have a single meaning and are easily recognizable.

12. Example: Turkish ev → house (nom. sg .) ev-ler → houses (nom. pl.) ev-i → his/her house ( sg.+poss .) ev-ler-i → his/her houses ( pl.+poss .) ev -den → in front of the house ( sg.+abl .) ev - ler -den → in front of the houses ( pl.+abl .)

13. 4. Fusional Fusional languages combine affixes by "squeezing" them together, often changing them drastically in the process, and joining several meanings in one affix. A Fusional affix can carry a single meaning or several, such as person, gender and number.

14. Example: -> Spanish word comí "I ate", the suffix - í carries the meanings of indicative mood, active voice, past tense, first person singular subject and perfective aspect). -> Latin word bonus "good". The ending -us denotes masculine gender, nominative case, and singular number. Changing any one of these features requires replacing the suffix -us with a different one.

15. 5. Polysynthetic In many polysynthetic languages a word may contain bound morphemes corresponding to both verb and noun in English.   This means that what are subject and predicate in an English sentence will often be expressed by a single word in a polysynthetic language.

16. Nootka inikw-ihl '- minih -'is-it-a (verb) fire-in house-plural-small-past ongoing several small fires were burning in the house inikw-ihl'-minih-'isit-i (noun) fire-in house-plural-small-past ongoing- the several small fires burning in the house

17. Morphological Operations/ Processes

18. Definition A morphological process is a means of changing a stem to adjust its meaning to fit its syntactic and communicational context .

19. Two ways of Morphological Process Concatenative morphology : putting morphemes together (Addition) Non- Concatenative : modifying internal structure of morphemes (Change of form)

20. Morphological Process Scheme

21. CONCATENATIVE MORPHOLOGY 1. COMPOUNDING English shares with many languages the ability to create new words by combining old words. Compounding can be analyzed through its constituents.

22. A. Endocentric compound: (that has a head) An endocentric compound consists of an obligatory head and one or more dependents, whose presence serves to narrow the meaning of the head. For example: big  house  - Noun phrase (NP ) sing  songs - Verb phrase (VP ) very   long  - Adjective phrase (AP)

23. B. Exocentric compound: ( that has no head) Exocentric compounds are hyponyms of some unexpressed semantic head (e.g. a person, a plant, an animal...), and their meaning often cannot be transparently guessed from its constituent parts . Ex. Redneck (it’s a kind of person) Loudmouth (it doesn’t denote a kind of mouth) Pick pocket (someone who picks pocket)

24. CONCATENATIVE MORPHOLOGY (cont’d) 2. INCORPORATION Incorporation is a phenomenon by which a word , usually a verb, forms a kind of compound with , for instance, its direct object ( object incorporation ) or adverbial modifier, while retaining its original syntactic function . e. g: In English dish-clean (clean the dishes)

25. CONCATENATIVE MORPHOLOGY (cont’d) 3. AFFIXES Prefixes: an affix which is placed before the stem of a word . E.g un happy Infixes: an affix inserted inside a word stem. e.g Father- In -Law Suffixes: a morpheme added at the end of a word. E.g Happi ness Confixes or Circumfixes: A  circumfix  or  confix  is an affix which has two parts, one placed at the start of a word, and the other at the end.

26. Circumfix or Confix A  circumfix   or   confix  is an affix which has two parts, one placed at the start of a word, and the other at the end. Circumfixes contrast with prefixes, attached to the beginnings of words; suffixes, attached at the end; and infixes, inserted in the middle. Circumfixes are common in  Malay and   Georgian languages. In  Japanese,   o ⟩...⟨ ni naru  and  o ⟩...⟨ suru   to be  honorific  circumfixes Example:   yomu ...→  o ⟩yomi⟨ ninaru  (respectful),  o ⟩yomi⟨ suru  (humble).

27. NON-CONCATENATIVE 1 . REDUPLICATION This process can be classified according to the amount of a form that is duplicated, whether complete or partial, and if the latter, according to exactly which part. e. g: In Marshallese Initial C: liw ( scold someone )  lliw ( be angry) Initial CVC: yetal ( go )  y etyetal ( walk )

28. NON-CONCATENATIVE (cont’d) 2. INTERNAL MODIFICATION A . Ablaut B. Consonant Modification C . Vowel Reversal D. Tonal Modification E . Stress Modification F . Suppletion

29. A . Ablaut It is also called ‘apophony’ and refers to the internal vowel alterations that produce change in the vowel that carries extra meaning . Such as, sing- sang- sung- song Rise- raise The difference in these vowels marks variously a difference in tense or aspect (sing-sang-sung), transitivity ( rise-raise), part of speech (sing- song), or grammatical number ( goose- geese).

30. B . Consonant modification Noun   Verb bath bathe wreath wreathe house house grief grieve belief believe half halve   I n English, voicing of final fricatives is used to convert certain nouns to verbs (sometimes with accompanying vowel modification)

31. D . Vowel reversal Romance languages in their formation of the Subjunctive in contrast with the Indicative exhibit a type of vowel modification in which either of two qualities (front (i or e) or low back (a)) may be associated with either the Subjunctive or the Indicative. What is important is that they be reversed one from the other. Here is an example from Spanish. 'eat'   Indicative   Subjunctive 1S como coma 2S comes comas 3S come coma 1P comemos comamos 2P come'is coma'is 3P comen coman

32. E . Tonal modification 'he saw' 'Near Past' 'Perfect'   _ ^ ^ [ a:Bo:ne ] ^ \ _ [ a:Bo:ne ] A number of African languages use tonal modification for verb inflection, according to Matthews. He cites the following example from Lumasaaba (a Bantu language from East Africa), in which "a morphological distinction may regularly be carried by tone alone“. (where ^ = high tone, _ = low tone, \ = falling tone, and  B   is an implosive bilabial stop)

33. F. Stress modification   Noun Verb Primary stress on: First syllable Second syllable   r�cord rec�rd   c�ntrast contr�st   p�rmit perm�t   p�rvert perv�rt   tr�nsport transp�rt   c�nvict conv�ct H ere again English furnishes an example in disyllabic noun-verb pairs, sometimes with accompanying vowel modification.

34. G . Suppletion Suppletion is a minor inflection technique where we change the morpheme instead of adding an affix. A. Total Suppletion: Good- better, bad- worse, is- was, go- went etc. B. Partial Suppletion: Was- were, Teach- taught etc.

35. NON-CONCATENATIVE (cont’d) 3. CONVERSION Conversion is the way of forming a new word merely by shifting the category or part of speech of an already existing word without adding an affix e. g: English table  to table butter  buttering

36. French gard-er ( to guard )  garde ( guard ) visit- er ( to visit )  visite ( visit ) M orphologists argue that conversion is different from affixation, and treat it simply as change of category with no accompanying change of form.

37. NON-CONCATENATIVE (cont’d) 4. BACK DERIVIATION Back-formation is the word formation process in which an actual or supposed derivational affix detaches from the base form of a word to create a new word. e. g : donation – donate gambler – gamble