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theories and models of management

1. THEORIES AND MODELS OF MANAGEMENT INTRODUCTION Managing is one of the most important human activities. Managing has been essential to ensure the coordination of individual efforts. As society continuously relied on group effort, and as many organized groups have became large, the task of managers has been increasing in importance and complexity. Henceforth, managerial theory has become crucial in the way managers manage complex organizations.

2. DEFINITIONS OF MANAGEMENT Management is the art, or science, of achieving goals through people. Process that involves the coordination of human and material resources towards the accomplishment of certain objectives. Accomplishment of objectives through effort of other people Process by which the execution of a given purpose is put into operations and supervised.

3.   MANAGEMENT THEORIES There are several important management theories which are broadly classified as 12 follows: The Scientific Management School comprising the works of Fredrick W. Taylor and Lillian Gilberth’s motion study, among others; The Classical Organizational Theory School comprising the works of Henri Fayol’s views on administration, and Max Weber’s idealized bureaucracy, among others; Behavioural School comprising the work of Elton Mayo and his associates; the Management Science School and Rent Developments in Management.

4. GENERAL SYSTEM THEORY It provides construct for studying people within their environment and as builders of their environment. It’s a model developed by Von Bertalanffy . Von Bertalanffy designed 2 main types of systems:- Closed system end when a quantitative for fulfilment is obtained. Further results are exactly predictable in closed systems. Open system has no designated quantity and are not exactly predictable.

5. VON’S 4 ASSUMPTIONS OF OPEN SYSTEM A system is more than a sum of parts A system is ever changing A system has boundaries that are defined by system purpose. System are goal directed.

6. HENRY FAYOL(1841-1925) Around the turn of century, a Frenchman named Henri Fayol introduced the management world to “systematic management theory”. He presented his 14 principles of management and the 5 functions all managers perform. According to Fayol , administrative management was concerned or focussed on the formal organization structure and the delineation of the basic processes of general management.

7. PROCESSES OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT Planning – examining the future and drawing up the plan of action Organizing – building up the structure, material, human resources of the undertaking Command – maintaining activity among the personnel Coordination – binding together Control – conformity

8. FAYOL’S 14 MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES Division of work Authority Discipline Unity of Command Unity of Direction Subordination of individual interests to the General Interest Remuneration

9. Centralization Scalar chain Order Equity Stability of Tenure of Personnel Intiative Espirit de Corps

10. FREDRICK WINSLOW TAYLOR He is regarded as the father of scientific management and was one of the first management consultants. Under scientific management the “initiative” of the workmen is obtained and in addition to this improvement on the part of the men, the managers assume new burdens, new duties, and responsibilities never dreamed of in the past. The management take on three other types of duties which involve new and heavy burdens for themselves.

11. NEW DUTIES First: They develop a science for each element of a man’s work, which replaces the old rule-of-thumb method. Second: They scientifically select and then train, teach and develop the workman. Third: They heartily cooperate with the men. Fourth: There is an almost equal division of the work and the responsibility between the management and the workmen. It is this combination of the intiative of the workmen, coupled with the new types of work done by the management, that makes scientific management so much more efficient than the old plan.

12.   LUTHER GULLICK AND LYNDALL URWICK Luther Gullick was among those who expanded on the works oh Henri Fayol to build a foundation for management theory. He viewed management functions as universal. His seven-activities acronym, POSDCORB, is a familiar word throughout management practice Planning Organizing

13. Organizing Staffing Directing Coordinating Reporting Budgeting

14. FRANK AND LILLIAN GILBRETH Frank and Lillian Gilbreth , also followers of Taylor, are known for contributions in production and operation management. They are best known for their time and motion studies. From these studies the Gilbreths developed the “laws of motion economy”, which involved 22 principles dealing with: the use of the human body; the workplace arrangement; and tools and equipment design. He advocated the “rhythm in work”. He introduced the use of micromotion study, in which the operations were recorder in the films along with the time value ascertained from a clock set up within the camera focus.

15. SCIENTIFIC METHOD IS COMPROMISED OF FOLLOWING SEQUENCES Identifying the problem or objectives Defining the problems and objectives Collection of data on the problem and the objectives Analysing and interpretation of data Consideration of alternatives

16. Formulate tentative conclusions about tackling the problems Taking up selected actions on the basis of conclusion and testing the results Reviewing and evaluating the results and introducing any corrective action if needed Framing "laws and models” to serve the guide planning and execution.

17. KURT LEWIN Kurt Lewin is considered as the father of social psychology. He is well known for his writings on group dynamics, group therapy and social psychology. Kurt Lewin introduced hid field theory concepts, emphasizing that the group differs from the simple sum of its parts. Lewin coined the term group dynamics in 1939. His field theory states that “one’s behaviour is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself.”

18. LEWIN’S CHANGE THEORY His most influencial theory was his model of the change process in human systems. Kurt Lewin theorized a three-stage model of change that is known as the unfreezing – change – refreeze model that requires prior learning to be rejected and replaced. Lewin’s theory states behaviour as “a dynamic balance of forces working in opposing directions ”.

19. CONCEPTS Driving forces Driving forces are forces that push in a direction that causes change to occur. Restraining forces Restraining forces are forces that counter driving forces. Restraining forces hinder change because they push the person in the opposite direction.

20. Equilibrium Equilibrium is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces and no change occurs. Equilibrium can be raised or lowered by changes that occur between the driving and restraining forces.

21. STAGES “ Unfreezing” Unfreezing is the process which involves finding a method of making it possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was counterproductive in some way. Unfreezing can be achieved by the use of three methods. First, increase the driving forces that direct behaviour away from the existing situation or status qua. Second, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium. Third, find a combination of the two methods listed above.

22. “Moving to a new level or changing” or Movement” This stage involves a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behaviour, or all three, that is in some way more liberating or more productive . “Refreezing ” Refreezing is establishing the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes the “standard operating procedure”. Without this stage of refreezing, it is easy to go back to the old ways.

23. LYNDALL URWICK Lyndall Urwick synthesized and consolidated previous writings and research concerning the structure of management and function of the executive. He generated a list of ten general principles for improving managerial effectiveness. Principles of objective Principles of correspondence Principles of responsibility Scalar principle Principle of span of control Principle of specialization Principle of coordination Principle of definition

24. MARY PARKER FOLLETT Mary Parker Follett was one of two great women management gurus in the early days of classical management theory. She admonished overmanaging employees, a process now known as micromanaging, as “bossism” and she is regarded by some writers as the “mother” of scientific management. Follet pioneered the understanding of lateral processes within hierarchical organizations the importance of informal processes within organizations, and the idea of the “authority of expertise”

25.   FOLLET MAJOR AREAS OF CONTRIBUTION Removal of conflicts: 3 areas of removing conflicts are domination, compromise and integration. She considered the integration as the best alternative of meeting the real needs of both the parties. Participation of the workers Group of dynamics Leadership The law of situation Management as a profession Coordination Authority

26. GEORGE ELTON MAYO George Elton Mayo was an Australian psychologist, sociologist and organization theorist. Mayo is known as the founder of the Human Relations Movement, and is known for his research including the Hawthorne Studies and his book The Human Problems of an Industrialized Civilization. The research he conducted under the Hawthorne showed the importance of groups in affecting the behaviour of individuals at work. He made certain deductions about how managers should behave.

27. He carried out a number of investigations to look at many ways of improving productivity. He concluded that people’s work performance is dependent on both social issues and job content. He suggested a tension between workers “logic of sentiment” and managers logic of cost and efficiency which could lead to conflict within organizations. Basic principles of human relations form Mayo and Hawthorne experiments . Social norms and supervision The group or democratic administration Rewards and sanctions

28. ABRAHAM HAROLD MASLOW He was a professor of psychology at Brandeis university who founded humanistic psychology and created Maslows hierarchy of needs. A visual aid Maslow created to explain his theory, which he called theHierarchy of needs, is a pyramid depicting the levels of human needs,psychological and physical . When a human being ascends the steps of the pyramid reaches self actualization.

29. HERBERT SIMON He was a American political scientist, economist, sociologist, and psychologist. Simon was a polymath, among the founding fathers of several of today’s important scientific domains, including artificial intelligence, information processing, decision making, problem-solving, attention economics, organization theory, complex systems, and computer simulation of scientific discovery. The decision making process involves three important phases of activities. Intelligence activity: Involves access to taking decisions, for which executive has to analyse the organizational environment and identify the conditions that need decisions.

30. He was the first to analyse the architecture of complexity and to propose a orefential attachment mechanism to explain power law distributions. Human behaviour involves conscious or unconscious selection of alternative which is physically possible and organizationally effective. The selection of refers to preferences of at course of action over other courses of action.

31. Design activity: involves development of alternatives to do a particular job. Here also the executive identifies the merits and demerits as well as problems involved in each of the alternatives, determining likely consequences of each alternative. Choice activity : in this stage, decision maker should choose or select one of the alternative or course of action, keeping in view the organizational goals. Here, executive evaluates consequences and selects the course of action.

32. CHESTER IRVING BARNARD Chester Irving Barnard was an American business executive, public administrator, and the author of pioneering work in management theory and organizational studies . Barnard summarized the functions of the executive as follows: Establishing and maintaining a system of communication; Securing essential services from other members; Formulating organizational purposes and objectives.

33. Authority and incentives Barnard formulated two interesting theories: one of authority and the other of incentives. 7 rules as follows: The channels of communication should be definite. Everyone should know of the channels of communication. Everyone should have access to the formal channels of communication; Lines of communication should be as short and as direct as possible; Competence of persons serving as communication centers should be adequate; The line of communication should not be interrupted when the organization is functioning;

34. Every communication should be authenticated . Barnard argued that managers should obtain authority by treating subordinates with respect and competence . As for incentives, he proposed two ways of convincing subordinates to cooperate: Tangible incentives and persuasion. He gives great importance to persuasion, much more than to economic incentives. He described four general and four specific incentives. The specific incentives were: Money and other material inducements ; Personal non-material opportunities for distinction; Desirable physical conditions of work; Ideal benefactions, such as pride of workmanship etc.

35. HENRY MINTZBERG He is an internationally renowed academic and author on business and management. Henry Mintzberg writes prolifically on the topics of management and business strategy, with more than 150 articles and fifteen books to his name. The organizational configurations framework of Mintzberg is a model that describes five valid organizational configurations

36. Simple structure Machine bureaucracy Professional bureaucracy Divisionalized form Adthocracy Regarding the coordination between different tasks, Mintzberg defines the following mechanisms.

37. Mutual adjustments , which achieves coordination by the simple process of informal communication (as between two operating employees ). Direct supervision, is achieved by having one person issue orders or instructions to several others whose work interrelates . Standardization of work processes, which achieves coordination by specifying the work processes of people carrying out interrelated tasks.

38. Standardization of outputs, which achieves coordination b specifying the results of different work. Standardization of skills ( as well as knowledge ), in which different work is coordinate by virtue of the related training the workers have received. Standardization of norms, in which it is the norms infusing the work that are controlled, usually for the entire organization, so that everyone functions according to the same set of beliefs ( as in a religious order)

39. According to the organizational configurations model of Mintzberg each organization can consist of a maximum of six basic parts ; Strategic apex (top management) Middle line(middle management) Operating core ( operations, operationl processes) Technostructure ( analysts that design systems, processes etc ) Support staff ( support outside of operating workflow) Ideology ( halo of beliefs and traditions; norms, values, culture)

40. MINTZBERG BEHAVIOURAL DESCRIPTION Interpersonal roles Figurehead, leader, liaison Informational roles Monitor Disseminator Spokesperson Decisional roles Entrepreneur Disturbance handle Resource allocator

41.   NURSING CARE MODELS:- Basically nurses need to understand the positive and negative consequences of each model in order to plan and propose to decision makers the most efficient and effective way to deliver care. Let me explain; When we discuss models of care we are essentially talking about staffing issues: types of staff, the numbers of staff, when they are needed, for what hours, etc. The model we choose should be base on the patient population, the environment in which the care is being delivered, and the staff we have available to deliver it.

42. Traditional models of care Case method – privacy duty Functional method – task oriented Team method – democratic/ RN as a team leader Primary – 24 hour accountability

43. CASE METHOD NURSING OR TOTAL PATIENT CARE It is oldest mode of organizing patient care. In this method, nurses assume total responsibility for meeting all the needs of assigned patient during their time on duty i.e complete shift. It is developed and communicated thorugh written sources, is usage remains in contemporary practice, speciality units such as ICU, ICCU most often uses this model. Case method nursing provides nurses with high autonomy and responsibility, the lines of authority and accountability are clear.

44. MERITS Nurse attend total needs of client and provides holistc care Continuity of care can be facilitated with care. Rapport can be developed by virtue of intensity of time proximity of those involved. client feel secure, knowing that one person is thoroughly familiar with the needs and course of therapy. Educational needs of client can be closely monitored and workload is equally divided. Accountability is maintained.

45. DEMERITS Many clients do not require the inherit care of intensity in this type of service. This method must be modifies if non professional health workers are to be used effectively. Not cost effective Difficult to use this method in long term planning and evaluation of care The greatest disadvantage is when nurse is untrained to provide total care.

46. FUNCTIONSL NURSING A functional nursing care delivery system is defined as a task-oriented system in which individual caregivers are not given patient assignments, but are expected to perform specific assigned tasks within their capability for all patients in given area . This method of providing care to the patient involves both licenced nursing staff and unlicensed assistive personnel. Several variations may be used in health care settings today, but all functional models depend on a hierarchical structure that requires strict definition of roles and responsibilities and control of tasks ( tomey,2004)

47. MERITS Person become particularly skilled, efficient and economical Utilize persons aptitude, experience and desires. Wear and work losses of the equipment is reduced. Saves time since lends itself to strict organizational protocol. Technical skills are amplified Sense of productivity for task oriented nurse Easy to organize work

48. TERM NURSING In the term nursing care delivery system, patients are assigned to a nursing team, which usually is led by an RN. The team may include RNs , LV/LPNS, respiratory therapists, dieticians, and UAP. Small teams may be assigned to care for patients. These teams include an LVN/LP and UAP. These types of teams may be called care partners, modular teams, patient – focussed teams, or any name that incorporates the concept of a work redesign with the concept of a work redesign with the skill mix intended to be used.

49. MERITS Includes all health care personnel in groups functioning and goals. Feeling of participation an dbeloningness Workload is balanced Division of labour Variety in daily assignments.

50. DEMERITS Takes time, effort and constancy of personnel Unstable nursing patterns make team nursing difficult All personnel must be client centered . Team leader must have complete skills and knowledge. Less individual responsibility and independence.

51. PROGRESSIVE PATIENT OR CLIENT CARE It is a method in which client care areas or units provide various levels of care. Intensive care unit for critically ill Post ICU Regular care units Convalescent unit

52. Convalescent unit Self care unit Clients are evaluated with respect to all level care needed. As they progress towards increased self care, they are mared to units / wards staffed to best provide the type of care needed.

53. MERITS Efficient use of personnel and equipment Need based care given to clients Use of nursing skills and expertise are maximized due to different staffing patterns of each unit. Clients independent is fostered. Personnel function towards their fullest capacity.

54. DEMERITS Discomfort to clients who are moved often. Continuity care is difficult Long term nurse client relationship are difficult to arrange. Emphasis is on comprehensive written.

55. PRIMARY NURSING Primary nursing is defined as a system in which each patient is assigned to a nurse who has 24-hour responsibility for the nursing care delivers to the patient ( Tomey , 2004) The three major responsibilities of the primary nurse can be simplified into ( 1) clear communication among all care disciplines (2) development of a plan of care using the nursing process (3) discharge planning from the time of admission to discharge.

56. The primary nurse is held accountable for collecting and communicating important patient information during the patient’s hospitalization . the primary nurse provides direct patient care because this nurse is in the best position to plan the care ( Manthey , 2002; Roussel , 2006). Involving the patient in the collection of information, eliciting patient expectations for the outcomes of care, and encouraging participation in the development of goals is a significant part of the process( Daditch , 2003).

57. MERITS There is opportunity for the nurse to see the client and family as one system. Nursing accountability, responsibility and independence are increased. Use wide range of skills, knowledge and expertise. Work satisfaction increases. Increased trust and satisfaction by client.

58. DEMERITS The nurse may be isolated from collegues Little avenue for group planning Nurse must be mature and independently competent. Cost effective Heavy client load Incapability of co-ordination

59.   IOWA MODEL OF NURSING MANAGEMENT The IOWA model for nursing administration provides for the critical interdependence of both critical activities and management activities or outcomes. the IOWA model may be used to guide decision making and evaluating change.