Nucleic acids and protein synthesis Report

Nucleic acid factors report

1. NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

2. GROUP MEMBERS ALTIA TIRANDO FREAH MERO GERALDINE PICOT SHERWEN DURAN

3. CLASSROOM RULES Listen when the teacher is discussing Raise your hand if you want to answer Use technology responsibly

4. MOTIVATION “There is a nucleic acid and DNA was its name oh.. D-D- DNA , D-D- DNA , D- D- DNA and DNA was its name oh… There is a nucleic acid and RNA was its name oh.. R-R- RNA , R- R- RNA , R- R- RNA and RNA was its name oh…”

5. ACTIVITY: “UNSCRAMBLE ME”

6. EICNUCL DICSA

7. NUCLEIC ACIDS

8. TDEINCLEUO

9. NUCLEOTIDE

10. XYDEORIBOEICNUCL DIAC

11. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

12. RIOBIECNUCL DICA

13. RIBONUCLEIC ACID

14. ACTIVITY NAME: “UP AND DOWN” The teacher will divide the class into two Each group will have to choose 1 representative When the teacher says up the representative of the group will stand up and when the teacher says down they will sit down The group who’ll be seen standing up when the teacher says down will have to answer the question and same goes vice versa, other group also can answer the question provided to gain points ● 2 pts each × 5 questions = 10 pts overall

15. Question: If you would name a sugar compound who has 5 carbon, what would be its name? Pentane Pentene Pentose

16. Question: What does DNA stands for? Deoxyribonucleic acid Dioxyribonucleic acid Dioxynucleic acid What does RNA stands for? Ribonucleic acid Rinucleic acid Rebonucleic acid

17. Question: What group does –OH belong to? Hydrogen group Hydroxyl group Hydroxy group Where do you think do DNA and RNA differ from each other? Its arrangement of letters Its structure and bases Its color

18. Answers: If you would name a sugar compound who has 5 carbon, what would be its name? Pentane Pentene Pentose

19. Answers: What does DNA stands for? Deoxyribonucleic acid Dioxyribonucleic acid Dioxynucleic acid What does RNA stands for? Ribonucleic acid Rinucleic acid Rebonucleic acid

20. Answers: What group does –OH belong to? Hydrogen group Hydroxyl group Hydroxy group Where do you think do DNA and RNA differ? Its arrangement of letters Its structure and bases Its color

21. ANALYSIS How did you find the activity? What are the things that you’ve learned throughout the activity? Based on the activity, what do you think is our lesson for today?

22. OBJECTIVES At the end of the lesson, students will be able to: Identify the bases found in each type of nucleic acid Determine the role of nucleotide in DNA Describe the process of the Double Helix Structure of the DNA

23. NUCLEIC ACIDS

24. NUCLEIC ACID naturally occurring chemical compound that is capable of breaking down to yield phosphoric acid, sugars, and a mixture of organic bases (purines and pyrimidines) Nucleic acids are the main information-carrying molecules of the cell , and, by directing the process of protein synthesis , they determine the inherited characteristics of every living thing.

25. Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and enable protein production include DNA composed of and RNA. These long strands of Nucleic acids molecules are nucleotides

26. Each nucleic acid contains four of five possible nitrogen- containing base s: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymi ne (T), and uracil (U). A and G are categorized as purines , and C, T, and U are collectively called pyrimidines . All nucleic acids contain the bases A, C, and G; T, however, is found only in DNA, while U is found in RNA. The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) and ribonucleic acid ( RNA ).

27. ACTIVITY NAME : “FILL ME IN” BASES PYRIMIDINES PURINES DNA RNA

28. ACTIVITY NAME : “FILL ME IN” BASES PYRIMIDINES PURINES DNA Cytosine, Thymine Adenine , Guanine RNA Cytosine, Uracil Adenine , Guanine

29. NUCLEOSIDES AND NUCLEOTIDES

30. NUCLEOTIDES A nucleotide is an organic compound made up of three subunits: a nitrogenous base, a five- carbon sugar , and a phosphate group . The sugar component may either be ribose or deoxyribose .

31. NUCLEOSIDES A nucleoside is a nitrogenous base ( purine or pyrimidine ) bound to a pentose sugar ribose or deoxyribose . A nitrogenous base (also called nucleobase ) is a nitrogen- containing compound that may form a nucleoside when they are attached to a five- carbon sugar ribose or deoxyribose .

32. DIFFERENCE NUCLEOTIDES COMPONENTS: Pentose sugar- ribose(RNA) or deoxyribose(DNA) Nitrogenous base- purine or pyrimidine Phospate Group(s)- one two or three NUCLEOSIDES COMPONENTS: Pentose sugar- ribose(RNA) or deoxyribose(DNA) Nitrogenous base- purine or pyridimine NO PHOSPATE GROUP

33. IMPORTANCE nucleotides are closely involved in Nucleosides and the preservation and transmission of the genetic information of all living creatures. In addition, they play roles in biological energy storage and transmission, signaling, regulation of various aspects of metabolism, and even an important role as an antioxidant.

34. ACTIVITY NAME : “FILL ME OUT” COMPONENTS NUCLEOTIDES NUCLEOSIDES

35. ACTIVITY NAME : “FILL ME OUT” COMPONENTS NUCLEOTIDES NITROGENOUS BASE, PENTOSE SUGAR & PHOSPHATE GROUP NUCLEOSIDES NITROGENOUS BASE, PENTOSE SUGAR NO PHOSPHATE GROUP

36. WHO IS ERWIN CHARGAFF? was an Austro-Hungarian biochemist known for his proposed rules that are referred to now as Chargaff’s rules

37. This rule of Chargaff disproved the formerly accepted hypothesis called tetranucleotide hypothesis . Accordingly, a natural DNA would have the same number of guanine units and cytosine units. Likewise, the number of adenine units would equal the number of thymine units. Thus, this would implicate base pairing in DNA.

38. In tetranucleotide hypothesis , it stated that DNA was comprised of a number of repeats of guanine, adenine, cytosine, and thymine, and variations in the equimolar base ratios were due to experimental error. Chargaff refused it and proved them wrong through his experimentation that made use of paper chromatography and ultraviolet spectrophotometer. He later met with Francis Crick and James Watson to explain what he found in his research.

39. Many believed that this first rule of Chargaff helped the research team of Watson and Crick to conclude the double helix structure of DNA . The second rule is that the amounts of adenine , thymine , guanine , and cytosine would vary from one species to another, implicating that the genetic material is DNA rather than protein .

40. DNA DOUBLE HELIX

41. DNA DOUBLE HELIX The double helix describes the appearance of double- stranded DNA, which is composed of two linear strands that run opposite to each other, or anti- parallel, and twist together

42. DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single- celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. It is found in the nucleus of eukaryotes and in the organelles, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, the DNA is not enclosed in a membranous envelope.

43. DNA controls all of the cellular activities by turning the genes “on” or “off.” DNA carries the genetic blueprint of the cell and is passed on from parents to offspring (in the form of chromosomes) The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose , and in RNA, the sugar is ribose

44. DNA Double- Helix Structure The sugar and phosphate lie on the outside of the helix, forming the backbone of the DNA. The nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like the steps of a staircase, in pairs; the pairs are bound to each other by hydrogen bonds Every base pair in the double helix is separated from the next base pair by 0.34 nm. The two strands of the helix run in opposite directions, meaning that the 5′ carbon end of one strand will face the 3′ carbon end of its matching strand. (This is referred to as antiparallel orientation and is important to DNA replication and in many nucleic acid interactions.)

45. Only certain types of base pairing are allowed. For example, a certain purine can only pair with a certain pyrimidine. This means A can pair with T, and G can pair with C. This is known as the base complementary rule. DNA Double- Helix Structure

46. In a double stranded DNA molecule, the two strands run antiparallel to one another so that one strand runs 5′ to 3′ and the other 3′ to 5′. The phosphate backbone is located on the outside, and the bases are in the middle. Adenine forms hydrogen bonds (or base pairs) with thymine, and guanine base pairs with cytosine.

47. WHAT DO YOU THINK WILL HAPPEN IF THE 4 BASE PAIRS DID NOT MATCH UP CORRECTLY?

48. If a mismatched base pair, bound strongly by a transcription factor, makes it through the DNA replication cycle without being repaired by another type of protein- known as a repair enzyme - it can become a mutation , and mutations can lead to genetic diseases like cancer and neurodegeneration .

49. REPLICATION RNA and TRANSCRIPTION

50. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: Define and understand Replication, RNA, and Transcription. The students will identify thethe differences of DNA and RNA. Identify the different types of RNA.

51. MOTIVATION Guess and Answer Me!

52. Transcription. Replication. •Messenger RNA RNA. •Transfer RNA 1. This type of RNA functions by transferring the genetic material into the ribosomes and pass the instructions about the type of proteins, required by the body cells.

53. MESSENGER RNA 1. This type of RNA functions by transferring the genetic material into the ribosomes and pass the instructions about the type of proteins, required by the body cells.

54. Transcription. •Messenger RNA Replication. • RNA. •Transfer RNA 2.is a ribonucleic acid that helps in the synthesis of proteins in our body. This nucleic acid is responsible for the production of new cells in the human body. It is usually obtained from the DNA molecule.

55. 2.is a ribonucleic acid that helps in the synthesis of proteins in our body. This nucleic acid is responsible for the production of new cells in the human body. It is usually obtained from the DNA molecule. RNA

56. Transcription. •Messenger RNA Replication. • RNA. •Transfer RNA 3. The transfer RNA is held responsible for choosing the correct protein or the amino acids required by the body in- turn helping the ribosomes. It is located at the endpoints of each amino acid.This is also called assoluble RNA and it forms a link between the messenger RNA and the amino acid

57. 3. is held responsible for choosing the correct protein or the amino acids required by the body in-turn helping the ribosomes. It is located at the endpoints of each amino acid.This is also called assoluble RNA and it forms a link between the messenger RNA and the amino acid TRANSFER RNA

58. Transcription. Replication. •Messenger RNA RNA. •Transfer RNA 4.Sections of the DNA chain are first copied into a type of RNA called messenger RNA, mRNA. This process is known as

59. TRANSCRIPTION 4.Sections of the DNA chain are first copied into a type of RNA called messenger RNA, mRNA. This process is known as

60. Transcription. Replication. •Messenger RNA RNA. •Transfer RNA 5. New cells are continuously forming in the body through the process of cell division. For this to happen, the DNA in a dividing cell must be copied in a process known as.

61. 5. New cells are continuously forming in the body through the process of cell division. For this to happen, the DNA in a dividing cell must be copied in a process known as. REPLICATION

62. ACTIVITY 2: “ ASSEMBLE ASSEMBLE “ Unscramble the words and pronuonce it properly

63. NRA - SNARTNOITPIRC - SEMSENREG- SSENZYME- LSLEC- BULEBB- SURECURTT- FANSTRER-

64. RNA - NRA TRANSCRIPTION - SNARTNOITPIRC MESSENGER - SEMSENREG ENZYMES - SSENZYME CELLS - LSLEC BUBBLE - BULEBB STRUCTURE - SURECURTT TRANSFER - FANSTRER

65. Replication New cells are continuously forming in the body through the process of cell division. For this to happen, the DNA in a dividing cell must be copied in a process known as replication. DNA replication is an enzyme- catalyzed process that begins with a partial unwinding of the double helix at various points along the chain, brought about by enzymes called helicases.Hydrogen bonds are broken, the two strands separate to form a “bubble,” and bases are exposed.

66. New nucleotides then line up on each strand in a complementary manner, A to T and G to C, and two new strands begin to grow from the ends of the bubble, called the replication forks. Each new strand is complementary to its old template strand, so two identical DNA double helices are produced. Because each of the new DNA molecules contains one old strand and one new strand, the process is described as semiconservative replication.

67. Addition of nucleotides to the growing chain takes place in the 5′ → 3′ direction and is catalyzed by the DNA polymerase enzyme. The key step is the addition of a nucleoside 5′- triphosphate to the free 3′- hydroxyl group of the growing chain with the loss of a diphosphate leaving group.

68. The magnitude of the replication process is staggering. The nucleus of every human cell contains 2 copies of 22 chromosomes plus an additional 2 sex chromosomes, for a total of 46. Each chromosome consists of one very large DNA molecule, and the sum of the DNA in each of the two sets of chromosomes is estimated to be 3.0 billion base pairs, or 6.0 billion nucleotides. Despite the size of these enormous molecules, their base sequence is faithfully copied during replication.

69. The entire copying process takes only a few hours and, after proofreading and repair, an error gets through only about once per 10 to 100 billion bases. In fact, only about 60 of these random mutations are passed on from parent to child per human generation.

70. As noted previously, RNA is structurally similar to DNA but contains ribose rather than deoxyribose and uracil rather than thymine. RNA has three major types, each of which serves a specific purpose. In addition, there are a number of small RNAs that appear to control a wide variety of important cellular functions. All RNA molecules are much smaller than DNA, and all remain single- stranded rather than double- stranded.

71. Another part of the picture in vertebrates and flowering plants is that genes are often not continuous segments of the DNA chain. Instead, a gene will begin in one small section of DNA called an exon, then be interrupted by a noncoding section called an intron, and then take up again farther down the chain in another exon. The final mRNA molecule results only after the noncoded sections are cut out of the transcribed mRNA and the remaining pieces are joined together by spliceosome enzymes. The gene for triose phosphate isomerase in maize, for instance, contains eight noncoding introns accounting for approximately 70% of the DNA base pairs and nine coding exons accounting for only 30%

72. WHAT IS RNA?

73. RNA is a ribonucleic acid that helps in the synthesis of proteins in our body. This nucleic acid is responsible for the production of new cells in the human body. It is usually obtained from the DNA molecule. RNA resembles the same as that of DNA

74. the only difference being that it has a single strand unlike the DNA which has two strands and it consists of an only single ribose sugar molecule in it. Hence is the name Ribonucleic acid. RNA is also referred to as an enzyme as it helps in the process of chemical reactions in the body.

75. Basic Structure of RNA The ribonucleic acid has all the components same to that of the DNA with only 2 main differences within it. RNA has the same nitrogen bases called the adenine, Guanine, Cytosine as that of the DNA except for the Thymine which is replaced by the uracil. Adenine and uracil are considered as the major building blocks of RNA and both of them form base- pair with the help of 2 hydrogen bonds.

76. RNA resembles a hairpin structure and like the nucleotides in DNA, nucleotides are formed in this ribonucleic material(RNA). Nucleosides are nothing but the phosphate groups which sometimes also helps in the production of nucleotides in the DNA

77. Functions of RNA The ribonucleic acid – RNA, which are mainly composed of nucleic acids, are involved in a variety of functions within the cell and are found in all living organisms including bacteria, viruses, plants, and animals. These nucleic acid functions as a structural molecule in cell organelles and are also involved in the catalysis of biochemical reactions. The different types of RNA are involved in various cellular process. The primary functions of RNA:

78. •Facilitate the translation of DNA into proteins Functions as an adapter molecule in protein synthesis •Serves as a messenger between the DNA and the ribosomes. •They are the carrier of genetic information in all living cells •Promotes the ribosomes to choose the right amino acid which is required in building up of new proteins in the body.

79. RNA Types There are various types of RNA, out which most well- known and most commonly studied in the human body are : tRNA – Transfer RNA The transfer RNA is held responsible for choosing the correct protein or the amino acids required by the body in- turn helping the ribosomes. It is located at the endpoints of each amino acid.This is also called as soluble RNA and it forms a link between the messenger RNA and the amino acid

80. rRNA- Ribosomal RNA The rRNA is the component of the ribosome and are located within the in the cytoplasm of a cell, where ribosomes are found. In all living cells, the ribosomal RNA plays a fundamental role in the synthesis and translation of mRNA into proteins. The rRNA is mainly composed of cellular RNA and are the most predominant RNA within the cells of all living beings.

81. mRNA – Messenger RNA. This type of RNA functions by transferring the genetic material into the ribosomes and pass the instructions about the type of proteins, required by the body cells. Based on the functions, these types of RNA is called the messenger RNA. Therefore, the mRNA plays a vital role in the process of transcription or during the protein synthesis process.

82. Based on the functions, these types of RNA is called the messenger RNA. Therefore, the mRNA plays a vital role in the process of transcription or during the protein synthesis process. Small RNAs, also called functional RNAs, have a variety of functions within the cell, including silencing transcription and catalyzing chemical modifications of other RNA molecules. Understanding RNA Polymerase and its working mechanism is vital. It has a multi- subunit structure, allowing it to carry out various functions, including promoter recognition, transcription initiation, RNA elongation, and termination of transcription.

83. CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo , and includes icons by Flaticon , and infographics & images by Freepik Distinguishing between DNA and RNA DNA and RNA are two essential types of nucleic acids prevalent in all forms of life. Both contain the instructions needed for the development and functioning of living organisms, yet they differ significantly in structure and functionality.

84. TRANSCRIPTION

85. Although DNA contains the necessary instructions for synthesizing all the proteins necessary for the functioning of a cell, it does not take part directly in the synthesis itself. Sections of the DNA chain are first copied into a type of RNA called messenger RNA, mRNA. This process is known as transcription. In transcription, RNA polymerase opens up DNA and uses the base pair sequence of one of the DNA strands to synthesis a molecule of mRNA which is complementary to the template strand. The other strand is referred to as the coding strand, as it has the same sequence as the mRNA molecule formed.

86. The mRNA molecules differ from DNA in three ways: RNA is generally found in a single strand form, instead of the double helix structure of DNA. RNA has a hydroxyl group (alt ) at the 2' carbon, wheras DNA simply has a hydrogen. The base uracil (U) replaces thymine (T). All three differences are displayed in Fig 20.22.1 . Another aspect of mRNA molecules is that they are also considerably smaller than DNA, containing the blueprints for only a few proteins at most.

87. As the name implies, mRNA molecules are used to transport their coded instructions from the nucleus of the cell, where the DNA is situated, to the ribosomes, where the process of protein synthesis actually takes place. When an mRNA molecule reaches a ribosome, a process called translation takes place in which the base sequence on the mRNA molecule is used to create a protein using the codon code. In translation, each codon on the mRNA base pairs with an anticodon base sequence on a RNA molecule called transfer RNA, tRNA. Each tRNA molecule is bound to the amino acid. Thus, the codon UUA will pair with the anticodon of the tRNA bound to leucine

88. The synthesis of the protein itself is performed by the ribosome, which is a protein- RNA complex, but unlike other enzymes, the catalytic activity is provided by the RNA portion, not the protein. The ribosome is thus sometimes referred to as a ribozyme, to distinguish it from the usual concept of any enzyme with protein based catalytic activity.

89. The synthesis of protein in the ribosome. 1) mRNA binds to the ribosome. The AUG start codon sits in the P or peptide site on the ribosome, and binds a tRNA with Met bound to it. The second codon, GAA in this example, binds a tRNA with Glu bound in a second site, the A or aminoacyl site. 2)The ribosome catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the amino acids in the P and A sites, so that the dipeptide is now attached to the tRNA in the A site. 3)The tRNA with the dipeptide moves to the P site and another tRNA brings the next amino acid into the A site. Another peptide bond is formed between the second and third amino acids. 4)This process continues until a stop codon on the mRNA enters the A site. Then the mRNA and the new protein are released from the ribosome and the protein is free to fold into its native structure.

90. THE GENETIC CODE

91. RECOMBINANT DNA, DNA FINGERPRINTING AND VIRUSES

92. CLASSROOM RULES Listen when the teacher is discussing Raise your hand if you want to answer Use technology responsibly

93. MOTIVATION “Ang pambansang motivation ng 1sci” Instruction: unscramble the scramble word related to Recombinant DNA, DNA fingerprinting and Viruses.

94. Binantrecom NDA – sesruiV - Binantrecom mosinchy - ManHu inlusin – NAD filingpor-

95. Cularlemo ingnlco – Trohs medant peatsre – Ableriva bernum Demtan peatsre - Leac ffreysje - MuneIm temsys –

96. Answers: Binantrecom NDA - Recombinant DNA sesruiV - Viruses Binantrecom mosinchy - Recombinant chymosin ManHu inlusin - Human insulin NAD filingpor- DNA profiling

97. Cularlemo ingnlco - Molecular cloning Trohs medant peatsre - Short Tandem Repeats Ableriva bernum Demtan peatsre - Variable number Tandem repeat Leac ffreysje - Alec Jeffreys MuneIm temsys – immune system

98. Activity: Mechanics: The student will fall in line into two groups, The front member of the each group will playing the ROCK, PAPER, AND SCISSORS, The winner will be the one to answer the WORD SEARCH and when she/he done answering the WORD SEARCH she/he will go to the back of the group and the other Front member will play again the ROCK, PAPER AND SCISSORS and so on. The WINNING group will sing the First stanza and First Chorus of SELOS, And the LOOSING group will dance the SELOS song.

99. Activity Name: Hanapin Mo Ako! Also known as microsatellites or simple sequence repeats. Refers to a molecule that is created by combining DNA from two different sources, often from different organisms. Circular DNA molecules that are commonly used as vectors to introduce foreign DNA into host cells for replication and expression. Hybrid DNA molecules that combine the features of plasmids and bacteriophages, allowing for the stable maintenance and replication of larger DNA fragments. This method analyzes the variations in the number of repeated DNA sequences at specific loci within the genome.

100. RNA viruses that can convert their RNA genome into DNA using the enzyme reverse transcriptase. Also known as DNA profiling, is a forensic technique used to identify individuals based on their unique DNA patterns. Are infectious agents that require a host cell to replicate and cause infections in living organisms, including humans, animals, plants, and bacteria. Analysis involves the detection of variations in the lengths of DNA fragments that result from the digestion of DNA with specific restriction enzymes. The branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of which matter is composed; the investigation of their properties and the ways in which they interact, combine, and change; and the use of these processes to form new substances

101. Analysis: How did you find the activity of solving the crossword puzzle? Did you encounter any challenges or difficulties? What is the connection of the hidden words that you found in our activity to our topic today?

102. Objectives: At the end of the lesson student will be able to: Define and understand what is recombinant DNA Understand the importance DNA fingerprinting Identify and describe the different kind of viruses

103. RECOMBINANT DNA, DNA FINGERPRINTING AND VIRUSES

104. Recombinant DNA

105. What is Recomninat DNA? Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) that bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.

106. The DNA sequences used in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules can originate from any species. Proteins that can result from the expression of recombinant DNA within living cells are termed recombinant proteins. When recombinant DNA encoding a protein is introduced into a host organism, the recombinant protein is not necessarily produced. Recombinant DNA differs from genetic recombination in that the former results from artificial methods while the latter is a normal biological process that results in the remixing of existing DNA sequences in essentially all organisms.

107. Applications of recombinant DNA The most common application of recombinant DNA is in basic research, in which the technology is important to most current work in the biological and biomedical sciences. Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map and sequence genes, and to determine their function. rDNA probes are employed in analyzing gene expression within individual cells, and throughout the tissues of whole organisms. Many additional practical applications of recombinant DNA are found in industry, food production, human and veterinary medicine, agriculture, and bioengineering. Some specific examples are identified below.

108. Recombinant chymosin: Found in rennet, chymosin is the enzyme responsible for hydrolysis of κ- casein to produce para- κ-casein and glycomacropeptide, which is the first step in formation of cheese, and subsequently curd, and whey. It was the first genetically engineered food additive used commercially. This microbiologically produced recombinant enzyme, identical structurally to the calf derived enzyme, costs less and is produced in abundant quantities. Today about 60% of U.S. hard cheese is made with genetically engineered chymosin. In 1990, FDA granted chymosin ―generally recognized as safe‖ (GRAS) status based on data showing that the enzyme was safe.

109. Production of recombinant chymosin The first step in this process is to obtain a piece of tissue from the calf stomach and isolate the DNA from the cells. The second step is to introduce the gene sequence into plasmids that are then introduced in the target microbes. After introducing the gene in the plasmid and the plasmid in the microbe, it will start producing chymosin and the last step would be to purify it. An important fact to be aware of while using recombination of genes from one species into a different one is the specific variation in codon usage. This problem usually causes low expression levels of the protein that we want to produce. Another important step in the production is the secretion of the protein by the microbial cells, the sequence of the chymosin can be also changed to improve its secretion.

110. Recombinant human insulin Recombinant Insulin (also known as Insulin Human AF) is a recombinant protein, consisting of human insulin crystals, a biosynthetic product expressed by recombinant microbial expression in yeast. Recombinant human insulin has almost completely replaced insulin obtained from animal sources (e.g. pigs and cattle) for the treatment of type 1 diabetes. A variety of different recombinant insulin preparations are in widespread use.

111. Recombinant chymosin Found in rennet, chymosin is the enzyme responsible for hydrolysis of κ-casein to produce para- κ- casein and glycomacropeptide, which is the first step in formation of cheese, and subsequently curd, and whey. It was the first genetically engineered food additive used commercially. Traditionally, processors obtained chymosin from rennet, a preparation derived from the fourth stomach of milk- fed calves. Scientists engineered a non-pathogenic strain (K-12) of E. coli bacteria for large- scale laboratory production of the enzyme.

112. Production of human insulin by genetic engineering methods . The steps in the production of human insulin by genetic engineering method includes: Human insulin is extracted from pancreas cells and an insulin- producing gene is isolated. A plasmid DNA is extracted from a bacterium and cut with restriction enzyme, forming plasmid vector. Insert human insulin- producing gene into the bacterial plasmid vector to form the recombinant DNA of human insulin- producing gene. Introduce this recombinant DNA into a bacterial cell to form the recombinant bacterium. The recombinant bacteria multiply in a fermentation tank and produce human insulin. Insulin is extracted, purified and bottled. It is then ready to be injected into diabetic patients.

113. PRODUCTION: * Molecular cloning is also known Gene cloning, refers to the process of isolating a DNA sequence of interest for the purpose of making multiple copies of it. Molecular cloning is the laboratory process used to produce recombinant DNA. *Formation of recombinant DNA requires a cloning vector, a DNA molecule that replicates within a living cell. *The choice of vector for molecular cloning depends on the choice of host organism, the size of the DNA to be cloned, and whether and how the foreign DNA is to be expressed.

114. In standard cloning protocols, the cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves seven steps: Choice of host organism and cloning vector, Preparation of vector DNA, Preparation of DNA to be cloned, Creation of recombinant DNA, Introduction of recombinant DNA into the host organism, Selection of organisms containing recombinant DNA, and Screening for clones with desired DNA inserts and biological properties.

115. DNA Fingerprinting

116. What is DNA FINGERPRINTING?

117. DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling, is a forensic technique used to identify individuals based on their unique DNA patterns. It involves analyzing specific regions of an individual’s DNA to create a genetic profile that is distinct to each person, except for identical twins who share the same DNA. DNA fingerprinting is widely used in criminal investigations, paternity testing, and identifying human remains.

118. It was first discovered and developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys, a British geneticist, in 1984. Sir Alec Jeffreys made this groundbreaking discovery while working at the University of Leicester in the United Kingdom. His pioneering work in DNA fingerprinting revolutionized forensic science and has since been widely used in criminal investigations, paternity testing, and other areas of genetic identification.

119. Why is DNA fingerprinting important? An early use of DNA fingerprinting was in legal disputes, notably to help solve crimes and to determine paternity. It is also used to identify inherited genetic diseases and can be used to identify genetic matches between tissue donors and recipients. DNA fingerprinting is also a valuable tool for confirming pedigree in animals, such as purebred dogs and racehorses.

120. Standard methods for DNA fingerprinting:

121. 1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP): is a type of DNA fingerprinting technique. RFLP analysis involves the detection of variations in the lengths of DNA fragments that result from the digestion of DNA with specific restriction enzymes.

122. 2. Short Tandem Repeats (STR): In this method, short repeated sequences of DNA are analyzed to create a genetic profile. STR analysis is the most common form of DNA fingerprinting used today. And Also known as microsatellites or simple sequence repeats.

123. 3. Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTR): This method analyzes the variations in the number of repeated DNA sequences at specific loci within the genome .

124. Viruses

125. What is Viruses?

126. Viruses are infectious agents that require a host cell to replicate and cause infections in living organisms, including humans, animals, plants, and bacteria. They consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid. Viruses can be classified into different types based on their genetic material, structure, and mode of replication.

127. How do Viruses Make us Sick?

128. Viruses are bundles of nucleic acid— DNA or RNA— that are enclosed by a protein shell known as a capsid. By some measures the most abundant life form on earth, viruses lurk everywhere; experts estimate that they are 10 times more numerous than bacteria. And while individual viral particles, called virions, are too small to be seen under a microscope, when grouped together they can do outsize damage to people and animals.

129. How do viruses enter the body?

130. *Viruses are unable to reproduce by themselves. In fact, they barely qualify as living things when outside of a host. But these parasites are well designed to infiltrate host cells and replicate copiously. *First, a virus finds an entry point on the surface of a host’s body, typically in the respiratory tract, including the mouth and nose. This is by far the most common route, particularly for pathogens such as rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and influenza viruses.

131. *Other points of entry for viruses include the surface of the eyeball, and skin that has an abrasion or injury; they cannot penetrate intact skin. Mucus linings in the throat, gastrointestinal tract, and genital tract provide protection against viruses, but they can still make their way through mucus.

132. How viruses travel through the body? Once a virus gets into a host’s body, it travels along the surfaces of cells until its proteins begin to bind with receptors on the cells. The virus and the cells then fuse, allowing the DNA or RNA inside the virus to enter the cells, where it begins to reproduce. The replicating virus may stay at the entry site or it may spread to other cells and tissues in the body, often by entering the bloodstream.

133. How the immune system reacts to viruses? The immune system reacts to the injury of these bodily cells by revving up, causing symptoms such as fever and chills. While we sometimes worry about running a fever, an elevated temperature generally is considered a protective response that works to destroy invasive microbes. One study revealed that patients entering the intensive care unit who ran a mild to moderate fever during their first 24 hours there did better than those who didn’t have a fever or whose fever was extreme.

134. What are the types of viruses? Experts group viruses into categories like family and genus based on similar features, like size, shape and the type of genetic material they carry. Some common types of viruses that you might hear about include:

135. Influenza viruses (Orthomyxoviridae): The Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses includes influenza A and B, which cause the flu. Human herpesvirus (Herpesviridae): Herpesviridae is a large family of viruses. Coronaviruses: Coronaviruses are a subfamily of viruses. SARS- CoV- 2, the virus that causes COVID- 19, is probably the most well- known coronavirus. Human papillomavirus (HPV): Human papillomaviruses are part of the Papillomaviridae family of viruses. Enteroviruses: Enterovirus is a genus (one level smaller than the group called a ―family‖) of viruses that infect your intestinal tract. Flaviviruses : Viruses in this genus are often spread by mosquitoes.

136. Orthopoxviruses: Viruses in the genus Orthopoxvirus cause blistering rashes. Hepatitis viruses: Though they don’t all belong to the same family or genus, hepatitis viruses all infect your liver. Retroviruses: Retroviruses are RNA viruses that use special proteins to make DNA. The virus then inserts its DNA into yours. Oncoviruses: Oncoviruses are viruses that can cause cancer. Satellite viruses: Satellite viruses can’t reproduce without other, ―helper‖ viruses. Bacteriophages: Also just called ―phages,‖ bacteriophages are viruses that specifically infect bacteria.

137. Application : Student will giving a 10 minutes to write down what have they understand or learned about the topic that we discussed. (20 points)