OB MAM ZARGHUNA 2.pptx..................

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1. Motivational Needs, Processes and Applications

2. Revise the motivation process and the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators Discuss the equity theory of work motivation and its relationship with Organisational Justice Present the motivational application of job design. Describe the motivational application of goal setting. Learning Objectives

3. Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need, that activates a behavior or a drive, that is aimed at a goal or incentive. It consists of three interacting and interdependent elements : Needs Drives Incentives The Basic Motivation Process

4. The basic motivation process

5. Primary motives and secondary motives Primary motives Motives that are unlearned, biological, primary or physiologically based These include, hunger, thirst and maternal concern etc. Secondary motive A motive must be learned in order to be categorized into the secondary motive

6. Secondary motive is fulfilled usually once primary motive is fulfilled…..but in some circumstances such as religious fasting, secondary motive surpasses primary motive

7. Extrinsic motivators: Are tangible and visible to others. Include pay, benefits, and promotions. Include the drive to avoid punishment, such as termination or being transferred. Are usually contingency based. Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivators

8. Are necessary to attract people into the organization and to keep them on the job. Are often used to inspire workers to achieve at higher levels or to reach new goals, as additional payoffs are contingent on improved performance. They do not explain every motivated effort made by an individual employee. Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivators (Continued)

9. Intrinsic motivators Are internally generated. Include feelings of responsibility, achievement, and accomplishment. Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivators (Continued)

10. It is important to remember that these two types of motivators are not completely distinct from one another. Many motivators have both intrinsic and extrinsic components. For example, a person who wins a sales contest receives the prize, which is the extrinsic motivator . At the same time, however, “winning” in a competitive situation may be the more powerful, yet internalized, motive

11. To further complicate any explanation of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, cognitive evaluation theory suggests a more intricate relationship. This theory proposes that a task may be intrinsically motivating, but that when an extrinsic motivator becomes associated with that task, the actual level of motivation may decrease. Consider the world of motion pictures, where an actor often strives for many years to simply be included in a film. The intrinsic motive of acting is enough to inspire the starving artist. Once, however, the same actor becomes a star, the extrinsic motivators of money and perks would, according to cognitive evaluation theory, cause the individual to put less effort into each performance.

12. The seemingly contradictory findings make more sense when the concept of negative extrinsic motives is included. That is, threats, deadlines, directives, pressures, and imposed goals are likely to be key factors that diminish intrinsic motivation. For example, consider the difference between writing a book for fun versus writing a book that must be completed by a certain deadline in order to receive payment.

13. Work motivation theories

14. Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs Theory Physiological Needs most basic human physical needs Safety Needs safe and secure physical and emotional environment Belongingness Needs desire to be accepted by one’s peers Esteem Needs desire for a positive self-image and to receive attention Self-Actualization Needs represent the need for self-fulfillment Abraham Maslow is known for the theory that human beings are motivated by a hierarchy unsatisfied needs.

15. Maslow’s needs hierarchy has often been uncritically accepted by writers of management textbooks and by practitioners. Unfortunately, the limited research that has been conducted lends little empirical support to the theory. About a decade after publishing his original paper, Maslow did attempt to clarify his position by saying that gratifying the self-actualizing need of growth-motivated individuals can actually increase rather than decrease this need. He also hedged on some of his other original ideas, for example, that higher needs may emerge after lower needs that have been unfulfilled or suppressed for a long period are satisfied. He stressed that human behavior is multidetermined and multimotivated .

16. What does become clear from contemporary research is that layoffs and terminations (i.e., downsizing) can enforce employees to have concerns about basic-level needs such as security. Organizations that endeavor to reduce fears and other strong emotional responses during these moments through severance pay programs and outplacement services may be able to lessen the impact of individual terminations and lay-offs , especially for those who remain with the company.

17. Another historically important contribution to work motivation is the content theory of Frederick Herzberg. Unlike Maslow, Herzberg many years ago conducted a widely reported motivational study on about 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms in and around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He used the critical incident method of obtaining data for analysis. The professional subjects in the study were essentially asked two questions: (1) When did you feel particularly good about your job 2) When did you feel particularly bad about your job Herzberg’s two factor theory

18. Responses obtained from this critical incident method were interesting and fairly consistent . Reported good feelings were generally associated with job experiences and job content. An example was the accounting supervisor who felt good about being given the job of installing new computer equipment. He took pride in his work and was gratified to know that the new equipment made a big difference in the overall functioning of his department . Reported bad feelings, on the other hand, were generally associated with the surrounding or peripheral aspects of the job—the job context. An example of these feelings was related by an engineer whose first job was routine record keeping and managing the office when the boss was gone. It turned out that his boss was always too busy to train him and became annoyed when he tried to ask questions. The engineer said that he was frustrated in this job context and that he felt like a flunky in a dead-end job

19. Herzberg’s two Factor theory Area of Satisfaction Area of Dissatisfaction Motivators influence level of satisfaction. Hygiene factors influence level of dissatisfaction. Motivators Hygiene Factors Achievement Recognition Responsibility Work itself Personal growth Working conditions Pay and security Company policies Supervisors Interpersonal relationships

20. When researchers deviate from the critical incident methodology used by Herzberg, they do not get the two factors. Further, there is always a question regarding the samples used by Herzberg: Would he have obtained the results from low-complexity jobs such as truck drivers and third-shift factory workers or waitstaff personnel? Presumably both the hygiene factors and satisfiers could be substantially different when comparing these groups

21. Clayton Paul Alderfer is an American psychologist who developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into a theory of his own.  Alderfer’s  ERG theory  suggests that there are three groups of core needs:  existence  ( E ),  relatedness  ( R ), and  growth  ( G )—hence the acronym  ERG .  Alderfer’s ERG theory

22. ERG Theory Existence Needs the needs for physical well-being Relatedness Needs the need for satisfactory relationships with others Growth Needs human potential, personal growth, and increased competence

23. Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation states that individuals can be motivated by multiple levels of need at the same time, and that the level which is most important to them can change over time. In other words, an individual’s priorities and motivations may be fluid and can move between the existence, relatedness and growth levels of need over time. They can move upwards, and they can move downwards.

24. They stressed that management should make a concentrated effort to measure how closely levels of satisfaction are related to levels of performance, and in a practitioner-oriented article emphasized that the accuracy of role perceptions may be the missing link in improving employee performance.

25. It is important to note, however, that Porter and Lawler point out that effort (force or motivation) does not lead directly to performance. It is moderated by abilities and traits and by role perceptions. More important in the Porter-Lawler model is what happens after the performance. The rewards that follow and how these are perceived will determine satisfaction. In other words, the Porter-Lawler model suggests— and this is a significant turn of events from conventional wisdom—that performance leads to satisfaction.

26. Equity theory of work motivation A motivation theory that focuses on individuals’ perceptions of how fairly they are treated relative to others. People evaluate equity by a ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs and outcomes are based on a person’s perception. Perceived Inputs= age, education, experience, effort and ability Perceived Outcomes (NOT outputs) =pay, recognition, benefits and promotions. A state of equity exists whenever the ratio of one person’s outcome to inputs equals the ratio of another’s. Equity Outcomes (A) = Outcomes(B) Inputs(A) Inputs(B)

27. Motivational Theory of Social Exchange Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs Negative Outcomes < Outcomes Inequity Inputs Inputs Positive Outcomes > Outcomes Inequity Inputs Inputs Person Comparison other

28. The concept of ‘Inequity’ Inequity: when the input-outcome ratios are out of balance Examples When a person with a high level of education or experience receives the same salary as a new less educated employee. When a person discovers he or she is making more money than other people who contribute the same inputs to the company.

29. Motivation under this perspective can be defined by the drive to restore equity . Equity Theory of Work Motivation (Continued)

30. Strategies for Resolution of Inequity Alter the person’s outcomes Alter the person’s inputs Alter the comparison other’s outputs Alter the comparison other’s inputs Change who is used as a comparison other Rationalize the inequity Leave the organizational situation

31. Equity Theory and Justice Equity Theory Involves a Perception of Distributive Justice Distributive Justice Perceived fairness in the distribution of outcomes. Procedural Justice Perceived fairness of the procedures used to make decisions about the distribution of outcomes

32. Interactional justice: Perceived fairness in relations between employee & supervisor, or with a colleague.

33. Attributions affect Motive Development - the process of rationalising causality as to outcomes Internals See themselves as causing positive outcomes – they accept responsibility as they believe their efforts and/or abilities brought about favorable results – feel pride. Externals See other factors as causing outcomes (often negative) – because of bad luck, unforeseen events, powerful others, impossible tasks – accept shame.

34. Dispositional attributions: Person’s behavior towards internal factors such as personality traits. motivation or ability Situational attributions: Person’s behavior to external factors such as equipment or social influence from others.

35. Locus of control attributions: Do employees perceive their outcomes as controlled externally or internally? Internal control – Employees perceiving they can personally influence their outcomes through their own abilities and skills. External control- Employees perceiving their outcomes are beyond their control such as luck or task difficulty.

36. OTHER ATTRIBUTIONS Stability (Fixed/variable) Stability and variations in internal or external attributions Consensus-consistency-distinctiveness If consensus and distinctiveness is high and consistency is low, people attribute poor performance to external attributions. If consensus and distinctiveness is low and consistency is high, people attribute poor performance to internal attributions.

37. Figure 6.7 - The Hackman -Oldham job Characteristics Model of Work Motivation

38. Figure 6.8 - Specific Guidelines for Redesigning Jobs for the More-Effective Practice of Human Resource Management

39. Motivational Application Through Goal Setting Goal setting is the process of motivating employees by establishing effective and meaningful performance targets. Goals provide direction to people’s behavior Goals guide their thoughts and actions to one outcome rather than another.

40. Figure 6.9 - Model for Relating Goals to Performance and Satisfaction (by Locke and Latham) Source: Adapted from Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation,” American Psychologist, Vol. 57, No. 9, 2002, p. 714.

41. Specific goals result in higher levels of performance and have been found to be more effective than vague or general goals. Specific goals are most likely to affect performance when employees accept and are committed to them. This ownership and acceptance of goals are best accomplished through a participative process. Performance targets should be challenging rather than easy or routine. At the same time, goals should be reachable and not so difficult that pursuing them becomes frustrating. Key points

42. People exhibiting higher levels of self-efficacy tend to set more challenging personal goals and are more likely to achieve them, and commitment to self-set personal goals is normally also higher than commitment to goals set by others. Objective and timely feedback is preferable to no feedback and, can be related to the process used to achieve a goal or the content of the goal. Task complexity and leader style are the other moderators in goal setting.