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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Instructor’s Manual to Accompany
Organizational Behavior 8/e
by Steven L. McShane and Mary Ann Von Glinow
Chapter 7:
Decision Making 
and Creativity
Prepared by Steven L. McShane,  
Curtin Graduate School of Business (Australia) and the  
Peter B. Gustavson School of Business, University of Victoria
(Canada)
Page 7-! 1
Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Decision Making 
and Creativity

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
7-1 Describe the elements of rational choice decision making.
7-2 Explain why people differ from rational choice decision making when identifying problems/opportunities,
evaluating/choosing alternatives, and evaluating decision outcomes.
7-3 Discuss the roles of emotions and intuition in decision making.
7-4 Describe employee characteristics, workplace conditions, and specific activities that support creativity.
7-5 Describe the benefits of employee involvement and identify four contingencies that affect the optimal level of
employee involvement.  
 
 
CHAPTER GLOSSARY
anchoring and adjustment heuristic — a natural
tendency for people to be influenced by an initial anchor
point, such that they do not sufficiently move away from
that point as new information is provided
availability heuristic — a natural tendency to assign
higher probabilities to objects or events that are easier to
recall from memory, even though ease of recall is also
affected by nonprobability factors (e.g., emotional
response, recent events)
bounded rationality — the view that people are
bounded in their decision-making capabilities, including
access to limited information, limited information
processing, and tendency toward satisficing rather than
maximizing when making choices
cognitive dissonance — an emotional experience caused
by a perception that our beliefs, feelings, and behavior
are incongruent with one another
confirmation bias — the processing of screening out
information that is contrary to our values and
assumptions, and to more readily accept confirming
information
creativity — the development of original ideas that
make a socially recognized contribution
decision making — the conscious process of making
choices among alternatives with the intention of moving
toward some desired state of affairs
design thinking — a human-centered, solution-focused
creative process that applies both intuition and
analytical thinking to clarify problems and generate
innovative solutions
divergent thinking — reframing a problem in a unique
way and generating different approaches to the issue
employee involvement — the degree to which
employees influence how their work is organized and
carried out
escalation of commitment — the tendency to repeat an
apparently bad decision or allocate more resources to a
failing course of action
implicit favorite — a preferred alternative that the
decision maker uses repeatedly as a comparison with
other choices
Page 7-! 2
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7

Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
intuition — the ability to know when a problem or
opportunity exists and to select the best course of action
without conscious reasoning
learning orientation — beliefs and norms that support
the acquisition, sharing, and use of knowledge as well as
work conditions that nurture these learning processes
prospect theory effect — a natural tendency to feel more
dissatisfaction from losing a particular amount than
satisfaction from gaining an equal amount
representativeness heuristic — a natural tendency to
evaluate probabilities of events or objects by the degree
to which they resemble (are representative of) other
events or objects rather than on objective probability
information
satisficing — selecting an alternative that is satisfactory
or “good enough,” rather than the alternative with the
highest value (maximization)
scenario planning — a systematic process of thinking
about alternative futures and what the organization
should do to anticipate and react to those environments
self-enhancement — a person’s inherent motivation to
have a positive self-concept (and to have others perceive
him or her favorably), such as being competent,
attractive, lucky, ethical, and important
CHAPTER SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVE
7-1 Describe the elements of rational choice decision making.
Decision making is a conscious process of making choices among one or more alternatives with the intention of
moving toward some desired state of affairs. Rational choice decision making identifies the best choice by
calculating the expected valence of numerous outcomes and the probability of those outcomes. It also follows the
logical process of identifying problems and opportunities, choosing the best decision style, developing alternative
solutions, choosing the best solution, implementing the selected alternative, and evaluating decision outcomes.
7-2 Explain why people differ from rational choice decision making when identifying problems/opportunities,
evaluating/choosing alternatives, and evaluating decision outcomes.
Solution-focused problem identification, decisive leadership, stakeholder framing, perceptual defense, and mental
models affect our ability to objectively identify problems and opportunities. We can minimize these challenges by
being aware of the human limitations and discussing the situation with colleagues.
Evaluating and choosing alternatives is often challenging because organizational goals are ambiguous or in
conflict, human information processing is incomplete and subjective, and people tend to satisfice rather than
maximize. Decision makers also short-circuit the evaluation process when faced with an opportunity rather than a
problem. People generally make better choices by systematically evaluating alternatives. Scenario planning can
help make future decisions without the pressure and emotions that occur during real emergencies.
Confirmation bias and escalation of commitment make it difficult to evaluate decision outcomes accurately.
Escalation is mainly caused by the self- justification effect, self-enhancement effect, the prospect theory effect, and
sunk costs effect. These problems are minimized by separating decision choosers from decision evaluators,
establishing a preset level at which the decision is abandoned or reevaluated, relying on more systematic and clear
feedback about the project’s success, and involving several people in decision making.
7-3 Discuss the roles of emotions and intuition in decision making.
Emotions shape our preferences for alternatives and the process we follow to evaluate alternatives. We also listen
in to our emotions for guidance when making decisions. This latter activity relates to intuition—the ability to know
when a problem or opportunity exists and to select the best course of action without conscious reasoning. Intuition
is both an emotional experience and a rapid, nonconscious, analytic process that involves pattern matching and
action scripts.
Page 7-! 3
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
7-4 Describe employee characteristics, workplace conditions, and specific activities that support creativity.
Creativity is the development of original ideas that make a socially recognized contribution. The four creativity
stages are preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification. Incubation assists divergent thinking, which
involves reframing the problem in a unique way and generating different approaches to the issue.
Four of the main features of creative people are intelligence, persistence, expertise, and independent imagination.
Creativity is also strengthened for everyone when the work environment supports a learning orientation, the job
has high intrinsic motivation, the organization provides a reasonable level of job security, and project leaders
provide appropriate goals, time pressure, and resources. Four types of activities that encourage creativity are
redefining the problem, associative play, cross-pollination, and design thinking. Design thinking is a human-
centered, solution-focused creative process that applies both intuition and analytical thinking to clarify problems
and generate innovative solutions Four rules guide this process: human rule, ambiguity rule, re-design rule, and
tangible rule.
7-5 Describe the benefits of employee involvement and identify four contingencies that affect the optimal level of
employee involvement.
Employee involvement refers to the degree that employees influence how their work is organized and carried out.
The level of participation may range from an employee providing specific information to management without
knowing the problem or issue, to complete involvement in all phases of the decision process. Employee
involvement may lead to higher decision quality and commitment, but several contingencies need to be
considered, including the decision structure, source of decision knowledge, decision commitment, and risk of
conflict.
Page 7-! 4
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
LECTURE OUTLINE
Slide 1: Decision Making and Creativity
Slide 2: Revitalized Decision Making at Infosys
Infosys CEO Vishal Sikka (shown in photo) is revitalizing decision making at the Indian
business technology consulting firm by introducing design thinking, encouraging employee
involvement, and developing a work environment that promotes creativity.
Slide 3: Rational Choice Decision Making
Decision making — the conscious process of making choices among alternatives with the
intention of moving toward some desired state of affairs
Rational choice decision making
•Identifying, selecting, and applying the best possible alternative
•Use pure logic and all available information to choose alternative with highest value
Two key elements of rational choice
1.Calculating the best alternative
2.Decision-making process
Slide 4: Rational Choice Best Alternative Calculation
Determines which alternative has the highest expected value (maximization)
•Also embedded in expectancy theory (Chapter 5) and attitude model (Chapter 4)
Calculation: expected satisfaction (valence) of each outcome multiplied by the probability
that the alternative will provide that outcome, summing the product across all outcomes
within each alternative
Example of two suppliers (two alternatives) and three outcomes (selection criteria)
Note: Outcome valences are the same for both choices because the decision maker’s belief
about the value of something is the same no matter which alternative is being considered
Outcomes (selection criteria) and their valences (expected satisfaction of each outcome)
•Provides high-quality product (+9)
•Offers low prices (+6)
•Provides on-time delivery (+4) 
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Supplier A probabilities (likelihood of providing each outcome)
•High-quality product (0.7)
•Low prices (0.9)
•On-time delivery (0.8)
Supplier B probabilities (likelihood of providing each outcome)
•High-quality product (0.9)
•Low prices (0.6)
•On-time delivery (0.4)
Rational choice calculation: valence X probability for each outcome, then products are
summed within supplier
Supplier A: (0.7x9) + (0.9x4) + (0.8x6) = 14.7
Supplier B: (0.9x9) + (0.6x4) + (0.4x6) = 12.9
Supplier A has the higher expected value
NOTE: This example assumes each supplier will to agree to the contract if chosen. If a
supplier might reject the offer, then the total expected value of that supplier is discounted
using the estimated probability of accepting the contract (usually discounted by multiplying
the expected value calculated above by the probability of accepting the contract).
Slide 5: Rational Choice Decision-Making Process
Rational choice decision making assumes this systematic process is followed:
1.Identify problem/opportunity (symptom vs. problem)
•Problem — gap between “what is” and “what ought to be”
•Opportunity — deviation between current expectations and potentially better
situation(s) not previously expected
•Symptom — indicators and outcomes of fundamental root causes
2.Choose the best decision process
•Programmed decisions — standard operating procedures developed from past
decisions
•Nonprogrammed decisions — require all steps in the decision model because the
problems are new, complex, or ill-defined
3.Develop alternative solutions
•Search for ready-made solutions first, then develop/modify custom-made solution 
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
4.Choose the best alternative
•Alternative with the highest expected satisfaction (see calculation in previous slide)
5.Implement the selected alternative
•Rational choice assumes implementation occurs without resistance or other problems
6.Evaluate decision outcomes
•Determines whether gap between “what is” and “what ought to be” has narrowed
Slide 6: Solution-Focused Problem Identiﬁcation at JCPenney
When Ron Johnson became JCPenney’s new chief executive officer, he quickly diagnosed
the ailing retailer’s main problem as a veiled solution: It needed to be more like Apple, Inc.
This solution-focused problem analysis led to numerous other decision errors, causing
JCPenney’s sales to plummet by one-third over the next 18 months.
Slide 7: Problem Identiﬁcation Challenges
Problems and opportunities are constructed from ambiguous/conflicting information — they
are not “given” to us.
Five Problem Identification Challenges:
1.Solution-focused problems
•The problem identified is a veiled solution — underlying problem has not been
analyzed.
•Solutions have been reinforced by past successes.
•Decision makers are comforted by the closure of having a solution.
2.Decisive leadership — leaders rewarded for decisiveness, so they conclude problems or
opportunities without careful assessment
3.Stakeholder framing
•Employees, suppliers, customers, other stakeholders “frame” the situation to their
advantage, hoping decision maker will perceive a problem, opportunity, or no issue
➡e.g., suppliers market their new products as unique opportunities
•Stakeholders also offer concise evaluations/conclusions without detailed analysis.
•Decision makers accept stakeholder framing to simplify information overload.
4.Perceptual defense
•Blocking out bad news as a coping mechanism (fail to see threatening information)
5.Mental models
•Existing mental models blind us from seeing unique problems or opportunities.
Page 7-! 7
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Slide 8: Identifying Problems Eﬀectively
1.Be aware of the five problem identification biases
2.Resist temptation of looking decisive when more thoughtful examination of the situation
should occur
3.Create a norm of “divine discontent” — avoid being complacent with the status quo and
adopt an aversion to complacency — more actively search for problems/opportunities
4.Discuss the situation with colleagues to discover blind spots and see different
perspectives
Slide 9: Choosing Alternatives: Rational Choice Assumptions vs. OB Evidence
Bounded rationality (Herb Simon) — people process limited and imperfect information,
rarely select the best choice
(Note: bounded rationality is the best known theory, but it excludes some aspects of
human “imperfect rationality” that other theories discuss and are included here — e.g.,
implicit favorite, sequential evaluation)
Problems with goals
•Rational — goals are clear, compatible, and agreed-upon
•OB — goals are ambiguous, conflicting, lack full support
Problems with information processing
•Rational — people can calculate all information about all alternatives and their
outcomes
•OB — people have limited information processing abilities
Problems with evaluation timing
•Rational — alternatives are evaluated simultaneously
•OB — alternatives are evaluated sequentially
Problems with evaluation standards
•Rational — use absolute standards to evaluate alternatives
•OB — evaluate alternatives against an implicit favorite (preferred anchor comparison)
Problems with information quality
•Rational — choices are made using factual information
•OB — choices are made using distorted information
Problems with decision objective
•Rational — people maximize (i.e. choose alternative with the highest payoff)
•OB — people satisfice (i.e. select “good enough” alternative)
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Why decision makers rely on an implicit favorite (no slide)
1.Convenient anchor point of comparison — people prefer comparing two choices rather
than evaluate many alternatives at the same time
2.Cognitive misers — minimize mental effort by quickly forming a preference (implicit
favorite), then mainly seek evidence supporting the preference (confirmation bias)
3.Minimizes cognitive dissonance — change beliefs/feelings about alternatives to maintain
consistency with implicit favorite preference
Slide 10: Biased Decision Heuristics
People have built-in decision heuristics that bias evaluation of alternatives
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
•Initial anchor point influences our perspective — anchors our view of high vs. low —
limited movement away from that point as new information is provided
➡e.g. high price of an initial contract tender anchors negotiations around that price
Availability heuristic
•Tendency to estimate the probability of something occurring by how easily we can
recall those events
➡e.g. we easily remember emotional events (e.g. shark attack) so we overestimate how
often these emotional events occur
Representative heuristic
•Tendency to estimate probability of something based on its similarity to known others
than by more precise statistics
➡e.g. 20% of students are in engineering and 80% are business majors, yet we believe one
student is in engineering because s/he resembles a typical engineering student
Slide 11: Problems with Maximization
How decision makers respond to maximization problems
1.Satisficing — choose first “good enough” alternative
2.Oversimplifying decision calculations (e.g. few evaluation criteria)
3.Avoiding the decision
Satisficing (and implicit favorite) occurs because:
1.Cognitive limitations
•Lack of information, time, information processing capacity to figure out the best choice
•Reduce effort by discarding alternatives using limited criteria
•Many features and alternatives create endless trade-offs — leads to worse decisions
•When too many choices, people avoid making any decision
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
2.Alternatives appear over time and may not be available later
•Earliest alternatives may be unavailable by the time the last alternatives reviewed
•Makes sequential evaluation against implicit favorite necessary (inherently satisficing)
Slide 12: Emotions and Making Choices
How emotions affect the evaluation of alternatives
1.Emotions form preferences before conscious cognitive evaluation
•Emotional marker process determines our preferences for each alternative before we
consciously evaluate those alternatives.
2.Moods and emotions affect the decision process
•Moods and emotions affect how carefully we evaluate alternatives.
➡e.g. we may pay more attention to details when in a negative mood, tend to skim
over evaluating when in a good mood
3.Emotions serve as information
•We ‘listen in’ on our emotions for guidance when making choices.
➡e.g. visualize using product, pay attention to resulting emotion
Slide 13: Intuitive Decision Making
Intuition — ability to know when a problem or opportunity exists and to select the best
course of action without conscious reasoning
Intuition is an emotional experience.
•Gut feelings are emotional signals.
•Not all emotional signals are intuition.
Intuition as rapid unconscious analysis
•Uses action scripts — programmed decision routines that shorten the decision-making
process
Slide 14: Choosing Alternatives Better
1.Systematically evaluate alternatives against relevant factors
2.Revisit decisions later, when in a different mood state
3.Use scenario planning — a disciplined method for imagining possible futures
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Slide 15: Decision Evaluation Problems
Confirmation bias (post decisional justification) — screening out information contrary to
personal values and assumptions, and to more readily accept confirming information
•Inflate strengths of the selected option
•Ignore/deflate strengths of rejected alternatives
•Gives people an excessively optimistic evaluation of their decisions
Escalation of commitment
Tendency to repeat an apparently bad decision or allocate more resources to a failing
course of action
Four causes of escalation of commitment:
1.Self-justification effect
•To look competent, people deliberately invest further in their failing projects to
demonstrate its likely success.
•Most common when decision makers:
➡Are personally identified with the project
➡Have staked their reputations on the project’s success
➡Have low self-esteem
2.Self-enhancement effect
•Natural tendency to think we are above average (lucky, competent)
•Results in (a) ignoring bad news about the decision and (b) overestimating chance
that investing more will correct the problem — mostly nonconscious bias
3.Prospect theory effect
•We experience stronger negative emotions when losing something of value than
positive emotions when gaining something of equal value.
•Stopping a project hurts more than spending more on it.
4.Sunk costs effect
•Large resources already invested (sunk costs) increases decision maker motivation to
support the project with further investment.
•But future investments should NOT consider size of previous investment in the project,
only the expected future gains.
•Past investment includes time — people motivated to spend more time when much
time has been devoted to the project already.
•Closing costs (financial or nonfinancial penalties associated with shutting down a
project) are a form of sunk costs that motivates escalation.
Page 7-! 11
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Escalation of commitment isn’t always poor decision making — may be attempt to further
understand an ambiguous situation
Slide 16: Evaluating Decisions Better
1.Separate decision choosers from decision evaluators
•Strategy less effective when second person empathizes with the decision maker, has a
similar mindset, or has similar attributes such as age
2.Stop loss — publicly establish a preset level at which the decision is abandoned or re-
evaluated
•Problem: complexity makes it difficult to identify point where to abandon project
3.Find sources of systematic and clear feedback
4.Involve several people in the decision — may notice problems sooner than when
someone is working alone
Slide 17: Creative Process Model
1.Preparation
•Investigating the problem or opportunity in many ways — learning about the issue
2.Incubation
•Period of reflective thought — put the problem aside, maintain low level of awareness
•Assists divergent thinking — reframing a problem in a unique way and generating
different approaches to the issue
•Contrasts with convergent thinking — calculating the conventionally accepted “right
answer” to a logical problem
3.Illumination
•The experience of suddenly becoming aware of a unique idea
•Begins with “fringe” awareness (barely perceptible)
•Short-term memory — easily forgotten, so need to document
4.Verification
•Logical evaluation, experimentation, and further creative insight
Page 7-! 12
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Slide 18: Characteristics of Creative People
Cognitive and practical intelligence
•Cognitive intelligence to synthesize/analyze information
•Practical intelligence — assess potential usefulness of ideas
Persistence
•Based on: (a) higher need for achievement, (b) strong motivation from the task itself,
and (c) moderate or high degree of self-esteem
Knowledge and experience
•Expertise/subject matter knowledge — but strong knowledge may form strong mental
models that reduce divergent thinking
Independent imagination
•Cluster of personality traits and values
•Consists of: (a) high openness to experience (personality), moderately low need for
affiliation (drive/motive), higher self-direction and stimulation (values)
Slide 19: Creative Work Environments
Learning orientation
•Encourage experimentation
•Tolerate mistakes as part of the creative process
Intrinsically motivating work
•Motivation from the job itself — task significance, autonomy, challenging but within
employee’s competencies
Open communication and sufficient resources
•Includes degree of job security
•Providing nontraditional workspaces (e.g. unique building design)
Supportive leaders and coworkers
•But coworker competition sometimes increase creativity — depends on situation
•Also mixed results on whether leader’s pressure on employees to be creative is
effective or ineffective
Page 7-! 13
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Slide 20: Creativity Activities
Redefine the problem
•Revisit abandoned projects — might be seen in new ways
•People unfamiliar with issue explore the problem (fresh eyes)
Associative play
•Playful activities — unusual variations of traditional games
•Morphological analysis — listing different dimensions of a system and the elements of
each dimension and then looking at each combination
•Challenge to create something new from existing unrelated products (e.g. design a
product to clean cutlery from an electric toothbrush and a hair dryer)
Cross-pollination
•Employees across the firm exchange ideas or are brought into the team.
•It encourages informal social interaction in the organization.
Slide 21: Design Thinking
A human-centered, solution-focused creative process that applies both intuition and
analytical thinking to clarify problems and generate innovative solutions
Guides all employees through the decision-making process using creative thinking, logical
analysis, empathy, and intuition
Four rules of design thinking
1.Human rule
•Involve several people so the issue and possible solutions are viewed from several
angles.
•Include clients and end users to enable an iterative process of problem identification
and solution development.
2.Ambiguity rule
•Preserve ambiguity rather than seek clarity too quickly.
•Question and refine the stated problem. Develop more than one solution to the
problem.
3.Re-design rule
•Review past solutions to understand how those inventions tried to satisfy human
needs.
•Use foresight tools to imagine better solutions for the future.
Page 7-! 14
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
4.Tangible rule
•Build several low-cost prototypes to test ideas.
•Don't analyze alternatives at a purely conceptual level.
•Tolerate failure; embrace a learning orientation.
Slide 22: Levels of Employee Involvement
The degree to which employees influence how their work is organized and carried out
Different levels of involvement (lowest to highest)
1.Employees individually asked for specific information but the problem is not described to
them.
2.Problem is described and employees are asked individually or collectively for information
relating to that problem.
3.Problem is described to employees, who are collectively given responsibility for
developing recommendations (decision maker doesn’t necessarily accept the
recommendation).
4.Employees responsible for entire decision-making process — identify the problem,
discover alternative solutions, choose the best alternative, implement choice.
Slide 23: Employee Involvement Model
Several potential benefits of involvement, but only under specific circumstances
1.Better problem identification
•Recognizing problems more quickly and defining them more accurately
2.Synergy produces more/better solutions
•Team members create synergy by pooling their knowledge to form new alternatives.
3.Better at picking the best choice
•Decision is reviewed by people with diverse perspectives and a broader representation
of values
4.Higher decision commitment
•Increases sense of personal responsibility for decision’s success and representation of
interests
Page 7-! 15
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Slide 24: Contingencies of Involvement
Higher employee involvement is better when:
1.Decision structure
•Problem is new and/or complex (i.e. nonprogrammed decision)
2.Source of decision knowledge
•The leader lacks knowledge and employees have information
3.Decision commitment
•Employees unlikely to accept decision without their involvement
4.Risk of conflict (two conflict risks)
(a)Employee norms support the organization’s goals
(b)Employees are likely to agree on the solution
Solutions to Creativity Brainbusters
A separate PowerPoint file includes a set of slides showing solutions to the creativity
brainbusters activity
Page 7-! 16
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
1. A management consultant is hired by a manufacturing firm to determine the best site for its next production
facility. The consultant has had several meetings with the company’s senior executives regarding the factors to
consider when making the recommendation. Discuss the decision-making problems that might prevent the
consultant from choosing the best site location.
This question directly relates to the section on evaluating and choosing solutions. The consultant is asked to
determine the best site location, and this process is subject to the problems presented below. Each problem should
include an example relating to this incident.
Problems with Goals. The consultant likely discovered that executives at the manufacturing firm are not fully agreed
on the priority of factors to consider when choosing a site. They may have conflicting goals – such as a site that is
conveniently located yet low cost. Some of the goals will be ambiguous, such as “convenience.”
Problems with Information Processing. The consultant is subject to the same human limitations as other people. The
consultant’s personal biases may cause some information to be screened out or viewed in an unrealistically
favorable light. The consultant is unable to evaluate all possible sites (there must be thousands of them!), let alone
consider every factor for each site. Finally, the consultant probably compares sites against an implicit favorite,
rather than look at all prospective sites simultaneously.
Problems with Maximization. The consultant’s recommendation probably won’t be the absolutely best site. Given the
volume of information and the sequential decision process, the recommended site is probably one that is “good
enough.” In other words, the consultant will satisfice.
2. You have been asked to personally recommend a new travel agency to handle all airfare, accommodation, and
related travel needs for your organization of 500 staff. One of your colleagues, who is responsible for the
company’s economic planning, suggests that the best travel agent could be selected mathematically by
inputting the relevant factors for each agency and the weight (importance) of each factor. What decision-
making approach is your colleague recommending? Is this recommendation a good idea in this situation? Why
or why not?
Rational choice decision making is being recommended for this decision.
The idea that relevant factors should be identified and weighted is good. At least this would help us think about
which factors are most important for the company. These could include such factors as, cost, speed of service,
quality of service, etc.
However, his suggestion that the best decision could be arrived at mathematically is somewhat misleading. While
the rational choice approach may rest on the assumption that people evaluate and choose the best alternatives
logically, that is not borne out by empirical evidence.
OB experts have demonstrated that decision-makers may not choose the best alternatives for a variety of reasons.
For example, decision makers have limited information processing abilities, evaluate alternatives sequentially and
against implicit favorites, and are influenced by perceptual errors, biases and emotions. Moreover, when it comes
to making a final choice their decisions are often made on the basis of satisficing rather than maximization.
SOLUTIONS TO CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS
$
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
3. Intuition is both an emotional experience and a nonconscious analytic process. One problem, however, is that
not all emotions signaling that there is a problem or opportunity represent intuition. Explain how we would
know if our “gut feelings” are intuition or not, and if not intuition, suggest what might be causing them.
All gut feelings are conscious awareness of emotional experiences. However, not all emotional experiences
constitute intuition.
Intuition involves using well established mental models and templates (derived from tacit knowledge we have
acquired) to compare what fits or doesn’t fit in an observable situation. The unconscious comparison allows us to
anticipate future events. Intuition also relies on action scripts, which are preprogrammed routines for responding
to matched or mismatched patterns. These scripts allow us to act without having to consciously evaluate the
alternatives.
Gut feelings, on the other hand, are not based on well-grounded templates or mental models. Therefore, gut
feelings would be more likely to occur in situations where one has limited experience. The cause of these feelings
would be due to some emotional reaction to a given situation.
4. A developer received financial backing for a new business financial center along a derelict section of the
waterfront, a few miles from the current downtown area of a large European city. The idea was to build several
high-rise structures, attract large businesses to those sites, and have the city extend transportation systems out
to the new center. Over the next decade, the developer believed that others would build in the area, thereby
attracting the regional or national offices of many financial institutions. Interest from potential business
tenants was much lower than initially predicted and the city did not build transportation systems as quickly as
expected. Still, the builder proceeded with the original plans. Only after financial support was curtailed did the
developer reconsider the project. Using your knowledge of escalation of commitment, discuss three possible
reasons why the developer was motivated to continue with the project.
Escalation of commitment occurs when an individual repeats a bad decision or continues to allocate resources to a
failing cause of action. This incident is a variation of the Canary Wharf project in London, which nearly put
developer Olympia and York into bankruptcy. It is unfair to say that the Canary Wharf event was due to escalation
of commitment (we don’t have enough information about the internal decision making), but the incident described
here certainly provides a setting for discussion of this topic. There are four main causes of escalation:
Self-justification effect. Canceling the development may have suggested that the developer (who originally proposed
and championed the project) made a bad decision whereas continuing the development would be vote of
confidence towards his/her leadership ability. The developer also may have continued the project if he/she had
linked it to the company’s future success. To reverse this position would convey an image of inconsistent
leadership.
Self-enhancement effect. The developer likely screened out or neutralized negative information because of a self-
perception of being above average. In addition, the project was clearly high risk (redesigning a significant portion
of the city), so the developer seems to exhibit self-enhancement in the form of perceiving a higher probability of
success in spite of these risks. In other words, decision makers falsely believe that luck is on their side, so they
invest more in a losing course of action.
Prospect theory effect. The discomfort associated with losing money on this project may have outweighed the desire
for gains. In other words, knowing that stopping the project would mean certain loss, he/she was willing to go to
great lengths to avoid this, even it meant a smaller pay off in the end.
Sunk costs effect. Discontinuing the project would almost certainly have high financial costs for the developer, such
as past expenditures and canceling contracts. The amount of investment “sunk” into the project would have
motivated the developer to continue investing further even if those investment resources would have been more
productive elsewhere.
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
5. Ancient Book Company has a problem with new book projects. Even when others are aware that a book is far
behind schedule and may engender little public interest, sponsoring editors are reluctant to terminate contracts
with authors whom they have signed. The result is that editors invest more time with these projects than on
more fruitful projects. As a form of escalation of commitment, describe two methods that Ancient Book
Company can use to minimize this problem.
The textbook identifies four strategies to improve decision evaluation:
Separate chooser from implementers. The most effective strategy is to separate decision choosers from decision
implementers. This minimizes the problem of saving face because the person responsible for implementation and
evaluation would not be concerned about saving face if the project is cancelled.
Establish a stop-loss decision rule. Another way to minimize escalation of commitment establish a preset level at
which the decision is abandoned or reevaluated. The problem with this solution is that conditions are often so
complex that it is difficult to identify an appropriate point to abandon a project. However, this approach may work
if a stopping point can be determined and it is established by someone other than the decision maker.
Find systematic and clear feedback. The clearer the feedback, the more difficult it is to deny that the project has
problems. Unfortunately, this solution is rarely available because many decisions have only ambiguous feedback.
Involve more than one person in the initial decision. It may be less likely two or more people would be similarly
attached personally with the decision. However, this action is also likely the least effective among these four.
6. A fresh graduate is offered a job by an employer she admires even before she can start her job search. The
student thinks it is an opportunity and jumps to it. Do you think there is an effect of emotions in her decision
making?
The rational choice paradigm assumes that decision makers follow the systematic process. However, emotions
affect the evaluation of alternatives. Emotional marker process determines our preferences for each alternative
before we consciously think about those alternatives. The student probably has done this in the given situation.
Emotions also influence the process of evaluation. Therefore, the student probably has been quick to choose an
employer she admires here and has been biased towards other alternatives if any. Emotions also serve as
information when we evaluate alternatives. Hence, the student perhaps was swayed by her emotional reaction,
however, she still seems to be informed by reasons of why she admired the employer in the first place.
7. Think of a time when you experienced the creative process. Maybe you woke up with a brilliant (but usually
sketchy and incomplete) idea, or you solved a baffling problem while doing something else. Describe this
incident to your class and explain how the experience followed the creative process.
For this question, students should be encouraged to think about a recent project they may completed and done
well (e.g. major research project). They may initially recall the event in a general sense, but should strive to divide
it according to the four stages outlined in the creative process model
The insight stage should be particularly relevant since it is the point at which one idea may come while thinking or
doing something else. Students should try to remember how the idea came to them and how they documented and
tested it. Once done, they may be able to also recall the previous stage (incubation).
8. Two characteristics of creative people are that they have relevant experience and are persistent in their quest.
Does this mean that people with the most experience and the highest need for achievement are the most
creative? Explain your answer.
The answer is probably “No.” The textbook states that there is a dilemma regarding experience. On the one hand,
people need plenty of experience to be familiar with the issues. The literature on creativity suggests that it may
take several years of experience before a person has reached creative potential.
The dilemma is that the longer a person is in one field of study, the more he/she develops a mental model that
stifles creativity. Some companies prefer people with no experience in an industry so they are more creative. These
two points are not exactly contradictory—a person may be new to an industry but has many years of experience in
a particular skill or trade. However, the issue does suggest that there is an optimal level of experience before
mental models undermine creative potential.
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
It is less certain whether creativity continues to increase with need for achievement. The textbook explains that
need for achievement makes creative people more persistent, which is necessary in the face of short-term failures
and doubts from others. Would a very strong need for achievement undermine creative potential? This is a matter
for debate. Most likely too much need for achievement will create blind drive which can prevent people from
seeing alternative strategies and the obvious inappropriateness of existing routes.
9. Employee involvement applies just as well to the classroom as to the office or factory floor. Explain how
student involvement in classroom decisions typically made by the instructor alone might improve decision
quality. What potential problems may occur in this process?
Problem identification. Because students have a different perspective than the instructor, their involvement might
help identify issues or problems the instructor was unaware of. This could lead to improvements in the quality of
the learning experience.
Generating alternatives. Student involvement could potential improve the number and quality of solutions
generated. This typically happens when more people look for solutions, because individuals have different
perspectives.
Better solutions. The likelihood of choosing the best solution, from the list of alternatives generated, would be
increased due to diverse perspectives and values.
Increased commitment. When students are involved in identifying the issues, generating alternative solutions, and
choosing a solution they may also feel more committed to the decision taken.
Increased perception of fairness. Being involved in the process may also promote a sense of fairness among students.
To avoid problems with this process, limits should be placed on the extent of participation, and the number of
issues requiring student involvement. For example, the determination of grades should be left up to the instructor.
The types of questions and weightings of exams should also be predetermined.
The instructor would have to make sure all students are equally involved to avoid a small influential and vocal
group of students from dominating the others.
Lastly, the instructor should be mindful that increasing student involvement requires more time, which may in
turn reduce teaching time.
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Scenario Synopsis
These four scenarios provide an excellent opportunity for students to discuss the conditions under which various
levels of employee involvement should be applied. To decide the best level, students should consider the benefits of
and problems with employee involvement described in this chapter.
Suggested Answers to Case Questions
The five levels of involvement identified in each of the three scenarios is as follows:
Decide alone. Use your personal knowledge and in-sight to complete the entire decision process without
conferring with anyone else.
Receive information from individuals. Ask specific individuals for information. They do not make
recommendations and might not even know what the problem is about.
Consult with individuals. Describe the problem to selected individuals and seek both their information and
recommendations. The final decision is made by you, and you may or may not take the advice from these others
into account.
Consult with the team. You bring together a team of people (all department staff or a representation of them if the
department is large), who are told about the problem and provide their ideas and recommendations. You make the
final decision, which may or may not reflect the team’s information.
Facilitate the team’s decision. The entire decision-making process is handed over to a team or committee of
subordinates. You serve only as a facilitator to guide the decision process and keep everyone on track. The team
identifies the problem, discovers alternative solutions, chooses the best alternative, and implements their choice.
CASE INCIDENTS: EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT
INCIDENTS
!
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Scenario 1: The Productivity Dividend Decision
Situation: As head of the transmission/distribution group (TD group) in the city’s water agency, students have been
asked to reduce costs over the next year and need to determine whether and to what extent to involve the 300
employees in the business unit.
1. To what extent should your employees be involved in this decision? Select one of the following levels of
involvement:
Most teams will likely identify a medium high level of involvement (consult with the team), although some tend to
suggest lower involvement (receive information from individuals or consult individuals only).
2. What factors led you to choose this alternative rather than the others?
This question can be answered by reviewing the four contingencies of employee involvement discussed in the
textbook.
Decision structure: This decision has low structure. The scenario provides a situation that is relatively complex and
requires a variety of knowledge sources. Consequently, some level of involvement will be necessary.
Source of decision knowledge: This scenario states that you have limited knowledge relative to employees, and that
even supervisors two levels below you lack sufficient details about the work to provide enough information.
Therefore, it will be necessary to involve frontline employees. Furthermore, given the complexity of the business
and dispersion of knowledge at the front lines, it is reasonable to argue that “receiving information from
individuals” would be too low a level of involvement. the reason is that you would not know what information to
request. Therefore, involvement probably needs to include describing the problem to employees. However, this
medium-level involvement also carries risks because of the risks of conflict between employees and the company,
discussed below.
Decision commitment. There isn’t any direct information about employee commitment to decisions under various
levels of involvement. However, since a moderate level of involvement is probably necessary (see above), this may
be sufficient if any commitment is otherwise lacking.
Risk of conflict. There are two dimensions of this contingency. First, with respect to goal compatibility between
employees and the company, this is a very high risk because the productivity dividend decisions may eventually
have negative consequences for employees. The union clearly opposes the initiative and might encourage some
employees to make decisions for their personal or union’s benefit without consideration of other stakeholder needs
(e.g. lower costs to consumers). Even if employees ignore the union’s warnings, they might make decisions that
work well for their unit but result in higher cots elsewhere in the organization. The scenario states: “employees
may be unaware of or care little about these repercussions, because there is limited interaction with or social
bonding by employees across the departments.”
The second potential risk of conflict—employees may have difficulty agreeing among themselves—might occur
because the unit has diverse employees with different skills and knowledge. It doesn’t seem that this risk is very
high, but it is a reasonable possibility. For example, some employees might suggest changes to another job group in
the TD Group, which causes employees in the affected group to oppose that idea. Overall, the conflict among
employee discourages high involvement, but will support a medium level of involvement.
3. What problems might occur if less or more involvement occurred in this case (where possible)?
A high degree of involvement is likely problematic because of the risk of conflict between employees and the
organization’s interests and with other work units in the organization. There may also be conflict among
employees within the TD Group because some decisions may have adverse effects on specific subgroups in that
unit.
A low level of involvement, including deciding alone and receiving information from individuals, would be too
low due to your lack of knowledge about how to find ways to improve efficiency and even lack of knowledge
about what questions to ask front-line staff on this matter. The business is too complex.
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Scenario 2: The Sugar Substitute Research Decision
Situation: As head of research and development (R&D) at a major beer company, students are asked to determine
whether and to what extent to involve the department’s researchers in allocating budget for further research on a new
sugar substitute into which one researcher has tentatively discovered.
1. To what extent should your employees be involved in this decision? Select one of the following levels of
involvement:
Most teams will likely identify some level of consultation, although some tend to suggest high involvement
(facilitate the team’s decision). The answer to the next question explains why medium involvement is probably
best here.
2. What factors led you to choose this alternative rather than the others?
This question can be answered by reviewing the four contingencies of employee involvement discussed in the
textbook.
Decision structure: This decision has low structure. The incident says that there is a decision process for funding
projects behind schedule, but there are no rules or precedents about funding projects that would be licensed but
not used by the organization. Consequently, some level of involvement may be valuable.
Source of decision knowledge: The incident clearly says that the sugar substitute project is beyond your technical
expertise and that it is difficult to determine the amount of research required. Scientists have information
unavailable to the leader, but they would not have sufficient information to make the decision alone. Overall, this
suggests that some involvement (consultation with individuals or the team) is desirable.
Decision commitment. This might be debatable, but most employees know that funding decisions are ultimately in
the hands of executives who must take responsibility for those decisions. Also, it sounds like past funding
decisions are made by the leader, not employees (mainly due to conflict problems described below). Moreover,
employees don’t implement anything as a result of this decision, so there is probably minimal adverse effect of low
commitment.
Risk of conflict. There are two dimensions of this contingency. First, with respect to goal compatibility between
employees and the company, the incident says that you believe that most researchers in the R&D unit are
committed to ensuring company’s interests are achieved. Second, it is almost certainly true that conflict will occur
among employees. This is a win-lose situation where funding one project reduces or eliminates funding on other
projects. Overall, the conflict among employees means that the decision should not be given to the team, but
consultation with individuals or the team is fine.
3. What problems might occur if less or more involvement occurred in this case (where possible)?
A higher degree of involvement would probably be difficult because of the problem of conflict among employees.
Employees could not agree because a decision to fund the project would reduce their own funding. A low level of
involvement would lose some of synergy of discussion about the issue. This synergy brings out valuable
information and potentially more creative solutions to the problem.
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Scenario 3: Coast Guard Cutter Decision Problem
Situation: Students are placed in the role of a captain of a Coast Guard cutter who is searching for a plane that has
crashed offshore. After 20 hours of searching, a major storm is approaching and the captain must decide whether to
abandon the search or to continue and place the ship at risk. Students must determine whether and to what extent to
involve the crew in the decision.
1. To what extent should your employees be involved in this decision? Select one of the following levels of
involvement:
The preferred level of involvement is “Decide alone” (no involvement). Specifically, the captain would solve the
problem or make the decision him/herself using information available at the time.
2. What factors led you to choose this alternative rather than the others?
This question can be answered by reviewing the four contingencies of employee involvement discussed in the
textbook.
Decision structure: This decision probably has high structure because the captain must ultimately protect the ship
and crew, or would have reasonably clear rules on taking this sort of risk.
Source of decision knowledge: The captain has as much information as anyone on the ship about which option to
select.
Decision commitment. The crew will likely support the captain’s decision without any involvement.
Risk of conflict. There is a reasonable possibility that crew members will be divided (i.e., conflict will occur) over the
preferred alternative.
3. What problems might occur if less or more involvement occurred in this case (where possible)?
The main problem with applying a higher level of employee involvement here is that the problem is well
structured and the time-consuming process may be redundant. There is also a chance that subordinates would
engage in dysfunctional conflict if they were asked to make the decision.
Scenario 4: Social Media Policy Decision
Situation: Students are placed in the role of head of the state government’s industry initiatives agency. Comments from
potential applicants have led you to consider having a social media policy in the agency, particularly to have work-
related sites they can access and develop during work hours. Students are asked to determine whether and to what
extent employees should be involved in forming a social media policy within the agency.
1. To what extent should your employees be involved in this decision? Select one of the following levels of
involvement:
Most teams will likely identify a medium high level of involvement (consult with individuals and/or the entire
agency).
2. What factors led you to choose this alternative rather than the others?
This question can be answered by reviewing the four contingencies of employee involvement discussed in the
textbook.
Decision structure: This decision has low structure because there is no existing standard policy in the state
government or even within the department to which the agency reports. Consequently, some level of involvement
will likely to be valuable.
Source of decision knowledge: The scenario reveals that although you are interested and intrigued by the potential of
social media, you lack sufficient information relative to the professionals in your agency, particularly younger staff.
It is unclear whether you have enough information about social media to ask others for specific information.
Generally, some level of involvement is required, possibly at least telling others about the problem (need for a
policy).
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Decision commitment. It is apparent that some people strongly support (and currently have) social media at work,
whereas others are opposed. Involving people in the social policy decision to some degree might increase support
for the final decision because at least everyone has had their voice heard on this matter. Therefore, most students
would likely suggest that the agency head needs to tell the problem to others and consult as many people as
possible (individually, possibly in groups).
Risk of conflict. There are two dimensions of this contingency. First, conflict will almost certainly occur among
employees because the scenario describes opposing views. Some actively use social media and support it, whereas
others are apparently strongly opposed to the activity in the workplace. As such, the final decision must rest with
the agency head (the highest level of involvement is excluded). Regarding the second risk of conflict, it is unclear
whether there will be goal compatibility between employees and the agency or state government. However, the
first conflict precludes the highest involvement even if employees would decide in the agency’s best interests.
Overall, the conflict among employees discourages high involvement, but will support a medium level of
involvement involving consultation with individuals and possibly at a group level.
3. What problems might occur if less or more involvement occurred in this case (where possible)?
Due to the risk of conflict among employees, a high degree of involvement (facilitate the team’s decision) would
likely result in no decision due to lack of agreement.
A low level of involvement—where the agency heads asks specific employees for information without describing
the issue—may be possible, but carries two risks. First, the agency head might not have enough knowledge to
know what information to request. Second, there is a risk of lack of employee commitment because the issue is
polarized. Giving everyone an opportunity to present their views may increase acceptance of the decision
whichever way it goes.
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Purpose
This exercise is designed to help students to understand the potential advantages of involving others in decisions
rather than making decisions alone.
Materials
Students require an unmarked copy of the map of the United States of America and a scoring sheet that includes
names of communities in the United States, both of which are provided on the next two pages of this instructor’s
guide. Students are not allowed to look at any other maps or use any other materials. After students have individually
and in teams estimated the locations of communities, the instructor will also provide copies of the answer sheet ( see
four pages forward in this manual).
Instructions
Step 1: Working alone, students estimate the location on the U.S. map the location of the communities listed. All of the
communities listed are found in the United States. For example, they would mark a small “1” in Exhibit 2 on the spot
where they believe the first community is located. They would mark a small “2” where they think the second
community is located, and so on. Students need to number each location clearly and with numbers small enough to fit
within one grid space.
Step 2: The instructor will organize students into approximately equal sized teams (typically 5 or 6 people per team).
Team members should reach a consensus on the location of each community listed in Exhibit 1. The instructor might
provide teams with a separate copy of this map, or each member can identify the team’s numbers using a different
collared pen on their individual maps. The team’s decision for each location should occur by consensus, not voting or
averaging.
Step 3: The instructor will provide or display an answer sheet, showing the correct locations of the communities. Using
this answer sheet, students will count the minimum number of grid squares between the location they individually
marked and the true location of each community. Students then write the number of grid squares in the second column
of the scoring sheet, then add up the total. Next, they count the minimum number of grid squares between the location
the team marked and the true location of each community. They should then write the number of grid squares in the
third column, then add up the total.
Step 4: The instructor will ask for information about the totals and the class will discuss the implication of these results
for employee involvement and decision making.
Comments to Instructors
This exercise demonstrates the importance of employee involvement for better decision making. Generally, teams
make better decisions than do individuals working alone. This is reflected by a “Team Score” that is usually lower than
the “Individual Score.” This is particularly true in this exercise because students typically have varied backgrounds in
terms of where they have lived or where their families live. Students currently in Montana might easily locate Missoula
but not Carrizozo.
The discussion should focus on the reasons why groups tend to make better decisions. Specifically, team members
bring diverse knowledge to the decision process, so the collective decision is usually more accurate than the typical
individual’s decision. The class should also explore why some individuals score lower than the team. Students will
usually point out that they were unsure of their knowledge, so did not push their point of view. Occasionally (but not
often stated in class), individual students dominate the discussion, thereby preventing more knowledgeable students
from presenting their information.
TEAM EXERCISE: WHERE IN THE WORLD ARE WE?
$
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
COMMUNITIES IN THE UNITED STATES
[Note: These names are NOT jumbled. This is how they are spelled. The names are not listed in any particular order.]
1. AYDEN
2. CARRIZOZO
3. HEALDTON
4. MORRILTON
5. TIVERTON
6. TUMWATER
7. VIDOR
8. MISSOULA
© 2002 Steven L. McShane
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Student Handout: Answer to “Where in the World Are We?”
$
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Purpose
This exercise is designed to help students understand the dynamics of creativity and team problem solving.
Instructions
Students are placed in teams of six students. One student serves as the official timer for the team and must have a
watch, preferably with stop watch timer. The instructor will give each team an orange (or similar object) with a specific
task involving use of the orange. Each team will have a few opportunities to achieve the objective more efficiently.
The instructor will read the following instructions. These instructions ARE NOT provided in the textbook so students
have not had an opportunity to think about the exercise beforehand.
“The task for this exercise is to have each team member individually handle the orange—toss to each other,
or anything you want—but the orange must end up in the hands of the person who first held it. This is a
timed exercise. The winning team accomplishes the task in the shortest length of time. You will have a few
trials to improve your speed.”
Comments for Instructors
This quick exercise works best if you avoid cueing students about the possibility of rolling or dropping the orange. The
title and instructions create a mental model that assumes team members should toss the orange from one person to the
next. In fact, this is not the most efficient method and the exercise does not limit the method in which all team
members touch the orange.
The most efficient way to satisfy the requirements of this exercise is to have team members use their hands to create a
vertical tube. They should each have a few fingers sticking into the tube. Then, one person drops the orange through
the tube so that it touches everyone and the person’s other hand is at the bottom of the tube to catch it.
If there are some doubts about the meaning of “handle the orange,” then a second strategy is to create a slide for the
orange. The slide consists of the cupped hands of five of the six team members held together so that the orange is
rolled from the top set of hands to the bottom. The sixth person drops the orange onto the slide, then runs to the other
end to catch it as it rolls down.
Although balls or other round objects may be used, an orange or other semi-round fruit or vegetable (e.g. apple, lemon,
potato) works best because students quickly identify balls with rolling. They are less likely to break out of the mental
model of tossing where fruit or vegetables are involved.
CLASS EXERCISE: HOPPING ORANGE EXERCISE
$
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Chapter 7: Decision Making and Creativity
Purpose
This exercise is designed to help students understand the dynamics of creativity and team problem solving.
Instructions
This exercise may be completed alone or in teams of three or four people, although the latter is more fun. If teams are
formed, students who already know the solutions to these problems should identify themselves and serve as silent
observers. When finished (or time is up), the instructor will review the solutions and discuss the implications of this
exercise. In particular, be prepared to discuss what you needed to solve these puzzles and what may have prevented
you from solving them more quickly (or at all).
Comments for Instructors
[NOTE: The instructor resources include a set of PowerPoint slides that visually display the answers to these creativity
brainbusters.]
Double Circle Problem. I have found that students are usually dumbfounded and don’t even try. How can you draw
two circles with one line and no connection between them? Here’s the answer: Draw the outer circle anywhere on the
page. When finished, fold a corner of the paper over so that it lies on top of the circle and the paper edge is beside your
pencil (see exhibit (a) below). Move the pencil across this folded over edge to a point inside the circle you just drew.
Move the corner back to its original position and complete the second circle.
Nine Dot Problem. (Note: This is sometimes known as the Eskimo puzzle because Inuit people apparently have less
trouble solving them. The reason is that they have no fences, so their brain doesn’t restrict their solutions within the
area of the dots.) There are many ways to solve this puzzle. The first solution below (Exhibit (b)) is the most common.
Solution (c) is somewhat questionable because the pencil doubles back across existing lines. Some might say that there
are more than four lines, although we see only four lines.
Nine Dot Problem Revisited. Some students will figure out the nine dot problem with four lines. Fewer will figure out
the three line solution. The most obvious solution is shown in (d) below. Now, ask students for a solution with FEWER
than three lines. There are a few ways of doing this. Draw nine large dots on a very large piece of paper, then roll the
paper into a large tube. Next, draw a single line on a slight angle from the top of one column of dots down and around
the tube to the middle row, then around the tube again to the third column of dots. The result is shown in the third
illustration below. If students suggest that this method would not cover the dots correctly, you could suggest that the
paper could be so large that the angle becomes asymptotically minuscule. Also, you could keep the paper flat and
draw a straight line twice around the Earth. Another way to pass a pencil line through all dots with a single straight
line is to make the line wide enough to cover all of the dots. Some students might also consider folding the paper so
that the dots are folded on top of each other. Then punch a hole with your pencil through all of the dots. It would be an
unusual line, but it seems to fit within the protocol!
CLASS EXERCISE: CREATIVITY BRAINBUSTERS
$
(a)
(d)
(c)
(b) (e)
Page 7-! 30
Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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Title: Kristus inkvisitorin edessä
Author: Fyodor Dostoyevsky
Release date: August 2, 2016 [eBook #52698]
Language: Finnish
Credits: E-text prepared by Tapio Riikonen
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KRISTUS
INKVISITORIN EDESSÄ ***

E-text prepared by Tapio Riikonen
KRISTUS INKVISITORIN
EDESSÄ
Kirj.
F. M. Dostojevski
Suomennos.
Hyvinkäällä, Uus-Uskonnollinen Kustannusliike O.-y., 1917.

ESIPUHE.
Seuraava kirjotelma on otettu Dostojevskin kuuluisasta romaanista
nimeltä "Veljekset Karamasoff", jonka hän kirjotti viimeiseksi ennen
kuolemaansa. Se on välikohtaus ja esiintyy keskusteluna kahden
veljeksen Ivanin ja Aljooshan välillä. Näistä on Aljoosha nuorempi,
kristillinen mystikko, joka on kasvatettu luostarissa. Ivan taas on
uudenaikainen materialisti ja ateisti.
Tässä kirjotelmassa, joka on pantu Ivanin suuhun, kuvastuu mitä
syvällisimpiä mietteitä, jotka koskettavat erityisesti
roomalaiskatolisuutta ja sen kirkkojärjestelmää mutta suuressa
määrin myös kaikkia muita kirkkoja, jotka ovat hylänneet Kristuksen
alkuperäiset opetukset ja rakentuneet aivan vieraalle, jopa
vastakkaiselle perustalle. Tässäkin kirjotelmassa, kuten Dostojevskin
muissa teoksissa ilmenee hänen tavaton voimakkuutensa ja hänen
ajatustensa miltei pelottava syvällisyys.
Kristus inkvisitorin edessä.

Ivan kertoo suunnittelemaansa näytelmää, jossa tapahtuma on
sijotettu kuudennelletoista vuosisadalle:
"Tälläinen on runoelmani:
"Kristus esiintyy näyttämöllä. Viisitoista vuosisataa on kulunut siitä
kun hän erosi maan päältä, luvaten kerran palaavansa 'suurella
voimalla ja kunnialla', viisitoista vuosisataa on kulunut siitä kun
lausuttiin sanat: 'Siitä päivästä ja hetkestä ei tiedä yksikään, ei edes
taivaan enkelit vaan minun isäni yksin'. Mutta kristikunta yhä häntä
odottaa…
"Se odottaa häntä samassa vanhassa uskossa ja samoin tuntein.
Niin, vielä suuremmalla uskolla, sillä viisitoista vuosisataa on jo
vierähtänyt siitä kun viimeinen merkki taivaasta annettiin ihmisille.
"Ja luottavaista sydäntä sokea usko tyydyttää vaan taivas
merkkiä ei anna.
"Tosin me kaikki olemme kuulleet ihmeistä, joita on tehty senkin
perästä kun ihmeitten aika ainiaaksi poistui. Meillä on ollut ja on
vielä pyhimyksiä, joiden uskotaan salaperäisellä voimalla parantavan;
ja jos voimme uskoa elämäkertain kirjottajia, on näiden pyhimysten
joukossa sellaisia, joita taivaan kuningatar omassa personassaan
kävi tervehtimässä. Mutta saatana ei nuku ja ensimäiset epäilyksen
idut, yhä kasvava epäusko tuollaisiin ihmeisiin oli alkanut jo 1500
luvulla versoa kristikunnassa. Juuri tähän aikaan uusi kauhistuttava
kerettiläisyys ensiksi esiintyi Pohjois-Saksassa [Luteruksen
uskonpuhdistus]. Suuri tähti, 'loistava niinkuin tulisoihtu… lankesi
vesivirtoihin… ja ne kaikki tulivat katkeriksi'. Tuo kerettiläisyys
suoraan kielsi ihmeiden todellisuuden. Mutta ne, jotka olivat
pysyneet uskollisina, uskoivat sitä palavammin. Ihmiskunnan

kyyneleet nousivat Vapahtajan luokse niinkuin ennenkin ja kristitty
maailma odotti häntä yhtä luottavasti kuin konsanaan. He rakastivat
häntä ja toivoivat häneen aivan niinkuin monet olivat tehneet ennen
heitä…
"Monen vuosisadan aikana oli heikko luottavainen ihmiskunta
häntä rukoillut ja hartaalla uskolla ja palavuudella huudahtanut:
Kuinka kauan, oi Herra, sinä pyhä ja tosi, vielä viivyt tulemasta?
Monen pitkän vuosisadan aikana on turhaan häntä kutsuttu, mutta
viimein hän tyhjentymättömässä laupeudessaan suostuu heidän
rukouksiinsa… Hän päättää, että taas kerran, vaikkapa vain lyhyeksi
hetkeksi, kansa — hänen kauan kärsinyt, kiusattu, synnillinen, mutta
kuitenkin rakastava ja lapsimielinen, luottavainen kansansa — tulee
näkemään hänet jälleen. Näyttämön paikka on Espanjassa tuon
kauhean inkvisitionin aikana, jolloin Jumalan kunniaksi rovioita paloi
yli koko maan ja kerettiläisiä poltettiin auto da-feessa.
"Tällä erikoisella käynnillä ei tietysti ollut mitään tekemistä sen
luvatun tulon kanssa, jolloin hän ohjelman mukaan 'niiden päivien
koettelemuksen jälkeen' on tuleva taivaan pilvissä. Sillä sen mukaan
kuin meille on kerrottu, tuo ihmisen pojan tuleminen tapahtuu äkkiä
'niinkuin salama leimahtaa idästä ja näkyy hamaan länteen asti'. Ei,
tällä kertaa hän tahtoi saapua tuntemattomana ja näyttäytyä
lapsiensa keskellä juuri silloin kun poltettaviksi tuotujen kerettiläisten
luut olivat alkaneet halkeilla palavassa roviossa. Rajattoman
laupeutensa kautta hän jälleen sekaantuu kuolevaisten joukkoon
aivan samanmuotoisena kuin hän oli esiintynyt viisitoista vuosisataa
sitten. Hän tulee alas juuri sillä hetkellä, jolloin kuninkaan,
hovilaisten, ritarien, kardinaalien ja ihanien vallasnaisten edessä
kerettiläisiä kärvennetään suurenmoisessa auto-da-feessä ad

majorem Dei gloriam, mahtavan kardinaalin ja suur-inkvisitorin
käskystä.
"Hän saapuu äänettömänä ja ilmoittamatta, ja kuitenkin kaikki —
kumma kyllä — kaikki heti tuntevat Hänet. Ihmiset juoksevat Häntä
kohti ikäänkuin vastustamattoman voiman sysääminä; väkijoukko
ympäröi Hänet, tunkeilee ja painautuu Hänen ympärilleen seuraten
Häntä… Äänettömänä ja rajattoman säälin hymy huulillaan Hän
kulkee sullotun väkijoukon läpi ja liikkuu hiljaa eteenpäin. Rakkauden
aurinko paistaa Hänen sydämessään, Valon, Viisauden ja Voiman
lämpöisiä säteitä hohtaa Hänen silmistään ja rakkauden aallot
valautuvat yli rahvaan tunkeilevien parvien saattaen heidän
sydämensä vastarakkaudesta värähtelemään. Hän ojentaa kätensä
heidän päänsä päälle, siunaa heitä ja Hänen pelkästä
kosketuksestaan, jopa Hänen vaatteittensa liepeistäkin vuotaa
parantava voima. Syntymästään saakka sokea vanhus huudahtaa:
'Herra paranna minut, että näkisin sinut' ja luomet aukenevat
suljetuilta silmiltä ja sokea mies näkee Hänet… Ihmisjoukko itkee
ilosta ja suutelee sitä maata, jota Hän jaloillaan astuu. Lapset
sirottavat kukkia Hänen tielleen ja huutavat Hänelle: Hosianna. Siinä
Hän on, Hän itse, he sanovat toisilleen, se on varmasti Hän, se ei voi
olla kukaan muu.
"Hän pysähtyy vanhan katedraalin portaille juuri silloin kun
pienoinen valkea kirstu kannetaan sisään itkun ja valitusten
seuraamana. Kansi on auki ja kirstussa makaa kauniin
seitsenvuotiaan tytön ruumis, etevän kaupunkilaisen ainoa lapsi.
Pieni ruumis on kukkasiin upotettu. 'Hän herättää lapsesi eloon',
huudahtaa väkijoukko luottavaisena itkevälle äidille.
Virantoimituksessa oleva pappi, joka on tullut portaille
hautajaissaattoa vastaanottamaan, katselee hämmästyen ja

paheksuen. Äkkiä kuuluu äänekäs huuto ja onneton äiti heittäytyy
Hänen jalkoihinsa. 'Jos Sinä se olet, saata lapseni takaisin elämään',
hän koko sielunsa voimalla huutaa. Saattue pysähtyy ja pieni kirstu
lasketaan hiljaa Hänen jalkainsa juureen. Jumalallinen sääliväisyys
loistaa Hänen silmistään ja Hänen katsellessaan lasta kuiskaavat
Hänen huulensa taas kuten kerran ennen: 'Talitha Kumi', ja 'heti
nousi tyttönen'. Lapsi kohoaa arkussaan. Hänen pienissä kätösissään
on vielä se valkoinen ruusukimppu, joka niihin pantiin hänen
kuolemansa jälkeen, ja katsellen ympärilleen suurin hämmästynein
silmin hän suloisesti hymyää… Kansanjoukko on äärimmilleen
kiihtynyt. Valtava liikutus siihen tarttuu, ihmiset huutavat ja itkevät
ääneensä, kun äkkiä katedraalin ovelle ilmestyy itse kardinaali, suuri
inkvisitori…
"Hän on kookas laiha vanhus, lähes 90-vuotias, kasvot ankaran
näköiset, kuihtuneet, silmät syvälle painuneet, ja niiden syvänteistä
hohtaa kaksi tulista kipunaa. Hän on riisunut sen koreavärisen
kardinaalipuvun, jossa hän oli äsken esiintynyt kansan edessä
roomalaiskatolilaisen kirkon vihollisia poltettaissa, ja on nyt puettuna
vanhaan karkeaan munkkikaapuun. Hänen synkän näköiset
seuralaisensa ja pyhän vartiojoukon orjat seuraavat edempänä. Hän
pysähtyy ihmisjoukon eteen ja tarkastaa. Hän on nähnyt kaiken. Hän
on huomannut, kuinka pieni ruumiskirstu laskettiin Hänen jalkainsa
juureen ja kuinka lapsi herätettiin eloon. Ja nyt hänen pimeät synkät
kasvonsa ovat tulleet vielä tummemmiksi; hänen tuuheat
kulmakarvansa miltei yhtyvät ja hänen kuopassaan olevat silmänsä
luovat uhkaavia säteitä. Hitaasti hän kohottaa sormensa ja käskee
palkollisiaan vangitsemaan Hänet…
"Niin suuri on hänen valtansa noihin hyvin harjotettuihin,
alistuvaisiin ja vapiseviin ihmisiin, että taajat joukot heti antavat tietä

ja hajautuvat vartiajoukon edestä kuoleman hiljaisuuden vallitessa,
sormeakaan kohottamatta vastarintaan. He sallivat vartijoiden
tarttua röyhkein käsin tuohon muukalaiseen ja viedä Hänet pois…
Sama rahvasjoukko yhtenä miehenä nyt kumartuu maahan vanhan
inkvisitorin eteen, joka siunaa sitä ja hitaasti kulkee edelleen. Vartijat
vievät vangitun miehen pyhän tuomioistuimen vanhanaikaiseen
rakennukseen; he sysäävät Hänet ahtaaseen, pimeään
vankilaholviin, lukitsevat oven ja vetäytyvät pois…
"Päivä laskee ja yö — synkkä, kuuma, henkeä hievahtamaton
espanjalainen yö — hiipii yli maan ja laskeutuu Sevillan kaupungin
yli. Ilmassa tuntuu laakerin ja oranssikukkien tuoksu. Vanhan
tuomiopalatsin läpäisemättömässä pimeydessä äkkiä avautuu
vankikopin rautainen ovi ja suurinkvisitori, kädessään himmeä lyhty,
astuu hitaasti alas luolaan. Hän on yksin, ja raskaan oven
sulkeutuessa hänen jälkeensä hän pysähtyy kynnykselle ja tuokion
tai parisen aikana hän ääneti ja synkästi tarkastaa kasvoja edessään.
Viimein hän lähestyy säännöllisin askelin, asettaa lyhdyn pöydälle ja
puhuttelee Häntä seuraavin sanoin:
"'Se olet Sinä!… Sinä!' Ja kun hän ei saa mitään vastausta, jatkaa
hän: 'ei, älä vastaakaan; ole ääneti… ja mitä voisitkaan sanoa?…
minä tiedän liiankin hyvin Sinun vastauksesi… sitäpaitsi Sinulla ei ole
oikeutta lisätä ainoatakaan tavua siihen, mitä jo olet lausunut…'
"'Miksi Sinä nyt palaat estämään meitä meidän työssämme? Sillä
ainoastaan sitä varten Sinä olet tullut ja sen Sinä hyvin tiedät. Mutta
oletko varma siitä, mikä Sinua odottaa huomisaamuna? Minä en
tiedä enkä välitä tietää, kuka Sinä olet: olitpa Sinä itse tai Sinun
varjosi, huomenna minä Sinut tuomitsen ja poltan Sinut roviolla
kaikkein pahimpana kerettiläisenä, ja sama kansa, joka tänään

suuteli jalkojasi, huomenna yhdestä sormeni viittauksesta rientää
kokoomaan polttoaineita Sinun roviollesi… Tiesitkö tämän?' Ja hän
lisää puhuen ikäänkuin juhlallisesti miettien ja koko aikana
hetkeksikään irrottamatta läpitunkevaa silmäystään noilta lempeiltä
edessään olevilta kasvoilta —"
"Minä voin tuskin mielessäni kuvitella tuota asemaa — mitä tämä
kaikki on, Ivan?" keskeytti yhtäkkiä Aljoosha, joka oli äänettömänä
kuunnellut veljensä kertomusta. "Onko tämä hurjistelevaa
mielikuvitusta vai joku vanhuksen erehdys suunnaton väärinkäsitys?"
"Olkoon se mitä viimeksi sanoit, jos niin tahdot", nauroi Ivan,
"koska nykyaikainen realismi on niin turmellut makusi, ettet kykene
tajuamaan mitään mielikuvituksen luomaa… Olkoon se väärinkäsitys,
jos tahdot. Onhan inkvisitori 90 vuotias ja hän on hyvinkin voinut
tulla hulluksi vallanhimon kiintoajatuksesta, tai saattoi se olla
mieletöntä harhanäkyä, kuolevan miehen kuvittelua, kun hänen
aivonsa olivat liiaksi kuumentuneet aamupäivän satoja kerettiläisiä
poltettaissa… Mutta mitä runoelmaan kuuluu, josko se oli
väärinkäsitystä vai hillitöntä mielikuvitusta? Kysymys on vain, että
vanhuksen on avattava sydämensä, että hänen on viimeinkin
tunnustettava ajatuksensa, että hetki on tullut, jolloin hänen on
puhuttava suoraan ja sanottava ääneen se, mitä hän 90 vuotta on
pitänyt salassa omaan sydämeensä kätkettynä."
"Entä hänen vankinsa, eikö Hän ensinkään vastaa? Pysyykö Hän
ääneti katsellen vanhusta sanaakaan sanomatta?"
"Tietysti — eikä muuten voisi ollakaan", vastasi Ivan.
"Suurinkvisitori alkaa heti ensimäiset sanansa lausumalla, ettei
vangilla ole oikeutta lisätä tavuakaan siihen, mitä Hän on ennen
sanonut. Jotta asema olisi heti alusta pitäin selvä, on tuo ensimäinen

yksinpuhelu tarkotettu antamaan lukijalle sen perusaatteen, joka on
roomalaiskatolilaisuuden takana. Mikäli osaan tulkita hänen
sanojaan, hän tarkottaa: Kaiken olet Sinä antanut paaville ja kaikki
on hänen hallussaan; Sinulla ei ole mitään syytä palata ja estää
meitä työssämme. Tässä mielessä jesuitat sekä puhuvat että
kirjottavat.
"… 'Onko Sinulla oikeutta julaista ainoatakaan mysteriota siitä
maailmasta, mistä tulet?' Näin kysyy Häneltä vanha inkvisitori ja heti
vastaa Hänen puolestaan: Ei, Sinulla ei ole siihen oikeutta. Sillä se
olisi lisäämistä siihen, mitä Sinä jo ennen olet sanonut, siis Sinä
ihmisiltä riistäisit sen vapauden, jonka puolesta taistelit, kun olit
maan päällä… Kaikki mitä Sinä nyt uutta julistaisit, olisi pidettävä
yrityksenä tuon valinnanvapauden rajottamiseen, sillä sehän tulisi
uutena yliluonnollisena ilmotuksena, joka asettuisi vanhan viisitoista
vuosisataa sitten annetun ilmotuksen yläpuolelle. Silloin Sinä niin
usein sanoit kansalle: 'totuus on tekevä teidät vapaiksi. Katso siis nyt
vapaata kansaasi!' — lisää vanhus ivaten. 'Niin — se on maksanut
maailmalle paljon', hän jatkaa katsoen ankarasti uhriinsa. 'Mutta me
olemme viimeinkin päättäneet sen tehtävän ja — Sinun nimessäsi…
Viisitoista pitkää vuosisataa meidän oli ponnistettava ja kärsittävä
tuon vapauden tähden, mutta nyt me olemme voittaneet ja meidän
työmme on täytetty ja hyvin ja lujasti se on täytetty… Etkö Sinä usko
sitä lujaksi?… ja miksi katsot minuun niin lempeästi kuin minä en
ansaitsisi edes Sinun inhoasi?… Etkö sitten tiedä, että nyt ja vasta
nyt Sinun kansasi voi tuntea olevansa varma vapaudestaan ja siihen
tyytyväinen; nimittäin vasta silloin, kun he ovat itsestään ja vapaasta
tahdostaan jättäneet vapautensa meidän käsiimme laskeutumalla
alistuvasti meidän jalkoihimme. Tämän me siis olemme tehneet.
Tähänkö Sinä pyrit? Tämänkölaista vapautta sinä heille lupasit?'"

"Nyt taaskaan minä en ymmärrä", keskeytti Aljoosha. "Ilveileekö
tuo vanhus?"
"Ei suinkaan. Hän vakavasti pitää tätä suurena palveluksena, jonka
hän itse, hänen munkki-veljensä ja jesuitat ovat tehneet
ihmiskunnalle, kun he ovat voittaneet ja alistaneet vapauden oman
auktoritetinsa alaiseksi, ja hän kerskailee siitä, että tämä tapahtui
maailman hyväksi. Sillä vasta nyt, hän sanoo (puhuen
inkvisitionista), on meille tullut mahdolliseksi ensimäisen kerran
vakavasti ajatella ihmisten onnea. Ihminen on synnynnäisesti
kapinoitsija, ja voiko kapinoitsija olla koskaan onnellinen?… Sinua on
siitä varotettu, mutta nähtävästi turhaan, koska Sinä hylkäsit ainoan
keinon, joka olisi tehnyt ihmiskunnan onnelliseksi. Poislähtiessäsi
Sinä toki jätit tehtävän meille… Sinä olit luvannut, vahvistaen
lupauksen omilla sanoillasi, että annat meille oikeuden sitoa ja
päästää, ja varmaan Sinä et nyt voi sitä oikeutta meiltä riistää?"
"Mutta mitä hän tarkottaa sanoessaan: Sinua on kyllä varotettu?"
kysyi
Aljoosha.
"Mäissä sanoissa on juuri avain siihen, mitä vanhuksella on
sanottavana omaksi puolustuksekseen. Mutta kuuntele:
"'Tuo kauhistuttava, mutta viisas henki, tyhjäksi tulemisen ja
olemattomuuden henki', jatkaa inkvisitori, 'suuri kieltämisen henki
keskusteli Sinun kanssasi erämaassa, ja meille sanotaan, että hän
kiusasi Sinua… Niinkö todella? Jos niin oli, niin mahdotonta on
lausua mitään todempaa kuin mitä hän lausui kolmessa
tarjouksessaan, jotka Sinä hylkäsit ja joita tavallisesti kutsutaan
kiusauksiksi. Niin, jos koskaan on maan päällä ollut todellista ja
hämmästyttävää ihmettä, niin se tapahtui sinä päivänä kun Sinua

kolme kertaa kiusattiin, ja juuri noihin kolmeen lyhyeen lauseeseen
sisältyy tuo ihme. Jos olisi mahdollista, että ne ainiaaksi häviäisivät
ja katoisivat jättämättä mitään jälkeä tai muistoa ihmisille, ja että
olisi välttämätöntä taas keksiä nämä kiusaukset ja panna ne
uudestaan Sinun elämäkertomukseesi, niin luuletko, että kaikki
maailman viisaat, kaikki lainoppineet, vihityt, filosoofit ja ajattelijat,
jos heitä kehotettaisiin muodostamaan kolme kysymystä, mitkä
vastaisivat tapauksen suurenmoisuutta ja mitkä näiden lailla
kolmessa lyhyessä lauseessa kertoisivat tämän maailman ja
ihmiskunnan koko tulevan historian — luuletko, minä kysyn, että ne
kaikki yhteisin ponnistuksin voisivat koskaan löytää mitään niin
mahtavaa ja suurenmoista kuin ne kolme tarjousta, jotka suuri ja
kaikkiviisas Henki Sinulle tarjosi erämaassa? Kun vaan arvostelee
niiden ihmeellistä sopivaisuutta, voi heti ymmärtää, että ne eivät
lähteneet mistään rajallisesta maallisesta älystä, vaan itse Ikuisesta
ja Ehdottomasta. Näissä kolmessa tarjouksessa me löydämme
yhdistettynä ja meille ennustettuna ihmiskunnan koko myöhemmän
historian. Meille näytetään ikäänkuin kolme kuvaa, jotka itsessään
sisältävät kaikki tulevat arvotuksentapaiset ratkaisemattomat
ihmisluonnon pulmat ja ristiriidat. Siihen aikaan ei vielä ollut yhtä
selvä kuin nykyään se ihmeellinen viisaus, mikä niihin sisältyi, sillä
tulevaisuus oli vielä verhottu; mutta nyt viidentoista vuosisadan
kuluttua me näemme, että kaikki näissä kolmessa kysymyksessä
ihmeellisesti ennustettiin ja yhden kirjaimenkin lisääminen tähän
profetiaan tai siitä poisottaminen olisi aivan mahdotonta.'
"'Päätä siis itse!' jatkoi inkvisiittori ankarasti, 'kuka teistä kahdesta
oli oikeassa: Sinä, joka hylkäsit, vai hän, joka tarjosi? Muista
ensimäistä hienosti tehtyä kysymystä, joka kuului: tahdotko mennä
maailmaan tyhjin käsin? Uskallatko sinne mennä epämääräisellä ja
hämärällä vapauden lupauksella, jota ihmiset, luonnostaan typerät ja

järjestymättömät, eivät kykene ymmärtämään vaan ainoastaan
välttämään ja pelkäämään? Sillä ei milloinkaan ole mikään ollut
ihmissuvulle sietämättömämpää kuin personallinen vapaus. Näetkö
näitä kiviä autiossa kaameassa erämaassa? Käske, että nämä kivet
muuttuisivat leiviksi — silloin ihmiset tulevat jälessäsi juoksemaan
tottelevaisina ja kiitollisina kuin karjalauma. Mutta silloinkin he
pysyvät epäluottavaisina ja vapisevina, peläten, että Sinä vedät pois
kätesi ja he menettäisivät leipänsä. Sinä kieltäydyit tuota tarjousta
vastaanottamasta, kun pelkäsit ihmisiltä riistää heidän vapaan
valintaansa; sillä missä on valinnan vapaus, jos ihmiset lahjotaan
leivällä? Ihminen ei elä ainoastaan leivällä — oli Sinun vastauksesi.
Sinä et näy tietäneen, että juuri maallisen leivän nimessä tuo maan
henki kerran oli nouseva ja taisteleva Sinua vastaan ja viimein Sinut
voittava, ja että nälkäiset kansajoukot tulisivat sitä seuraamaan
huutaen: Kuka on niinkuin tämä peto, joka saattaa tulenkin taivaasta
lankeemaan? Etkö Sinä tiedä, että vain muutaman vuosisadan
päästä koko ihmiskunta tulee julistamaan omassa viisaudessaan
äänenkannattajansa tieteen kautta, ettei ole enää mitään rikosta
eikä syntiä maan päällä vaan ainoastaan nälkäisiä ihmisiä? Ravitse
meitä ensin ja sitten käske meitä olemaan hyviä, tulee olemaan
kirjotetettuna siihen lippuun, joka nostetaan Sinua vastaan —
lippuun, joka tulee hävittämään kirkkosi perustuksiaan myöten ja
Sinun temppelisi päälle jälleen pystyttämään kauhistuttavan Babelin
tornin. Ja vaikka sen rakentaminen jäisikin päättämättä, niinkuin
tuon ensimäisen rakennuksen, niin se tosiasia on jälellä, että Sinä
olisit voinut — mutta et tahtonut — estää rakentamasta tuota uutta
tornia, jos olisit vain hyväksynyt tarjouksen ja pelastanut ihmiset
tuhatvuotisesta hyödyttömästä kärsimyksestä.'
"'Ja meidän puoleemme kansa tulee jälleen kääntymään. He
tulevat etsimään meitä kaikkialta ja he tulevat löytämään meidät

maan alta katakombeista — sillä meitä tullaan jälleen vainoomaan
marttyyreina — ja he tulevat meille huutamaan: Ravitkaa meitä, sillä
ne, jotka lupasivat meille tulen taivaasta, ovat meidät pettäneet. Me
heidän puolestaan lopetamme tornin rakentamisen. Sillä vasta ne,
jotka heitä ravitsevat, tulevat sen työn päättämään, ja me tulemme
heitä ravitsemaan Sinun nimessäsi ja valehtelemaan heille, että se
tapahtuu Sinun nimessäsi. Eivät milloinkaan, eivät milloinkaan he opi
itseään ravitsemaan ilman meidän apuamme. Ei mikään tiede voi
antaa heille leipää niinkauankun he pysyvät vapaina, niinkauankun
he eivät tahdo laskea vapauttansa meidän jalkoihimme, sanoen:
Orjuuta, mutta ravitse meitä. Se päivä on tuleva, jolloin ihmiset
käsittävät, että vapaus ja jokapäiväinen leipä kaikkein tarpeeksi on
mahdoton ajatellakaan eikä niitä molempia voi yhdessä saavuttaa,
koska ihmiset eivät koskaan voi oikeudenmukaisesti jakaa niitä
keskenään.'
"'Me tulemme myöskin opettamaan, etteivät he voi koskaan olla
vapaita, sillä he ovat heikkoja, paheellisia, onnettomia heittiöitä,
syntymästään asti ilkeitä ja tottelemattomia. Sinä olit luvannut heille
elämän leipää, taivaan leipää; mutta minä kysyn Sinulta taaskin:
voiko tuo leipä milloinkaan heikon ja paheellisen, aina
kiittämättömän ihmiskunnan mielestä vastata heidän jokapäiväistä
leipäänsä? Ja vaikkapa tuhannet ja kymmenet tuhannet Sinua
seuraisivat taivaallisen leipäsi vuoksi ja sen nimessä, niin mitä tulee
niistä miljoonista ja sadoista miljoonista ihmisolennoista, jotka ovat
niin heikkoja, että maallisen leivän vuoksi halveksivat taivaallista
leipää? Vai ovatko ainoastaan nuo kymmenet tuhannet suurten ja
voimakasten joukosta valitut Sinulle rakkaita, mutta muut miljoonat,
jotka ovat yhtä lukemattomia kuin meren santa, nuo heikot ja
rakkautta kaipaavat — ovatko ne käytettävät vain aineksina edellisiä
varten? Ei, ei! Meidän mielestämme ja meidän kannaltamme nuo

heikot ja alhaiset ovat sitä rakkaampia. Totta kyllä, he ovat
paheellisia ja kapinallisia, mutta me pakotamme heidät
tottelevaisuuteen ja he tulevat enimmän heitä ihailemaan. He tulevat
pitämään meitä jumalina ja olemaan kiitollisia niille, jotka ovat
suostuneet johtamaan joukkoja ja kantamaan heidän liian raskasta
vapauden taakkaansa, siten että ovat heitä hallinneet — niin
kauhistuttavalta tulee vapaus viimein tuntumaan ihmisistä. Sitten me
sanomme heille, että me Sinun tahtoasi totellen ja Sinun nimessäsi
hallitsemme heitä. Me petämme heitä tällä taas ja valehtelemme
heille yhä uudestaan — sillä emme milloinkaan, milloinkaan enää
salli Sinun tulla joukkoomme. Tästä petoksesta me kyllä saamme
oman kärsimyksemme, sillä meidän täytyy ikuisesti valehdella eikä
milloinkaan lakata valehtelemasta.'
"'Tuo on ensimäisen kiusauksen salainen merkitys ja sen Sinä
hylkäsit erämaassa vapauden tähden, jota pidit kaikkein
korkeimmassa arvossa. Mutta Sinun kiusaajasi tarjous sisälsi
toisenkin suuren salaisuuden. Jos olisit hyväksynyt leivän, niin olisit
tyydyttänyt kaikkien ihmisolentojen sydämessä asuvaa yhtämittaista
kaipausta ja ikävöimistä, olisit ratkaissut kaikkein vaikeimman
arvoituksen — ketä tai mitä pitää meidän palvella? Ei ole mitään
suurempaa ja tuskallisempaa haittaa sillä ihmisellä, joka on
vapautunut uskonnollisista ennakkoluuloista, kuin mistä hän
pikemmin löytäisi uuden esineen tai aatteen palvellakseen. Mutta
ihminen koettaa aina kumartaa sellaista, jota suuri enemmistö
tunnustaa, ja mieluimmin sellaista, jolle kaikki yksimielisesti ja
epäröimättä kumartavat. Sillä näiden onnettomien raukkojen
pääharrastus ei ole löytää oman valintansa mukainen epäjumala,
vaan löytää se, johon kaikki muut uskovat, ja jota he saavat joukolla
kumartaa. Juuri tuo vaistomainen tarve saada yhdessä palvella on
kaikkein ihmisten suurin tuska, ja on ollut aikojen alusta

ihmiskunnan suurimpana huolena. Juuri saadakseen aikaan tällaisen
samanlaisen uskonnon ja jumalanpalveluksen ihmiset tappoivat
toisiaan miekalla. He loivat jumalia itselleen ja heti alkoivat toinen
toisilleen huutaa: hylätkää te omat jumalanne, tulkaa ja kumartakaa
meidän jumalaamme. Ja näin he tulevat tekemään maailman
loppuun asti; he tulevat tekemään niin silloinkin, kun jumalat ovat
hävinneet, sillä silloin he tulevat kumartamaan ja palvelemaan
jotakin aatetta.'
"'Sinä tiesit, et voinut olla tietämättä tuosta ihmisluonnon
pääperusteesta ja kuitenkin Sinä hylkäsit sen ainoan ehdottoman
lipun, joka Sinulle tarjottiin, sen, jolle kaikki olisivat pysyneet
uskollisina ja jolle kaikki olisivat kumartaneet — jokapäiväisen leivän
viirin, sen hylkäsit vapauden ja 'jumalan valtakunnan leivän' vuoksi.
Mutta toistan sinulle vielä, että ihmisellä ei ole eläessään suurempaa
hätää kuin löytää joku, jolle hän voi jättää tuon vapauden lahjan,
jonka hän onnettomuudekseen on saanut syntyessään. Ja
ainoastaan se ihminen kykenee vaientamaan ja rauhottamaan
heidän omaatuntoaan, joka onnistuu valtaamaan ihmisten vapauden.
Kun jokapäiväinen leipä Sinulle neuvottiin, tarjottiin sen kautta
Sinulle vastustamaton mahti: näytä ihmiselle leivän saanti, niin hän
tulee Sinua seuraamaan, sillä mitä hän voi vähemmän vastustaa kuin
leivän vetovoimaa? Mutta jos toinen onnistuu lisäksi hänen
omantuntonsa valtaamaan — oi! silloin sekin lippu unohtuu ja
seurataan sitä, joka on omattunnot voittanut ja alistanut.'
"'Siinä Sinä kyllä olit oikeassa. Sillä ihmisen onnen mysterio ei ole
ainoastaan elämisen halussa vaan tuossa kysymyksessä — minkä
vuoksi ensinkään on elettävä? Jollei ole mitään selvää käsitystä
elämisen syystä, ei ihminen suostu ollenkaan elämään vaan
mieluimmin hävittää itsensä kuin viipyy maan päällä, vaikka hänellä

olisi yltäkyllin leipää ympärillään. Tämä on totta. Mutta miten on
käynyt? Sen sijaan että olisit vallannut ihmisten vapauden, olet
tahtonut sitä vielä enemmän laajentaa. Oletko taaskin unohtanut,
että ihmiselle lepo ja vieläpä kuolema on mieluisempi kuin vapaa
valinta hyvän ja pahan välillä? Ei mikään ensin hänen silmilleen
tunnu viekottavammalta kuin omantunnon vapaus, ja kuitenkaan ei
mikään ole tuskallisempaa. Ja katso! sen sijaan että olisit laskenut
lujan perustuksen, jolle kerta kaikkiaan ihmisten omatunto olisi
voinut nojautua, Sinä koetit heissä yllyttää esille kaikkea, mikä on
epäluonnollista, salaperäistä, määrittelemätöntä, kaikkea, mikä on
ihmiskykyä korkeampaa, ja olet toiminut aivan kuin Sinulla ei olisi
mitään rakkautta ihmisiä kohtaan ja kuitenkin sanoit tulleesi:
antamaan henkesi ystäviesi edestä.'
"'Sinä olet kuormittanut ihmissielua sellaisella tuskalla, joka siihen
saakka oli tuntematon. Sinä kaipasit vapaasti annettua rakkautta ja
koetit houkuttelemalla ja lumoamalla ihmistä kasvattaa häntä
omasta vapaasta tahdostaan seuraamaan Sinun polkujasi eikä sitä
vanhaa viisasta lakia, joka häntä piti alamaisuudessa. Sinä annoit
hänelle oikeuden tästä lähin valita ja vapaasti päättää, mikä hänelle
olisi hyvää ja mikä pahaa, ainoana johtonaan Sinun kuvasi hänen
sydämessään. Mutta oletko koskaan uneksinut sitä mahdollisuutta,
ei, vaan sitä varmuutta, että ihminen jonakin päivänä lopullisesti
hylkäisi ja kääntäisi nurin Sinun kuvasi ja sinun totuutesi, kun hän
huomaisi saaneensa tuon kauhistuttavan taakan, valinnanvapauden?
Arvasitko, että tulisi aika, jolloin ihmiset huudahtaisivat, että Sinussa
ei voi olla totuutta eikä valoa, sillä ei kukaan voinut heitä saattaa
suurempaan hämmennykseen ja sielulliseen kärsimykseen kuin Sinä
antamalla heille niin monia huolia ja ratkaisemattomia kysymyksiä.
Siis sinä itse olet matkaan saattanut oman valtakuntasi häviön eikä
kukaan muu ole siitä moitittava kuin Sinä itse.'

"'Ja kuitenkin Sinulle tarjottiin kaikki menestymisen
mahdollisuudet. On kolme voimaa, kolme merkillistä mahtia, jotka
voivat voittaa ja ainiaaksi kietoa noiden heikkojen kapinoitsijoiden —
ihmisten — omantunnon heidän omaksi parhaakseen. Nämä voimat
ovat: ihme, salaisuus ja mahtivalta. Sinä olet hylännyt kaikki nämä
kolme ja siis olet ollut ensimäisenä antamassa huonon esimerkin.
Tuo kauhistuttava kaikkiviisas Henki asetti Sinut temppelin harjalle ja
sanoi Sinulle: Jos olet jumalan poika, niin heittäydy alas, sillä
kirjotettu on: Hän antaa käskyn enkeleillensä Sinusta ja he käsillään
Sinua kantavat, ettet jalkaasi kiveen loukkaisi. Tuolla tavalla olisi
uskosi Isään tullut aivan silminnähtäväksi, mutta Sinä kieltäysit sitä
neuvoa tottelemasta. Epäilemättä Sinä silloin toimit mahtavalla
ylpeydellä kuten jumala, mutta ihmiset — tuo heikko ja kapinoiva
sukukunta — ovatko he myös jumalia, että voisivat ymmärtää Sinun
kieltäymystäsi? Tietysti Sinä tiesit, että jos olisit astunut ainoankin
askeleen eteenpäin, jos olisit liikahtanut heittäytyäksesi alas, niin
olisit kiusannut Herraa Sinun Jumalaasi ja yhtäkkiä kadottanut kaiken
uskosi Häneen ja pudonnut murskaksi sitä maata vastaan, jota tulit
pelastamaan, ja siten olisit antanut sen viisaan Hengen, joka tuli
Sinua kiusaamaan, voitostaan riemuita ja ylpeillä. Mutta kuinka
monta Sinun kaltaistasi löytyy tämän maan päällä? Saatatko Sinä
koskaan kuvitella, että ihmisillä tulisi olemaan voimaa vastustaa
samaa kiusausta?'
"'Voiko ihmisluonto hylätä ihmeiden vakuutusvoiman ja noina
kauhistuttavina elämän hetkinä, jolloin kaikkein syvimmät,
tuskallisimmat ja sotkeutuneimmat kysymykset kamppailevat
ihmissielussa — luottaa sydämensä vapaaseen päätökseen ainoana
ratkaisuna? Oi, Sinä tiesit kyllä, että tuo tekosi tulisi painettavaksi
kirjoihin tulevien aikojen varalle ja tieto siitä tulisi kulkemaan maan
ääriin asti, ja toivoit, että Sinun esimerkkiäsi seuraten ihmiset

pysyisivät uskollisina omalle jumalalleen, tarvitsematta mitään
ihmeitä tekemään heidän uskoaan eläväksi. Mutta Sinä et tiennyt,
siltä näyttää, että niinpiankun ihminen hylkäisi ihmeet, hän hylkäisi
myöskin Jumalan, sillä hän etsii vähemmän Jumalaa kuin jotakin
merkkiä hänestä. Ja koska siis on ihmiskyvylle mahdotonta olla ilman
ihmeitä, niin he mieluummin tulevat itse luomaan itselleen uusia
ihmeitä kuin elävät ilman niitä; he tulevat kumartamaan ja
palvelemaan enteitä ja ennustuksia ja vanhojen noitien taikaa,
silloinkin kun ovat satakertaisesti kapinoitsijoita, vääräoppisia ja
jumalankieltäjiä. Sinä kieltäydyit tulemasta alas ristiltä silloin kun
kansa pilkaten ja päätänsä väännellen sanoi Sinulle: pelasta itsesi,
jos olet Jumalan poika, niin me sinuun uskomme. Ja niin teit
samassa tarkotuksessa — ettei ihmisiä orjuutettaisi ihmeiden kautta,
vaan saisit heidät uskomaan Sinuun vapaasti ja ilman ihmeiden
vaikutusta. Sinä janosit vapaata ja itsestään annettua rakkautta ja
kieltäydyit ottamasta vastaan orjan intohimoista palvelusta
korkeamman mahdin edessä, joka on ainaiseksi alistanut hänen
tahtonsa. Sinä taaskin arvostelit ihmisiä liian korkeiksi, sillä vaikka he
ovat kapinoitsijoita, ovat he syntyperäisesti orjia eikä mitään muuta.'
"'Katso ja arvostele heitä nyt taaskin, kun viisitoista vuosisataa on
kulunut siitä hetkestä. Katsele noita, jotka Sinä koetit kohottaa itsesi
tasalle! Minä vannon, että ihminen on heikompi ja alhaisempi kuin
Sinä olet koskaan uneksinut hänen olevan. Voiko hän milloinkaan
tehdä sitä, mitä Sinun kerrotaan tehneen? Sinä, Sinä häntä niin
korkeaksi arvostit ja toimit ikäänkuin ei olisi Sinulla sydämessäsi
mitään rakkautta häntä kohtaan, sillä Sinä olet vaatinut häneltä
enemmän kuin hän koskaan voi antaa — Sinä, joka häntä rakastit
enemmän kuin itseäsi. Jos olisit häntä arvioinut vähemmäksi, niin
olisit häneltä vähemmän vaatinut ja se olisi ollut suurempaa
rakkautta, sillä hänen kuormansa olisi siten tullut kevyemmäksi.

Ihminen on heikko raukka. Mitä siitä on väliä, vaikka hän nyt
mellakoi ja kapinoi kautta maailman meidän tahtoamme ja meidän
valtaamme vastaan ja ylpeilee siitä kapinallisuudestaan? Se on vain
koulupoikien pikkumaista ylpeyttä ja turhamaisuutta. Se on pienten
lasten mellastusta, kun he panevat luokkahuoneessa toimeen
metakan ja ajavat ulos opettajansa. Mutta se ei kestä kauan, ja kun
heidän uhmansa on ohitse, saavat se siitä kalliisti maksaa. He tulevat
hävittämään temppelit ja jaottamaan ne maan tasalle, peittäen
maanpinnan verellä. Mutta nuo typerät lapsukaiset tulevat jonakin
päivänä oppimaan, että vaikka he ovatkin kapinoitsevia ja
mellastavia luonnostaan, niin he ovat liian heikkoja kauan
ylläpitämään kapinan henkeä. Idiotimaisesti kyyneliä vuodattaen he
tulevat tunnustamaan, että Hän, joka loi heidät näin kapinallisiksi,
epäilemättä teki niin heitä pilkatakseen. He tulevat näin lausumaan
epätoivossaan ja tällainen jumalanpilkka tulee vain lisäämään heidän
kurjuuttaan, sillä ihmisen luonto ei voi kärsiä jumalanpilkkaa vaan
kostaa sen lopulta.'
"'Ja niinpä kaiken sen jälkeen, mitä Sinä olet kärsinyt ihmiskunnan
ja sen vapauden puolesta, voidaan ihmisten nykyinen kohtalo lausua
kolmella sanalla: levottomuus, hämmennys, kurjuus. Suuri profetta
Johannes näyssään kertoo nähneensä ensimäisessä
ylösnousemuksessa Jumalan valittuja palvelijoita, niitä, joiden otsaan
oli merkitty sinetti, kaksitoista tuhatta kustakin sukukunnasta. Mutta
oliko niitä todella niin paljon? Silloin niiden on täytynyt olla jumalia
eikä ihmisiä. Ne olivat monet vuodet kantaneet Sinun ristiäsi,
kärsineet nälkää ja janoa autiossa erämaassa, syöden juuria ja
heinäsirkkoja, ja näistä Sinun lapsistasi, jotka vapaasta rakkaudesta
Sinuun uhrautuivat Sinun nimeesi, Sinä kyllä voit ylpeillä. Mutta
muista, että näitä on kuitenkin vain muutamia tuhansia — jumalia
eikä ihmisiä. Entäpä kaikki muut? Miksi heikot olisivat syypäitä, kun

he eivät kykene kärsimään samaa, mitä voimakkaammat ovat
kärsineet? Miksi sielu, jolla ei ole näitä suunnattomia lahjoja, joutuu
kärsimään heikkoudestaan? Tulitko Sinä todellakin ainoastaan
valittuja varten? Siinä tapauksessa tulee salaisuus aina pysymään
salaisuutena meidän rajoitetulle järjellemme. Ja jos se on salaisuus,
silloin me olemme oikeassa, kun sitä julistamme salaisuutena ja
saarnaamme, ettei heidän vapaasti tarjoomansa rakkaus eikä
omantunnon vapaus ole pääasia vaan ainoastaan tuo käsittämätön
mysterio, jota heidän täytyy sokeasti totella, vieläpä omaatuntoansa
vastaan. Me oikaisimme ja paransimme Sinun opetuksesi ja
perustimme sen ihmeen, salaisuuden ja mahtivallan varaan. Ja
ihmiset iloitsevat, kun heitä taas johdetaan niinkuin karjalaumaa ja
taas heidän sydämeltään kevennetään Sinun laskemasi kauhistuttava
taakka, joka niin paljon kärsimystä sai aikaan. Sano minulle
olimmeko oikeassa näin tehdessämme? Emmekö me osottaneet
suurta rakkauttamme ihmiskuntaa kohtaan, kun me näin nöyrässä
hengessä käsitimme ihmisten avuttomuuden ja niin armollisesti
kevensimme heidän suuren taakkansa ja heidän heikon luontonsa
takia suvaitsimme ja annoimme anteeksi kaikki synnit, kunhan ne
tapahtuivat meidän luvallamme.'
"'Miksikä siis Sinä olet tullut häiritsemään meitä työssämme? Ja
miksikä Sinä katsot minuun niin läpitunkevasti lempeillä silmilläsi ja
niin äänettömänä? Mieluummin pitäisi Sinun tuntea vihaa, sillä minä
en kaipaa rakkauttasi, minä hylkään sen enkä Sinua rakasta. Miksikä
sinulta salaisin totuuden? Tiedän hyvinkin kenen kanssa nyt puhun.
Mitä minulla oli sanottavaa, sen Sinä jo ennakolta tiesit, minä luen
sen silmistäsi, Kuinka minä voisin Sinulta salata meidän
salaisuuttamme? Mutta jos tahdot kuulla sen minun huuliltani, niin
kuuntele: Me emme ole Sinun puolellasi, vaan sen toisen puolella, ja
se on meidän salaisuutemme! Vuosisatojen aikana me olemme

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Organizational Behavior Emerging Knowledge Global Reality 8th Edition McShane Solutions Manual

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