OVERVIEW OF OBJECT RELATIONS AND ATTACHMENT THEORIES

Psychology of indiv differences

1. PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

2. OVERVIEW OF OBJECT RELATIONS AND ATTACHMENT THEORIES

3. INTRODUCTION Object relations theory focuses on interpersonal relations, specifically within early childhood with an emphasis on the mother-child relationship . The theory based in both ego psychology and developmental theory emphasizes that our inner world is composed of representations and feelings of others, which have a direct impact on the feelings and attitudes we have about ourselves .  In other words, the theory assumes that the quality of our interpersonal relationships during development can predict the quality of our future relationships. Here we are discussing The ‘Object Relations And Attachment Theories’ by Margaret Mahler, Heinz Kohut ,Melanie Klein ,Winnicot ,John Bowlby in detail.  

4. 1) MARGARET MAHLER -SEPARATION-INDIVIDUATION THEORY OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT Mahler is regarded as one of the main contributors to the field of ‘ego psychology ’. Her studies focus primarily on mother-infant interactions within the first three years of life. According to Mahler, successful completion of the developmental stages in the first few years of life results in separation and individuation. Separation refers to an internal process of mental separation from the mother, while individuation refers to a developing self concept.

5. Stages of Development 1)Normal autistic stage:  (0-1 month) At the very beginning of life, the infant is primarily focused on himself/herself, uninterested in external stimuli . The mother is viewed as an intrinsic part of the infant, devoid of a separate existence . The primary goal at this point, is to achieve a state of equilibrium

6. 2.Normal symbiotic stage:  (1-5 months ) At this phase, the infant vaguely acknowledges the mother’s existence, not as a unique entity, but as the main source of need-satisfaction . The fulfilment of the infant’s physiological needs becomes intertwined with psychological desires and thus serves as the basis upon which future relationships will be formed.

7. 3.Separation-Individuation stage:  (5-24 months) In separation, the infant develops an understanding of boundaries of the self, and thus the mother is increasingly viewed as an individual . This consists of four sub-stages : 3a: Differentiation/Hatching:  (5-9 months ) The infant’s primary focus begins to transform from internally focused to externally focused, although the primary point of reference continues to be the mother . The infant becomes increasingly interested in discovering his mother (e.g. how she looks or smells) rather than trying to become symbiotically unified with her.

8. 3b: Practicing:  (9-14 months ) Capacity for separation continues to develop with increased autonomous functions, particularly walking. 3c: Rapprochement:  (14-24 months ) At this point the child’s desire to achieve independence is marred by a fear of abandonment . Therefore, the child seeks to maintain proximity to the caretaker while engaging in exploration.This stage is essential to the development of a stable sense of self .

9. This includes three sub- stages : Beginning: The child returns to the caretaker in order to share experiences and excitement Crisis: The child recognizes his/her limitations versus the desire to be all powerful and self sufficient Solution: The child reaches a healthy medium between the two extremes due to language and superego development

10. 3d: Object constancy:  (24+ months) Successful completion of this phase marks the development of an internalized mental model of the mother, which unconsciously accompanies and supports the child even when they are physically separated. In addition, a sense of individuality begins to develop . The degree of ambivalence in the internalized model implicates the formation of a healthy self concept and self-confidence.

11. 2)HEINZ KOHUT AND SELF PSYCHOLOGY THEORY In self psychology, the self is understood to be the center of an individual’s psychological universe. Self psychology theory, which rejects Freudian ideology of the role sexual drives play in organization of the psyche, focuses on the development of empathy toward the person in treatment and the exploration of fundamental components of healthy development and growth. If a child’s developmental environment is appropriate, a healthy sense of self will typically develop, and generally the individual will be able to maintain consistent patterns/experiences and self-regulate and self-soothe throughout life.  When individuals are not able to develop a healthy sense of self, they may tend to rely on others in order to get needs met.

12. These others are called selfobjects (because they are outside the self). Selfobjects are a normal part of the developmental process, according to Kohut. Children need selfobjects because they are incapable of meeting all of their own needs, but over the course of healthy development, selfobjects become internalized as individuals develop the ability to meet their own needs without relying on external others.  

13. The role of transference is also important to self psychology. In psychoanalysis, transference is understood as the process in which a person in treatment redirects feelings and desires from childhood to a new object (usually the analyst). Kohut formulated three specific types of transferences that reflect unmet selfobject needs

14. Mirroring:  In this type of transference, others serve as a mirror that reflects back a sense of self-worth and value. Just as people use a mirror to check appearance, mirroring transference involves use of the affirming and positive responses of others to see positive traits within the self.   Idealizing:  Kohut believed individuals need people who will make them feel calm and comfortable. An example of this can be seen in children who run to a parent for comfort after falling and being injured. The external other is idealized as somebody who is calm and soothing when one cannot provide that on their own. Twinship /Alter Ego:  Kohut suggested that people need to feel a sense of likeness with others. For example, children want to be similar to their parents and mimic the behaviors they observe. Over the course of healthy development, a child becomes more able to tolerate differences.      

15. 3)MELANIE KLEIN -OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY Melanie Klein is regarded as one of the founders of `Object Relations Theory,’ Her theory focuses primarily on development within the first year of life, however emphasizes that these continue to develop throughout life. Unconscious Phantasy Unconscious phantasies serve as the basis for all future mental mechanisms. They are defined as primitive internalized mental images of instincts and drives. Ultimately the unique mental and emotional capacities of an individual result from the interaction of these phantasies with actual experience. For example, the newborn’s rooting reflex will only become a mental image, once the newborn finds the nipple and begins nursing. The repetition of this activity over time forms a mental image accompanied by the soothing emotions that ensue. Therefore, the degree of fulfillment of the infant’s needs largely implicates self development.

16. Paranoid-schizoid position (newborn- 4-6 months) Klein is of the understanding that during the first few months of life the infant is in a state of anxiety, stemming largely from the death instinct ( thanatos ). In order to cope with this anxiety, the infant utilizes the phantasies of splitting, projection identification, and introjection As the ego is still in a primitive state, the infant is unable to maintain a unified mental image of the self or of others. Therefore, relationships are maintained with parts of objects (e.g. breast rather than mother), and split between good and bad. Thus, negative feelings are projected outward unto the mother, while positive sensations are internalized in a process called binary splitting. This splitting ties the self to positive sensations and thus forms the basis for the development of a positive self concept, more suited to sustain negative aspects of the self as well.

17. In categorizing objects as either good or bad, the infant in essence creates two individual mental images of objects, existing as unrelated individual entities. For example, ‘the bad breast’ exists when the mother is unable to fill the infant’ needs immediately, causing a desire to destroy this object. Meanwhile, ‘the good breast’ exists when needs are fulfilled, causing feelings of love towards the object.

18. The Depressive Position (6 months +) These cycles of projection and introjection continue until the infant comes to the understanding that the good mother and the bad mother are one. In addition, the fragmented view of partial objects develops into the awareness of the object as a single entity. Here begins a developing capacity to view the self and objects as including both good and bad, thus forming the basis for an integrated ego. In other words, the mother who frustrated the infant is the same mother who satisfied.

19. Accordingly, the infant who desires to destroy the mother is the same infant who loves her. The infant realizes, that the mother whom he phantasized of destroying, is the same mother he loves The infant thus engages in reparation in an effort to restore and fix objects he phantasized destroying. This ability to view the self and objects with complexity, and engaging in appeasement efforts is crucial for the development of healthy relationships in adulthood

20. 4)WINNICOT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY Donald Winnicott (1896-1971) was a London pediatrician who studied psychoanalysis with Melanie Klein Although accepting Klein, he viewed the key aspect of healthy development as rooted in relationships and micro-interactions with other people, thus taking particular interest in Object Relations Theory

21. The space between Rather than consider the outer and inner worlds, Winnicott was more interested in the 'transition space' between these domains. As a virtual world, it is ideal for play and creativity. Ego development He sees the ego as arising out of primitive threats to existence and developing a 'continuity of being', as afforded by the good-enough mother. "The first ego organization comes from the experience of threats of annihilation which do not lead to annihilation and from which, repeatedly, there is recovery."  (Winnicott, 1956) "With the care that it receives from its mother each infant is able to have a personal existence, and so begins to build up what might be called a continuity of being. On the basis of this continuity of being the inherited potential gradually develops into an individual infant If maternal care is not good enough then the infant does not really come into existence, since there is no continuity of being; instead the personality becomes built on the basis of reactions to environmental impingement." (Winnicott, 1960)

22. Aggression Aggression in the child is seen as a natural part of development as they test out the limits of their personality. They kick and scream in rage. People who have not extended so in childhood may be repressed. Aggression also tests their environment and helps them to relate to it. "(1) Subject relates to object. (2) Object is in process of being found instead of being placed by the subject in the world. (3) Subject  destroys  object.    (4) Object survives destruction. (5) Subject can  use  object."  (Winnicott, 1969) When the object is the mother, this is a very trying time for her. She acts as a 'container' for the child's aggression and, if maintaining calm, helps the child to get over the aggression.

23. Winnicott's key ideas are as follows: The child will develop a healthy false self, depending on the quality of early care from the good-enough mother. Otherwise it will develop an unhealthy false self. Initially, the carer's role is to support the illusion of a fused, undifferentiated unity. The carer then gradually and carefully allows disillusionment where the child realizes its (and it's carer's) individuality. This separation happens through play and use of a transition object.

24. 5)John Bowlby Attachment Theory British Child Psychiatrist & Psychoanalyst. First attachment theorist who described attachment as a “lasting psychological connectedness b/w humans”. He gave the famous theory known as “John Bowlby Attachment Theory”, which is discussed below. Believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life. According to him , the attachment tends to keep the infant close to the mother ultimately improving the child’s chances of survival.  

25. FOUR PHASES OF ATTACHMENT DEVELOPMENT Babies are born with behaviors like crying, babbling and laughing to gain adult attention & on the other side, adults are biologically programmed to respond to their signals. He viewed the first 3 years as the most sensitive period for the attachment. According to Bowlby, following are the 4 phases of attachment: Pre attachment Phase (Birth – 6 Weeks) “Attachment in Making” Phase ( 6 Weeks – 6 to 8 Months) “Clear Cut” Attachment Phase ( 6-8 Months to 18 Months-2 Years) Formation Of Reciprocal Relationship (18 Months – 2 Years and on)  

26. 1.  PRE ATTACHMENT PHASE (BIRTH -6 WEEKS)   The innate signals attract the caregiver (grasping, gazing, crying, smiling while looking into the adult’s eyes). When the baby responds in a positive manner ,the caregivers remain close by. The infants get encouraged by the adults to remain close as it comforts them. Babies recognize the mother’s fragrance, voice and face. They are not yet attached to the mother and don’t mind being left with unfamiliar adults as they have no fear of strangers.   2. “ATTACHMENT IN MAKING” PHASE (6 Weeks – 6 to 8 Months)   Infants responds differently to familiar caregivers than to strangers. The baby would smile more to the mother and babble to her and will become quiet more quickly, whenever picked by the mother. The infant learns that his/her actions affect the behavior of those around. They tend to develop a “Sense of Trust” where they expect the response of caregiver, when signalled . They do not protest when they get separated from the caregiver.

27. 3.  “CLEAR CUT” ATTACHMENT PHASE (6-8 Months to 18 Months -2 Years)   The attachment to familiar caregiver becomes evident. Babies show “separation anxiety”, and get upset when an adult on whom they rely, leaves them. This anxiety increases b/w 6 -15 months, and its occurrence depends on the temperament and the context of the infant and the behavior of the adult. The child would show signs of distress, in case the mother leaves, but with the supportive and sensitive nature of the caretaker, this anxiety could be reduced.   4. FORMATION OF RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP (18 Months – 2 Years and on)   With rapid growth in representation and language by 2 years, the toddler is able to understand few factors that influence parent’s coming and going, and can predict their return. Thus leading to a decline in separation protests. The child can negotiate with the caregiver to alter his/her goals via requests and persuasions. Child depends less on the caregiver along with the age.  

28. conclusion Attachment  is a psychological model attempting to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans. "Attachment theory is not formulated as a general theory of relationships; it addresses only a specific facet":how human beings respond within relationships when hurt, separated from loved ones, or perceiving a threat. The most important tenet of attachment theory is an infant needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for the child's successful social and emotional development, and in particular for learning how to regulate their feelings

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