PERSONAL SPACE AND TERRITORIALITY.pdf

Personal space and territoriality in psychology

1. PERSONAL SPACE
AND TERRITORIALITY
SUBMITTED BY-
SHAHEEN PARVEEN
M.ARCH (AP) 1
ST
SEM
SESSION : 2023-24
HUMANITIES AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
(MAP-114)

2. CONTENT
•WHAT IS PERSONAL SPACE?
•HISTORY OF PERSONAL SPACE
•ZONES OF PERSONAL SPACE
•FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONAL SPACE
•CHILDREN AND PERSONAL SPACE
•FUNCTIONS OF PERSONAL SPACE
•METHODS OF STUDYING PERSONAL SPACE
•EFFECT OF ARCHITECTURE ON PERSONAL SPACE
•WHAT IS TERRITORIALITY?
•TYPES OF TERRITORIES
•TYPES OF INFRINGEMENT AND TYPES OF DEFENSE
•PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOR
•ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES AND TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOUR
•FACTORS AFFECTING TERRITORIALITY
•MEASURING TERRITORIALITY
•BIBLIOGRAPHY

3. PERSONAL SPACE
A body buffer zone that people maintain between themselves and others a
portable, invisible boundary surrounded us into which others may not
trespass.
“An area with invisible boundaries surrounding a person’s body into which
intruders may not come.” (Sommer, 1969)
The notion of personal space is derived primarily from the ideas of
anthropologists E.T. Hall and the psychological investigations of Little (1965).
Hall (1961) conceived of personal space as a series of spatial spheres
(bubbles) with the individual person as their center.

4. PERSONAL SPACE
These concentric circles or personal space zones are labeled the 'intimate' (0-1
8" distance), the causal - personal (18-48" distance), and the social-
consultative (48-144"distance ) and public domain (Hall, 1964).
The amount of personal space required for any given person is subjective. It
also depends on how well you know the other person.
The more intimate the relationship, the less personal space is involved.
Thus the personal space is the region surrounding a person which they regard
as psychologically theirs. Invasion of personal space often leads to discomfort,
anger, or anxiety on the part of the victim.

5. HISTORY OF PERSONAL
SPACE
▪First defined by Kartz in 1937 from observation of animal behavior
▪ Applied to human behavior by anthropologist Hall (1963)
▪ 1966 Edward Hall wrote The Hidden Dimension

✓Introduced the concept of proxemics Definition the scientific study of
human spatial behavior
✓Found that spatial behavior is greatly affected by
✓Situational conditions
✓Individual difference variables

6. ZONES OF PERSONAL SPACE
▪INTIMATE ZONE
▪PERSONAL ZONE
▪SOCIAL ZONE
▪PUBLIC ZONE

7. ZONES OF PERSONAL SPACE
1.INTIMATE ZONE
This extends roughly 18 inches (46 cm) from the individual and is reserved for family, pets
and very close friends.
Displays of affection and comforting are commonly conducted within this space.

It is used for comforting, protect and other full contact activities like touching, embracing,
whispering.
2. PERSONAL ZONE
This extends 1.5 to 4 feet (0.46-1.2 m) & is reserved for friends and acquaintances.
A handshake will typically place strangers at least 2 to 4 feet (0.6 1-1.2 m) apart, preserving
the personal distance or talking with a normal voice.

8. ZONES OF PERSONAL SPACE
3. SOCIAL ZONE
This extends from about 4 to 12 feet (1.2-3.7 m) and is used for formal, business and
other impersonal interactions such as meeting a client.

The social zone is used for interaction between acquaintances or those transacting
business.
4. PUBLIC ZONE
This extends more than 12 feet (3.7 m) and is not guarded.
Some examples would include a professor giving a lecture or a politician speaking
before a large crowd.

9. FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONAL SPACE
Gender:Male-male pairs keep
the largest distances, followed
by female-female pairs and
then male-female pairs.
Age:Personal space increases
with age until early adulthood.
By age 12, children use
personal space approximately
the way adults do.
Personality:Extroverts need
smaller personal space while
disagreeable people need more.
Trait anxiety people need more
personal space.
Self-Construal:Those who think
of themselves as social & inter-
dependent choose closer
distances than those who think
of themselves as independent.
Mentally Ill:People who are
mentally ill or who have
been abused usually need
more personal space.
Fear-Security:People choose
closer distances when they feel
secure and larger distances
when they feel unsafe or fearful.
Cooperation vs. Competition:
Cooperation is associated with
closer interpersonal space.
Power and Status:Personal space is
related more to differences in status
than to the amount of status; the
greater the difference, the greater
the interpersonal distance.
Physical Influences:Close distances
are more uncomfortable when
lighting is dimmer. We prefer more
space between us when the overall
supply of physical space is low.
Culture:Different cultures have
different personal spacing. In one
study, those of different religions
had more space between them
than those of the same religion.
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10. CHILDREN & PERSONAL SPACE
Building personal boundaries should begin when children are very young; beginning
with pointing out when children push the boundaries of others. It is important to re-
establish those boundaries and consistently explain how they have been crossed.
Respecting children's personal boundaries teaches them how they should expect to
be treated. When adults cross children's boundaries, it compromises their sense of
safety and security.
Examples of crossing emotional boundaries include the following :
•Using shame (e.g. "I can't believe you did this! What kind of a person”)
•Using guilt (e.g. "I do so much for you.”)
•Can't you do this one thing for Demeaning someone (e.g. "Everyone knows you
have no talent.")
•Placing a child in a role as an adult's confident best friend ("I am so lonely. I am
glad you are here to listen to me.")
If there is violation of personal space whether in regard to adults or children, it
causes high degree of discomfort and imbalance and the person tries to remedy it
through two methods
(i)adaptation
(ii)behavior.

11. FUNCTIONS OF PERSONAL SPACE
•Overload Theory: too many people too close cause too much stimulation.
•Stress: avoid the personal stressors related to being too close with someone.
•Arousal: Having people within our personal space creates too much arousal that may
be negative.
•Behavior Constraint: Having personal space prevents people from taking away your
personal freedom.
•Form of Nonverbal Communication: Communicates the type of relationship you are
in depending on personal space distance.
•Personal and group privacy: attempts to achieve your level of privacy.
•Intimacy-equilibrium model & Comfort models: Basically we want to attain an
optimal level of space.
•Ethological Models: Functions at a cognitive level but reflects evolutionary
developments. Based on what they learned, as well as the way people as a species
evolved.

12. If you live in a horrible place, you'll be impaired mentally.
•Let's say you live in a dark environment with no windows and with nothing but a
blank wall behind you. You'd be in a prison, and that would have a harmful impact
on your mental health.
As an architect, its your responsibility to make a personal connection not just
with the physical environment but how it activates our memories and
emotional responses.
•World makes itself available to the perceiver through physical movement and
interaction.
•we "experience" when we have a unity of sensuous delight, meaningful
interpretation and emotional involvement
The most disinterested architecture is often the most aggressive.
But in buildings that move us, there's an element of care.
It's not a question of whether a building makes us feel good or bad. It's about
being moved. That's what the word emotion means. What we feel is the sense of
intensity, passion and involvement. It's something that goes very deep.
EFFECTS OF ARCHITECTURE ON
PERSONAL SPACE

13. EFFECTS OF ARCHITECTURE ON PERSONAL SPACE
SPATIAL PLANNING
PROXIMITY
& DISTANCE
SCALE &
PROPORTION
VISUAL & PRIVACY
ACOUSTIC PRIVACY
MATERIAL SELECTION
LIGHTING
VENTILATION
PSYCHOLOGICAL
COMFORT
CULTURAL SENSTIVITY

14. EFFECTS OF ARCHITECTURE ON
PERSONAL SPACE
Personal space in the context of architectural design refers to the physical and psychological
boundaries that individuals and groups require to feel comfortable and secure within a built
environment.
1.Spatial Planning: Architects must consider the allocation of space within a building to
accommodate various functions and activities while maintaining a sense of personal space.
This includes designing private areas like bedrooms and bathrooms as well as communal
spaces like living rooms and kitchens.
2.Proximity and Distance: The arrangement of rooms and spaces should take into account
the need for personal distance and privacy.
For example, bedrooms should be separated from noisy areas, and communal spaces
should allow for comfortable interaction without feeling crowded.
3.Scale and Proportion: The scale and proportions of rooms and spaces influence how
comfortable and intimate they feel.
4.Visual Privacy: Architects must address visual privacy concerns by strategically placing
windows, using curtains or blinds, and considering the orientation of rooms relative to
neighboring buildings.

15. 5. Acoustic Privacy: Sound insulation is crucial to ensure that personal spaces are not
disturbed by noise from adjacent areas. Properly designed walls, ceilings, and floor systems can
help mitigate sound transmission.
6. Material Selection: The choice of materials can affect the perception of personal space.
Natural materials like wood and stone can create a warm and inviting atmosphere, while glass
and steel may convey a more modern and open feeling.
7. Lighting: Proper lighting design is essential for personal comfort and well-being. Natural
daylighting can enhance personal spaces, but it should be balanced with artificial lighting for
functionality and ambiance.
8. Ventilation: Adequate airflow and ventilation are essential for maintaining a healthy and
comfortable indoor environment. Properly designed ventilation systems should consider
personal spaces and the specific needs of occupants.
9. Psychological Comfort: Personal space is not just about physical boundaries; it also
involves creating environments that promote psychological comfort and a sense of belonging.
Consideration of color schemes, furniture, and decor can contribute to this aspect of design.
10. Cultural Sensitivity: Different cultures may have varying preferences and norms regarding
personal space. Architects should be aware of cultural considerations when designing spaces
for diverse populations.
EFFECTS OF ARCHITECTURE ON
PERSONAL SPACE

16. METHODS OF STUDYING
PERSONAL SPACE
(1) Simulation Method: The person is placed in an imaginary situation and he is told to imagine the kind of
interaction he would have with others in it.
Sometimes dolls or miniature symbolic figures are used to project their view. Nowadays computer graphics can
also be used.
(2) Quasi-Projective or Laboratory Methods: In this method, the person uses his own body in relation to other
person under controlled laboratory conditions. The other person may be real or imagined.
For example, the stop-distance method, the person may approach a person till she starts feeling uncomfortable.
Another method under this can be interactional method where direct, unobtrusive observation of actual
interactions is done in the laboratories.
(3) Naturalistic or Field Methods: In this method, distances between people are measured in the natural settings.
This method has ecological validity as it is done in the natural surroundings. But this has some in built drawbacks
like we may not know the kind of relationship the two share, other relevant variables can interfere besides of
course the ethical issues involved in intruding into someone’s privacy.
(4) Questionnaire: A questionnaire in which participants have to imagine a situation and rate whether they feel
uncomfortable in the situation.
An example is the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale (CIDS) (Duke and Nowicki, 1972), on which
participants have to rate where they feel uncomfortable in the situation, which they are imagining. But there is a
possibility that a person may not comprehend the situation or she may lie. Since the topic is very personal and
sensitive, there is no one ideal method of measurement

17. TERRITORIALITY
Territoriality Is a pattern of behavior and attitudes held by an individual or group
that is based on perceived, attempted, or actual control of a defensible physical
space, object, or idea and may involve habitual occupation, defense,
personalization, and marking of it.
Marking means placing an object or substance in a space to indicate one’s
territorial intentions.
For example,
Personalization means marking in a manner that indicates one’s identity.
For example,
•Employees decorate their work spaces with pictures and mementos.
•Cafeteria diners leave coats or books on a chair or table.

18. TYPES OF TERRITORIALITY
1.PRIMARY TERRITORIES:
•High degree of perceived ownership
•High amount of personalization
•High likelihood of defense if violated
•Owned by individual and groups
•Relatively permanent basis
For example, include one’s bedroom or a family’s dwelling. The psychological importance of a
primary territory to its occupant(s) is always high.

2. SECONDARY TERRITORIES:
•Moderate degree of perceived ownership
•Moderate amount of personalization
•Moderate likelihood of defense if violated
•Some regulatory power when individual is a legitimate occupant, but not specifically owned
by individual or group on a permanent basis.
For example, a person’s desk at work, favorite restaurant, locker in the gym etc. Control of
these territories is less essential to the current occupant and is more likely to change, rotate, or
be shared with strangers.
3. PUBLIC TERRITORIES:
They are areas open to anyone in good standing with the community. Occasionally, because of
discrimination or unacceptable behavior, public territories are closed to certain individuals.
For example, Beaches, sidewalks, hotel lobbies, trains, stores etc. are public territories.

19. TYPES OF INFRINGEMENT
Territory can be violated in three major ways:
1.INVASION: An outsider physically enters the territory, usually with the intention of
taking control of it from its current owner.
For example, a spouse taking over a sewing room to install the family’s new computer.
2. VIOLATION: It is a more temporary incursion into someone’s territory. Usually, the goal
is not ownership but annoyance or harm.
For example, Vandalism, hit-and-run attacks, and burglary full into this category.
3. CONTAMINATION: The infringer fouls someone else’s territory by putting something
awful in the territory.
For example, a large chemical company leaving poisonous waste in the ground.

20. TYPES OF DEFENSE
Just as there are a variety of ways to infringe on territories, there are various ways to
defend them. However, it should be remembered that territories are not always infringed
and even when they are infringed, they are not always defended.
1.PREVENTION DEFENSES: Markers such as coats, towels, signs, and fences are
preventive defenses. One anticipates infringement and acts to stop it before it
occurs.
2.REACTION DEFENSES: They are responses to an infringement after it actually
happens.

For examples of slamming doors and physically striking out at the infringer etc.
3. SOCIAL BOUNDARY DEFENSE: The social boundary defense consists of a ritual
engaged in by hosts and visitors.
For example, Bushmen groups in Africa who meet at a border exchange certain
greetings before they allow outsiders into their territories. Social boundary defenses
serve to separate wanted visitors from unwanted ones through social interaction.

21. PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF
TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOR
•Organizes our perceptions and control of our world.
•Promotes predictability, order, and stability.
•Leads to a feeling of distinctiveness and a sense of personal identity.
•Provides for a sense of control and well-being.
•Useful in privacy regulation.
•Reduces stress

22. ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES & TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOUR
In public spaces certain architectural features appear to encourage the development of territorial claims.
The study of Sommer (1967) reports that students are more likely to make territorial claims for library seats that are close to the wall, facing away from the
distractions of the main entrance, and towards the rear of the room.
It is commonly observed that much of the criminal activities are centered in areas around public spaces. The offenders are more likely to position themselves in
street corners or pathways in open spaces and try to avoid front garden spaces.
Newman (1972) conducted a study on two housing projects in New York, occupied by equal number of residents.
The Brownsville project was organized in smaller blocks having residential units for five to six families and was built around courtyard. The Van Dyke project was
high-rise with residential blocks, separated by large parks. The design features of the Brownsville project provided defensive space to the residents. The design
features facilitated sense of community and social interaction between neighbors in Brownsville housing, which promoted security and reduced the criminal
mishappenings.
In contrast, the crime rate was 50 percent higher in Van Dyke housing relative to Brownsville because the probability of social interaction was inhibited by the
residential design. Thus, it seems that the strength of territorial ownership and defense seems to vary according to the characteristics of the setting, the features
of architectural design, gender, cultural background and group size.
The Brownsville project, New York Van Dyke project , New York

23. FACTORS AFFECTING
TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOUR
1.Personal:Kids can't own territory so they do graffiti as a way of marking what is
theirs. Males want more territory and think they own the home while the wife usually
owns the kitchen.
2.Social:Homeless-kids-poor-rich in this order from those who are least territorial to
those that are most territorial.
3.Competition:When resources are scarce people will be more territorial. We deny
outsiders access when resources are low.
4.Defensible Space:There is more crime when nobody controls an area and when
there is less lighting. Stores with smaller parking lots are robbed more. Surveillability
helps defend houses but fences and symbolic barriers apparently don’t.
5.Culture:French don't even like territoriality but Germans do. Americans think the
sidewalk is part of their territory but Greeks don’t.

24. MEASUREMENT OF TERRITORIALITY
2. SURVEYS AND INTERVIEWS
Another way to study territoriality is to ask individuals about their behavior and experiences. Self-report methods such as surveys and interviews
have the disadvantage that respondents may not be able or willing to report their behavior accurately.
Every member of 45 families, including children over age 5, was asked about his/her actual territory relevant behaviors and cognitions.
For example, residents were asked,
i)where they chose to engage in specific activities in the apartment (a behavior question), and
ii)who, in their opinion, owned various places within the apartment (a cognition question).
Territoriality can be measured through certain techniques which are as follows:
1. FIELD STUDIES AND FIELD EXPERIMENTS
They asked groups of three students to meet in a room in which one student was the resident and the other two were visitors. The group was
asked to discuss a budget problem and reach a consensus. Dominance did not affect decision making much. Instead, the final consensus
reflected the territory owner’s point of view in the debate much more than it reflected the visitors’ point of view. The results suggest that if you
want decisions to go your way you should try to get others to discuss the decision at your place. This strategy, it appears, works whether or not
you have a dominating personality.
For example, Jason, Reichler and Rucker (1981)investigated territoriality on beaches. Sunbathers tend to mark off territories using radios,
towels, and umbrellas. The results showed that females claim smaller territories than males, and those mixed sex groups and larger groups
claim less space (per person) than do same sex groups and smaller groups.

25. MEASUREMENT OF TERRITORIALITY
3. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION AND UNOBTRUSIVE MEASURES
•Another strategy for studying human territoriality is to observe ongoing territoriality behaviour in a careful, structured
way.
•For instance, the researcher may watch how children occupy and defend certain areas of a school playground.
•When unobtrusive measures are employed, the researcher may count the number and location of items that
individuals deploy to control a space.
For example,
A university’s cafeteria is generally so heavily used that experienced students going to lunch first locate a vacant seat,
where they deposit their books on the table and their coat on the back of the chair, then go to the food lines.

26. BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
•https://www.communicationtheory.org/proxemics-and-its-types-explained-with-examples/
•https://www.docsity.com/en/personal-space-and-territoriality/5274644/
•https://www.lifeofabundance.ca/l/personal-space-territoriality/
•https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/24098/1/Unit-4.pdf
•https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/87640/1/Unit-5.pdf