personality, theory and measurement

Positive feelings come from being honest about yourself and accepting your personality, and physical characteristics, warts and all; and, from belonging to a family that accepts you without question.
Willard Scott

1. Personality, Theory and
Measurement
Introduction
www.humanikaconsulting.com

3. Defining Some Terms
•Personality: A person’s unique pattern of thinking, emotion, and
behavior; the consistency of who you are, have been, and will become
•Character: Personal characteristics that have been judged or
evaluated
•Temperament: Hereditary aspects of personality, including sensitivity,
moods, irritability, and distractibility
•Personality Traits: Stable qualities that a person shows in most
situations
•Personality Type: People who have several traits in common

4. Definitions: J.P. Guilford (1959)
“An individual’s personality,
then, is his unique pattern of
traits.”

–A trait is “any
distinguishable, relatively
enduring way in which one
individual differs from
others.”

5. Definitions: Mackinnon (1959)
•Personality refers to
“factors” inside people
that explain their
behavior
•The sum total of typical
ways of acting,
thinking, and feeling
that makes a person
unique.

6. Definitions: DSM-IV-TR (2000)
“Are enduring patterns of
perceiving, relating to, and
thinking about the
environment and oneself
that are exhibited in a wide
range of social and
personal context.”

7. Definitions: R.B. Cattell (1950)
“The personality of an
individual is that
which enables us to
predict what he will
do in a given
situation”

8. 3 Facts to Consider When Defining “Personality”
Individuals are unique
Individuals behave
differently in different
situations
Although individuals
are unique and behave
inconsistently across
situations, there is
considerable
commonality in human
behavior

9. Personality Types and Other Concepts
•Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist who
was a Freudian disciple, believed
that we are one of two personality
types:
–Introvert: Shy, self-centered person
whose attention is focused inward
–Extrovert: Bold, outgoing person
whose attention is directed outward
•Self-Concept: Your ideas,
perceptions, and feelings about
who you are
•Self-Esteem: How we evaluate
ourselves

10. Fig. 14.1 Personality types are defined by the presence of several specific traits. For example, several possible
personality traits are shown in the left column. A person who has a Type A personality typically possesses all or
most of the highlighted traits. Type A persons are especially prone to heart disease (see Chapter 12). Self-
concepts can be remarkably consistent. In an interesting study, very old people were asked how they had
changed over the years. Almost all thought they were essentially the same person they were when they were
young (Troll & Skaff, 1997).

11. English psychologist Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) believed that many personality traits are related to
whether you are mainly introverted or extroverted and whether you tend to be emotionally stable or unstable
(highly emotional). These characteristics, in turn, are related to four basic types of temperament first
recognized by the early Greeks. The types are: melancholic (sad, gloomy), choleric (hot-tempered, irritable),
phlegmatic (sluggish, calm), and sanguine (cheerful, hopeful). (Adapted from Eysenck, 1981.)

12. Personality Theories: An Overview
–Trait Theories: Attempt to learn
what traits make up personality and
how they relate to actual behavior
–Psychodynamic Theories: Focus on
the inner workings of personality,
especially internal conflicts and
struggles
–Behavioristic Theories: Focus on
external environment and on
effects of conditioning and learning
–Social Learning Theories: Attribute
difference in personality to
socialization, expectations, and
mental processes
–Humanistic Theories: Focus on
private, subjective experience and
personal growth
Personality Theory: System of concepts, assumptions, ideas, and principles
proposed to explain personality; includes five perspectives:

13. History
•WW-I: saw the first real organized assessment of personality- seeing if
new recruits could make adjustment to the military.
–Just focused on one facet of personality
–Very specific (e.g., ability to follow orders, submission to authority, degree
of comfort when socializing with others)

u Over the next 2 decades multiscaled test emerged that examined
assertiveness, anxiety, impulsiveness

14. History
•1930’s and 1940’s—Allport and
Murray began writing about
personality and theories of
personality

•Then came two camps:
–Objective –empirically derived tests
–Projective—produced items and
interpretations based on the theory of
personality. This method was more
unstructured and less defined (e.g.,
TAT)
Gordon W. Allport

15. History
•Empirically based tests
used statistics and a
criterion to develop test
items
–Item correlations
–Factor analytic approach
–Criterion-referenced
approach
–These two branched from
empirically based tests of
the early part of the
century

17. Today
•New tests have emerged but most tend to be
variants of the original themes and theories of
personality
•Most excepted to use a theory and to test out
items on a criterion as well as using statistics

18. Why measure personality?
•Determine workplace
suitability
•To be used in conjunction
with intelligence tests to
make decisions about
school suitability
•To assist in diagnosis of a
mental illness
•To be used to court by
forensic psychologists to
determine personality of a
possible offender
•Sport psychologists: to help
understand their clients
•As part of a research study
or to develop tests
•Generally used for
diagnostic purposes

19. Personality tests
•A personality test is an
assessment device used to
evaluate or measure aspects
of personality, such as factors
(dimensions) and traits
•First developed during WW1
to help with suitability of
applicants
•Different tests based on
different theorists
•two different kinds or types of
personality tests: personality
inventories and projective
tests

20. Personality Inventories
•Most commonly used of personality
tests
•A personality inventory is a self-
report, ‘paper and pencil’ or online
test which has a list of questions
designed to assess various aspects of
personality
•Examples are the 16PF, EPQ and
NEO-PI-R
•are considered to be ‘objective’ tests
because the person giving the test
does not subjectively (personally)
interpret what the test-taker means
by their responses
•The answers given are compared
with the answers of other
•individuals with known personality
traits who have taken the test

21. Cont.
•The questions cover such things as their
interests, emotional functioning, sociability,
agreeableness, openness to experience,
conscientiousness, attitudes and values
•The individual responds to the questions
such as yes/no, in terms of whether they
like/ dislike or agree/disagree with a
statement about themselves or someone
else, or an a rating scale where the individual
indicates how much they like/dislike or
agree/disagree with a statement like/dislike
or agree/disagree with a statement.
•Each item of the inventory provides
information about one of the traits or
dimensions being measured
•By comparing responses to norms, a
personality profile is compiled
•A personality profile is an overall pictorial
representation and summary of personality,
based on responses to specific questions
Personality Inventories

22. •“Personality” as a construct may include:
–Emotional responses
–Social behavior
–Emotional thoughts and behaviour
–Motivations
–Values
–Interests

•Methods of Measuring Personality:
–Paper & pencil tests: questionnaires,
inventories
–Situational exercises
–Field or natural observations
–Projective measures
Personality Inventories

23. Value of Personality Questionnaires
Value to the individual (face validity)

–Self-insight
–Points of discussion
–Norms provide comparison info

24. Value of Personality Questionnaires
•Value to research (construct validity)
–Study relationships of personality w/ other variables
–Study changes over time

•Value for Counseling
- marital therapy
- university counseling centers

•Value for personnel management
–Screening
–Prediction of success
–Placement & counseling

25. Disadvantage of Personality Tests
•Social Desirability
•Faking “Good”
•Faking “Bad”
•Random
Responding

26. Two Main Personality Theories

1. Trait theory: people differ based on
stable attributes (called “traits”)
–characteristics lie on a continuum
–e.g., the Big Five

2. Type theory: people can be sorted
into categories (either one type or
the other)

•There are many different personality
inventories that measure traits or
types

27. Personality Theory

28. 1. Psychoanalytic
2. Trait
3. Humanistic
4. Socio-Cognitive
Four Theories of Personality

29. •Freud’s theory: unconscious motivations
influence personality
•Freud was a Viennese physician who
thought his patients’ problems were
more emotional than physical
•Freud began his work by using hypnosis
and eventually switched to
psychoanalysis
The Psychoanalytic Theory

30. Some Key Freudian Terms
•Psyche: Freud’s term for
the personality; contains
id, ego, and superego
•Libido: Energy
•Eros: Life instinct
•Thanatos: Death instinct

31. •Psychoanalysis (Freud)
–Theory: our actions are
due to unconscious
conflicts
–Therapy: treating
psychological disorders
by uncovering and
interpreting unconscious
conflicts
The Psychoanalytic Perspective

32. •Free Association
–method of exploring
the unconscious
–person relaxes and
says whatever
comes to mind, no
matter how trivial or
embarrassing
The Psychoanalytic Perspective

33. •Unconscious (Freud)
– A reservoir of mostly
unacceptable thoughts, wishes,
feelings and memories
–Two main unconscious
instincts:
•sex and aggression
•Preconscious
–information that is not conscious
but is retrievable into conscious
awareness
The Psychoanalytic Perspective

34. 1. Id
2. Ego
3. Superego

Three Personality Structures

35. •Freud’s idea
of the mind’s
structure
Personality Structure
Id
Superego
Ego Conscious mind
Unconscious
mind

36. •Id
–unconscious psychic
energy
–strives to satisfy basic
sexual and aggressive
instincts
–operates on the
pleasure principle,
seeking immediate
gratification
Personality Structure

37. •Superego
–our conscience
–given to us by
family/society
–operates on morality
principle, sets
standards right vs.
wrong

Personality Structure

38. •Ego
–conscious part of
personality
–mediates conflict
between id and
superego
–operates on the
reality principle,
delays gratification of
id impulses
Personality Structure

39. Freudian Dynamics of Personality and Anxieties
•Ego is always caught in the
middle of battles between
superego’s desires for
moral behavior and the id’s
desires for immediate
gratification
•Neurotic Anxiety: Caused
by id impulses that the ego
can barely control
•Moral Anxiety: Comes from
threats of punishment from
the superego

40. •Defense Mechanisms
–conflicts of id and superego
produce anxiety
–defense mechanisms
reduce anxiety by distorting
reality

Defense Mechanisms

41. •Regression
–retreating to behavior
appropriate for an earlier
stage of development
(e.g., temper tantrum)
•Repression
–pushing anxiety arousing
thoughts into the
unconscious (e.g., serious
traumas like rape)
Defense Mechanisms: Examples

42. •Reaction Formation
–expressing feelings that are the opposite of
their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings
(e.g., Ban the filth! I hate homosexuals!)
Defense Mechanisms

43. •Projection
–disguising our
own impulses by
attributing them
to others (e.g.,
You always start
arguments!)
•Rationalization
–making up an
untrue
justification to
ourselves for
doing something
(e.g., sour grapes)
Defense Mechanisms

44. •Displacement
–shifting sexual or aggressive
impulses toward a less
threatening object or person
(e.g., kicking the dog!)

•Sublimation
–rechanneling of unacceptable
impulses into socially
approved activities (e.g., a
great artist who paints
nudes!)
Defense Mechanisms

45. Freudian Personality Development
•Develops in stages; everyone
goes through same stages in
same order
•Majority of personality is
formed before age 6
•Erogenous Zone: Area on
body capable of producing
pleasure
•Fixation: Unresolved conflict
or emotional hang-up caused
by overindulgence or
frustration

46. Freudian Personality Development :
Oral Stage
•Oral Stage: Ages 0-1. Most of
infants’ pleasure comes from
stimulation of the mouth. If a
child is overfed or frustrated,
oral traits will develop
–Oral Dependent Personality:
Gullible, passive, and need
lots of attention. Fixations
create oral-aggressive adults
who like to argue and exploit
others

47. Freudian Personality Development:
Anal Stage
•Anal Stage: Ages 1-3. Attention
turns to process of elimination.
Child can gain approval or express
aggression by letting go or
holding on. Ego develops. Harsh
or lenient toilet training can make
a child:
–Anal Retentive: Stubborn, stingy,
orderly, and compulsively clean
–Anal Expulsive: Disorderly, messy,
destructive, or cruel

48. Freudian Personality Development:
Phallic Stage
•Phallic Stage: Ages 3-6. Child now
notices and is physically attracted to
opposite sex parent
•Can lead to:
–Oedipus Conflict: For boys only. Boy feels
rivalry with his father for his mother’s
affection. Boy may feel threatened by
father (castration anxiety). To resolve, boy
must identify with his father (i.e., become
more like him and adopt his heterosexual
beliefs)
–Electra Conflict: Girl loves her father and
competes with her mother. Girl identifies
with her mother more slowly because she
already feels castrated
•Both Oedipus and Electra Conflicts are
widely rejected today by most
psychologists

49. Freudian Personality Development:
Latency and Genital Stages
•Latency: Ages 6-Puberty.
Psychosexual
development is dormant.
Same sex friendships and
play occur here
•Genital Stage: Puberty-
on. Realization of full
adult sexuality occurs
here; sexual urges re-
awaken

50. Further Development of Freud’s Theory:
The Neo-Freudians

•The Neo-Freudians include:

–Carl Jung
–Alfred Adler
–Karen Horney
–Erik Erikson

51. Neo-Freudians
•Accepted broad aspects of Freud’s
theory but revised parts of it
•Alfred Adler: Disagreed with Freud’s
emphasis on unconscious and on
importance of sexuality
–Striving for Superiority: Basic drive to
help us towards perfection
–Compensation: Any attempt to overcome
feelings of inadequacy or inferiority
–Creative Self: Humans create their
personalities through choices and
experiences
•Karen Horney: Resisted Freud’s
biological and instinctive ideas
–Basic Anxiety: Anxiety that occurs from
living in a hostile world

52. Neo-Freudians: Carl Jung
•Persona: Mask or public self
presented to others
•Personal Unconscious:
Individual’s own experiences are
stored in here
•The contents are unique to each
individual
•Collective Unconscious:
Unconscious ideas and images
shared by all humans
•Archetypes: Universal idea,
image, or pattern found in the
collective unconscious

53. Neo-Freudians: Carl Jung (cont.)
•Anima: Archetype representing
female principle
•Animus: Archetype representing
male principle
•Self Archetype: Represents
unity and balance
•Mandala: Circular design
representing balance, unity, and
completion
–Symbolized in every culture

54. Some Observations on Psychodynamic
Theory and Research
•Psychodynamic theory has profoundly affected
psychological theory, psychotherapy, and
literature

•It has received little empirical support in part
because the concepts are difficult to
operationalize

55. •Projective Tests
–used to assess personality (e.g.,
Rorschach or TAT tests)
–How? provides ambiguous stimuli
and subject projects his or her
motives into the ambiguous stimuli

Assessing the Unconscious

56. •Good tests are reliable and valid
–reliable: consistent, getting the same results each
time the test is administered
–valid: measure what it is suppose to measure
Personality Tests

57. •(+) Can help us understand ego
defenses used by
everyone (and OK to use if not
overused)
•(+) Alerts us to the unconscious
causes of behavior
•(-) Assessment is subjective (TAT,
Rorschach)
•(-) Reliability and validity of
measurement are
problems
Critique of Psychoanalytic Theory

58. •Trait
–a characteristic pattern
of behavior
–usually assessed by self-
report inventories

The Trait Theory

59. •Personality Inventory
–a questionnaire (often with
true-false or agree-disagree
items) designed to assess
traits
–objective scoring -- a real
plus!
Assessing (Measuring) Traits

60. •Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI)
–the most widely researched
and clinically used of all
personality tests
–developed to identify
emotional disorders
Assessing Traits: An Example

61. •“Nothing in the
newspaper
interests me except
the comics.”

•“I get angry
sometimes.”

MMPI: example of items!

62. •Empirically Derived Test
1. Select two groups of subjects
(e.g., clinically depressed vs normals)
2. give a large pool of questions to them
3. keep only those questions that
discriminate between groups

MMPI -- validity

63. •Minnesota
Multiphasic
Personality
Inventory
(MMPI) test
profile
MMPI
Hysteria
(uses symptoms to solve problems)
Masculinity/femininity
(interests like those of other sex)
T-score
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 30 40 50 60 70 80
Hypochondriasis
(concern with body symptoms)
Depression
(pessimism, hopelessness)
Psychopathic deviancy
(disregard for social standards)
Paranoia
(delusions, suspiciousness)
Psychasthenia
(anxious, guilt feelings)
Schizophrenia
(withdrawn, bizarre thoughts)
Hypomania
(overactive, excited, impulsive)
Social introversion
(shy, inhibited)
Clinically
significant
range
After
treatment
(no scores
in the clinically
significant range
Before
treatment
(anxious,
depressed,
and
displaying
deviant
behaviors)

64. •Two Factor Trait
Theory of Personality
The First Trait Theory
UNSTABLE
STABLE
choleric melancholic
phlegmatic sanguine
INTROVERTED EXTRAVERTED
Moody
Anxious
Rigid
Sober
Pessimistic
Reserved
Unsociable
Quiet
Sociable
Outgoing
Talkative
Responsive
Easygoing
Lively
Carefree
Leadership
Passive
Careful
Thoughtful
Peaceful
Controlled
Reliable
Even-tempered
Calm
Touchy
Restless
Aggressive
Excitable
Changeable
Impulsive
Optimistic
Active

65. The “Big Five” Personality Factors
Trait Description
Emotional Stability Calm versus anxious
Secure versus insecure
Self-satisfied versus self-pitying
Extraversion Sociable versus retiring
Fun-loving versus sober
Affectionate versus reserved
Openness Imaginative versus practical
Preference for variety versus
preference for routine
Independent versus conforming
Agreeableness Soft-hearted versus ruthless
Trusting versus suspicious
Helpful versus uncooperative
Conscientiousness Organized versus disorganized
Careful versus careless
Disciplined versus impulsive

66. •(+) Can help us categorize
and predict others’ behavior
•(+) Can aid in self
understanding
•(+) Measurement of traits
can be done objectively
(reliably and validly)
•(-) Traits describe behavior,
but don’t explain behavior
•(-) Trait theory
underestimates the power of
the situation in determining
behavior
Critique of Trait Theory

67. Humanism
•Approach that focuses on human
experience, problems, potentials,
and ideals
•Human Nature: Traits, qualities,
potentials, and behavior patterns
most characteristic of humans
•Free Choice: Ability to choose
that is NOT controlled by
genetics, learning, or
unconscious forces
•Subjective Experience: Private
perceptions of reality
•Self-Actualization (Maslow):
Process of fully developing
personal potentials
•Peak Experiences: Temporary
moments of self-actualization

68. •Self-Concept
–one’s perception of
oneself: “Who am
I?”
• Ideal Self
–the self I would like
to be
•Real Self
–the way I really am

Humanistic Theory:
Emphasis on the SELF

69. Self Concept
Humanistic Theory: The SELVES
Ideal Self Real Self
(defense
mechanisms)
(low self-
esteem)

70. •Self-Esteem
–one’s feelings of high or low
self-worth
•Physical
•Intellectual
•Social

Humanistic Theory:
Emphasis on the SELF

71. •Low Self-Esteem:
Experiments tell us
–heightened
prejudice
–heightened
judgmentalism
•High Self-Esteem:
–lower levels of
depression


High Self-Esteem: A Good Thing?

72. •Self-Serving Bias
–a readiness to perceive
oneself favorably
–“somewhat likely” to go
to heaven?
•OJ Simpson, Bill Clinton,
Michael Jordon, Mother
Theresa, or ________ !!
Humanistic Theory:
One more SELF!

73. •Individualism (West)
–defining one’s identity in
terms of personal attributes
(introverted, etc.)
–giving priority to one’s own
goals over group goals
•Collectivism (East)
–defining one’s identity with
group identifications (bin,
means “son of”)
–giving priority to the goals of
one’s group over one’s own
goals
Humanistic Theory:
A Western Perspective

74. Humanistic Perspective
Morality Defined by individuals Defined by social networks
(self-based) (duty-based)
Attributing Behavior reflects one’s personality Behavior reflects social
behaviors and attitudes and roles
Value Contrasts Between Individualism and Collectivism
Concept Individualism Collectivism
Self Independent Interdependent
(identity from individual traits) (identity from belonging)
Life task Discover and express one’s Maintain connections, fit in
uniqueness
What matters Me--personal achievement and We--group goals and solidarity;
fulfillment; rights and liberties social responsibilities and
relationships
Coping method Change reality Accommodate to reality
Relationships Many, often temporary or casual; Few, close and enduring;
confrontation acceptable harmony valued

75. The Humanistic Approach
Rogers and Conditions of Worth Maslow and Self-Actualization

76. Maslow and Self-Actualization
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

77. Characteristics of Self-Actualizers
•Efficient
perceptions of
reality
•Comfortable
acceptance of
self, others, and
nature
•Spontaneity
•Task Centering
•Autonomy

78. Characteristics of Self-Actualizers (cont.)
•Continued freshness of
appreciation
•Fellowship with humanity
•Profound interpersonal
relationships
•Comfort with solitude
•Non-hostile sense of
humor
•Peak experiences

79. Rogers and Conditions of Worth
Emphasizes both:
Conditions of worth: the
conditions that others
place upon us in order to
receive their positive
regard

Unconditional positive regard :
the unconditional love and
acceptance of an
individual by another
person

80. Carl Rogers’ Self Theory
•Fully Functioning Person: Lives in
harmony with his/her deepest feelings
and impulses
•Self: Flexible and changing perception of
one’s identity
•Self-Image: Total subjective perception
of your body and personality
•Symbolization: Admitting an experience
into awareness
•Incongruence: Exists when there is a
discrepancy between one’s experiences
and self-image
•Ideal Self: Idealized image of oneself
(the person one would like to be)

81. Incongruence occurs when there is a mismatch between any of these
three entities: the ideal self (the person you would like to be), your self-
image (the person you think you are), and the true self (the person you
actually are). Self-esteem suffers when there is a large difference between
one’s ideal self and self-image. Anxiety and defensiveness are common
when the self-image does not match the true self.

82. More Rogerian Concepts
•Conditions of Worth: Internal
standards of evaluation
•Positive Self-Regard: Thinking
of oneself as a good, lovable,
worthwhile person
•Organismic Valuing: Natural,
undistorted, full-body reaction
to an experience
•Unconditional Positive Regard:
Unshakable love and approval

83. Some Observations
on the Humanistic Approach
•This approach emphasizes the
positive aspects of human
growth

•Critics believe it to be vague
and untestable and more
descriptive than explanatory

84. •(+) Makes the SELF central to
our understanding of behavior
•(-) Culture-bound theory
(applies to the West)
•(-) Is too subjective, not
objective
•(-) Maybe overly optimistic
view of human nature (all of
us are moving toward self-
actualization?)
Critique of Humanistic Theory

85. •Behavior is due to
–Social influences (other
people)
–Cognitive influences (how we
perceive ourselves and our
social environment)
Social-Cognitive Theory

86. Social-Cognitive Theory (Model)
Social Influences:
“My friends do
well in school.”
Behavior
(I perform well
in school)
Cognitive Influences:
“I know if I work hard,
I can do well in school)

87. •Learned Helplessness
Social-Cognitive Perspective- Learned Helplessness
Bad Events
Cognition:
“I perceive I don’t
have control”

I feel helpless

88. Learning Theories and Some Key Terms
•Behavioral Personality
Theory: Model of
personality that
emphasizes learning and
observable behavior
•Learning Theorist: Believes
that learning shapes our
behavior and explains
personality
•Situational Determinants:
External causes of our
behaviors

89. Dollard and Miller’s Theory
•Habit: Learned behavior
pattern
•Drive: Any stimulus
strong enough to goad a
person into action (like
hunger)
•Cue: Signals from the
environment that guide
responses
•Response: Any behavior,
either internal or
observable; actions
•Reward: Positive
reinforcement

90. Social Learning Theory (Rotter)
•Definition: An explanation that
combines learning principles,
cognition, and the effects of
social relationships
•Psychological Situation: How
the person interprets or defines
the situation
•Expectancy: Anticipation that
making a response will lead to
reinforcement
•Reinforcement Value:
Subjective value attached to a
particular activity or reinforcer
•Social Reinforcement: Praise,
attention, approval, and/or
affection from others

91. Miller and Dollard’s
Critical Childhood Situations
•Feeding
•Toilet or cleanliness training
•Sex training
•Learning to express anger or
aggression

92. Becoming Male or Female
•Identification: Feeling
emotionally connected to
admired adults
•Imitation: Desire to act
like an admired person

93. •Personal Control
–a cognitive factor (in the model)
–our sense of controlling our environments rather
than feeling helpless
Social-Cognitive Theory

94. •Internal Locus of Control
–the perception that one controls one’s own fate
•External Locus of Control
–the perception that outside forces determine one’s
fate


Locus of Control

95. •Positive Psychology
–scientific study of ways to
foster a healthy personality
and community
•Key Concept: Learned
Optimism
–expecting positive events to
occur an seeing oneself as
competent.
–research: optimistic people
live longer/healthier lives
Social-Cognitive Perspective

96. •(+) Based on solid
research
•(+) Takes into account
both personality
(especially cognition)
and social situation
•(-) Underemphasizes
importance of traits
Critique of Social-Cognitive Theory

97. Learning and Giving for Better
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