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Slide Content
GEC GODHRA
2ND YEAR MECHANICAL
MATERIAL SCIENCE AND
METALLURGY
PHASE DIAGRAM
PRENSENTED BY:- MOKSHIL SHAH
MOHIT TAMBOLI
JATIN RAMCHANDANI
GIRISH PATELIYA
NAYAN SUTHAR
2ND YEAR MECHANICAL
MATERIAL SCIENCE AND
METALLURGY
PHASE DIAGRAM
PRENSENTED BY:- MOKSHIL SHAH
MOHIT TAMBOLI
JATIN RAMCHANDANI
GIRISH PATELIYA
NAYAN SUTHAR
1. Systems, Phases, and Phase Rule
●System: In the context of phase diagrams, a system refers to a specific body of
material under consideration.This material is typically made up of one or more
components (pure substances like elements or compounds). For example, an
"Iron-Carbon system" refers to all possible alloys made from iron and carbon.
●Phase: A phase is a physically distinct and chemically homogeneous portion of a
system.
It has uniform physical and chemical characteristics throughout.
○Physically Distinct: You can usually see a boundary between different phases
(e.g., solid ice and liquid water).
○Chemically Homogeneous: The composition within a single phase is uniform.
○Examples: In a water-ice system, ice is one phase, and liquid water is another.
In an iron-carbon system, ferrite (α-iron), austenite (γ-iron), cementite (Fe_3C),
and liquid are all distinct phases.
●System: In the context of phase diagrams, a system refers to a specific body of
material under consideration.This material is typically made up of one or more
components (pure substances like elements or compounds). For example, an
"Iron-Carbon system" refers to all possible alloys made from iron and carbon.
●Phase: A phase is a physically distinct and chemically homogeneous portion of a
system.
It has uniform physical and chemical characteristics throughout.
○Physically Distinct: You can usually see a boundary between different phases
(e.g., solid ice and liquid water).
○Chemically Homogeneous: The composition within a single phase is uniform.
○Examples: In a water-ice system, ice is one phase, and liquid water is another.
In an iron-carbon system, ferrite (α-iron), austenite (γ-iron), cementite (Fe_3C),
and liquid are all distinct phases.
●Components (C): The independent chemical species that make up the system. For a pure metal,
C=1. For an alloy of two metals (like Fe-C), C=2.
●Gibb's Phase Rule (P + F = C + N): This fundamental thermodynamic rule relates the number of
phases (P) that can coexist in equilibrium within a system to the number of components (C) and
the number of independent intensive variables (N) that describe the state of the system.
○P: Number of phases present in equilibrium.
○F: Number of degrees of freedom (or variance). This is the number of independent intensive
variables (like temperature, pressure, or composition) that can be varied without changing the
number of phases in equilibrium.
○C: Number of components in the system.
○N: Number of non-compositional variables. For most metallurgical phase diagrams, pressure is
assumed to be constant (usually atmospheric), so N=1 (temperature). Thus, the more commonly
used form for these diagrams is:
P + F = C + 1 (for constant pressure systems)
●Application:
■If F=0, the system is invariant (no variables can be changed without changing the phases).
This occurs at eutectic, eutectoid, and peritectic points.
■If F=1, one variable can be changed independently (e.g., temperature along a single-phase
region).
■If F=2, two variables can be changed independently (e.g., temperature and composition in a
two-phase region).
C=1. For an alloy of two metals (like Fe-C), C=2.
●Gibb's Phase Rule (P + F = C + N): This fundamental thermodynamic rule relates the number of
phases (P) that can coexist in equilibrium within a system to the number of components (C) and
the number of independent intensive variables (N) that describe the state of the system.
○P: Number of phases present in equilibrium.
○F: Number of degrees of freedom (or variance). This is the number of independent intensive
variables (like temperature, pressure, or composition) that can be varied without changing the
number of phases in equilibrium.
○C: Number of components in the system.
○N: Number of non-compositional variables. For most metallurgical phase diagrams, pressure is
assumed to be constant (usually atmospheric), so N=1 (temperature). Thus, the more commonly
used form for these diagrams is:
P + F = C + 1 (for constant pressure systems)
●Application:
■If F=0, the system is invariant (no variables can be changed without changing the phases).
This occurs at eutectic, eutectoid, and peritectic points.
■If F=1, one variable can be changed independently (e.g., temperature along a single-phase
region).
■If F=2, two variables can be changed independently (e.g., temperature and composition in a
two-phase region).
2. Structural Constituents
Structural constituents refer to the identifiable microstructural components observed in a material, which can be single
phases or mixtures of phases. In the Iron-Iron Carbide system, these are crucial for understanding properties:
●Ferrite (α-ferrite): A solid solution of carbon in body-centered cubic (BCC) iron.It is soft, ductile, and magnetic at
room temperature. It has very low solubility for carbon (max 0.022 wt% at 727°C).
●Austenite (γ-austenite): A solid solution of carbon in face-centered cubic (FCC) iron. It has a much higher solubility
for carbon (max 2.14 wt% at 1147°C). Austenite is non-magnetic, ductile, and relatively soft at high temperatures.
It
transforms into other phases upon cooling.
●Cementite (Fe_3C): An intermetallic compound of iron and carbon.
It is very hard and brittle. It has a complex
orthorhombic crystal structure and contains 6.67 wt% carbon.
●Pearlite: A lamellar (layered) mixture of ferrite and cementite that forms simultaneously from the decomposition of
austenite during slow cooling. It has a characteristic "fingerprint" appearance under a microscope. Its properties are
intermediate between soft ferrite and hard cementite.
●Bainite: A non-lamellar mixture of ferrite and cementite, formed at intermediate cooling rates (faster than pearlite,
slower than martensite). Its microstructure is acicular (needle-like) or feathery. It is stronger and tougher than
pearlite.
●Martensite: A supersaturated, metastable, body-centered tetragonal (BCT) solid solution of carbon in iron, formed
by rapid quenching of austenite.
It is the hardest and most brittle of the iron-carbon phases, and it forms
diffusionlessly.
●Ledeburite: A eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite, formed when liquid iron containing 4.3 wt% carbon
solidifies.
It is primarily found in cast irons.
Structural constituents refer to the identifiable microstructural components observed in a material, which can be single
phases or mixtures of phases. In the Iron-Iron Carbide system, these are crucial for understanding properties:
●Ferrite (α-ferrite): A solid solution of carbon in body-centered cubic (BCC) iron.It is soft, ductile, and magnetic at
room temperature. It has very low solubility for carbon (max 0.022 wt% at 727°C).
●Austenite (γ-austenite): A solid solution of carbon in face-centered cubic (FCC) iron. It has a much higher solubility
for carbon (max 2.14 wt% at 1147°C). Austenite is non-magnetic, ductile, and relatively soft at high temperatures.
It
transforms into other phases upon cooling.
●Cementite (Fe_3C): An intermetallic compound of iron and carbon.
It is very hard and brittle. It has a complex
orthorhombic crystal structure and contains 6.67 wt% carbon.
●Pearlite: A lamellar (layered) mixture of ferrite and cementite that forms simultaneously from the decomposition of
austenite during slow cooling. It has a characteristic "fingerprint" appearance under a microscope. Its properties are
intermediate between soft ferrite and hard cementite.
●Bainite: A non-lamellar mixture of ferrite and cementite, formed at intermediate cooling rates (faster than pearlite,
slower than martensite). Its microstructure is acicular (needle-like) or feathery. It is stronger and tougher than
pearlite.
●Martensite: A supersaturated, metastable, body-centered tetragonal (BCT) solid solution of carbon in iron, formed
by rapid quenching of austenite.
It is the hardest and most brittle of the iron-carbon phases, and it forms
diffusionlessly.
●Ledeburite: A eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite, formed when liquid iron containing 4.3 wt% carbon
solidifies.
It is primarily found in cast irons.
3. Binary Equilibrium Phase Diagrams
A binary equilibrium phase diagram is a graphical representation showing the phases
present and their compositions as a function of temperature for two-component systems
at constant pressure. The x-axis represents composition (usually in weight percent), and
the y-axis represents temperature.
●Key Features:
○Liquidus Line: Above this line, the alloy is completely liquid.
○Solidus Line: Below this line, the alloy is completely solid.
○Solvus Line: Separates a single-phase solid region from a two-phase solid region.
○Phase Regions: Areas on the diagram where specific phases or combinations of
phases exist in equilibrium.
○Tie Lines (Isotherms): Horizontal lines drawn within two-phase regions to
determine the compositions of the two phases in equilibrium at a given temperature.
○Lever Rule: A mathematical principle used with tie lines to calculate the relative
amounts (weight fractions) of each phase present in a two-phase region.
A binary equilibrium phase diagram is a graphical representation showing the phases
present and their compositions as a function of temperature for two-component systems
at constant pressure. The x-axis represents composition (usually in weight percent), and
the y-axis represents temperature.
●Key Features:
○Liquidus Line: Above this line, the alloy is completely liquid.
○Solidus Line: Below this line, the alloy is completely solid.
○Solvus Line: Separates a single-phase solid region from a two-phase solid region.
○Phase Regions: Areas on the diagram where specific phases or combinations of
phases exist in equilibrium.
○Tie Lines (Isotherms): Horizontal lines drawn within two-phase regions to
determine the compositions of the two phases in equilibrium at a given temperature.
○Lever Rule: A mathematical principle used with tie lines to calculate the relative
amounts (weight fractions) of each phase present in a two-phase region.
4. Allotropy of Iron
Allotropy is the ability of an element to exist in more than one crystal structure. Iron
exhibits allotropy:
●Below 912°C: Iron exists as α-ferrite (BCC structure), which is magnetic.
●Between 912°C and 1394°C: Iron exists as γ-austenite (FCC structure), which is
non-magnetic.
●Between 1394°C and 1538°C: Iron exists as δ-ferrite (BCC structure), which is
magnetic.
●Above 1538°C: Iron is liquid.
These allotropic transformations are crucial for heat treatment processes, as they
allow for significant changes in microstructure and properties.
Allotropy is the ability of an element to exist in more than one crystal structure. Iron
exhibits allotropy:
●Below 912°C: Iron exists as α-ferrite (BCC structure), which is magnetic.
●Between 912°C and 1394°C: Iron exists as γ-austenite (FCC structure), which is
non-magnetic.
●Between 1394°C and 1538°C: Iron exists as δ-ferrite (BCC structure), which is
magnetic.
●Above 1538°C: Iron is liquid.
These allotropic transformations are crucial for heat treatment processes, as they
allow for significant changes in microstructure and properties.
5. Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe_3C) Equilibrium Diagram
This is arguably the most important phase diagram in materials science, as it governs the behavior of steels and cast
irons. It typically extends up to 6.67 wt% carbon, which is the carbon content of cementite (Fe_3C).
●Important Reactions: These are invariant reactions where three phases coexist in equilibrium, and the degrees of
freedom (F) are zero. They occur at specific temperatures and compositions.
○Eutectic Reaction (Liquid → Solid_1 + Solid_2):
■Occurs at 1147°C and 4.3 wt% C.
■Liquid transforms directly into a mixture of two solid phases: Austenite and Cementite (this mixture is called
Ledeburite).
■This reaction is characteristic of cast irons.
■Equation: L1147∘C γ+Fe3 C
○Eutectoid Reaction (Solid_1 → Solid_2 + Solid_3):
■Occurs at 727°C and 0.76 wt% C.
■Austenite transforms directly into a mixture of two solid phases: Ferrite and Cementite (this mixture is called
Pearlite).
■This is the most important reaction for steels.
■Equation: γ727∘C α+Fe3 C
○Peritectic Reaction (Liquid + Solid_1→ Solid_2):
■Occurs at 1493°C and 0.16 wt% C.
■Liquid and δ-ferrite react to form γ-austenite.
■This reaction is less significant for common steels but plays a role in the solidification of very low carbon
steels.
■Equation: L+δ1493∘C γ
This is arguably the most important phase diagram in materials science, as it governs the behavior of steels and cast
irons. It typically extends up to 6.67 wt% carbon, which is the carbon content of cementite (Fe_3C).
●Important Reactions: These are invariant reactions where three phases coexist in equilibrium, and the degrees of
freedom (F) are zero. They occur at specific temperatures and compositions.
○Eutectic Reaction (Liquid → Solid_1 + Solid_2):
■Occurs at 1147°C and 4.3 wt% C.
■Liquid transforms directly into a mixture of two solid phases: Austenite and Cementite (this mixture is called
Ledeburite).
■This reaction is characteristic of cast irons.
■Equation: L1147∘C γ+Fe3 C
○Eutectoid Reaction (Solid_1 → Solid_2 + Solid_3):
■Occurs at 727°C and 0.76 wt% C.
■Austenite transforms directly into a mixture of two solid phases: Ferrite and Cementite (this mixture is called
Pearlite).
■This is the most important reaction for steels.
■Equation: γ727∘C α+Fe3 C
○Peritectic Reaction (Liquid + Solid_1→ Solid_2):
■Occurs at 1493°C and 0.16 wt% C.
■Liquid and δ-ferrite react to form γ-austenite.
■This reaction is less significant for common steels but plays a role in the solidification of very low carbon
steels.
■Equation: L+δ1493∘C γ
6. Constituents, Microstructures, and Properties of Plain Carbon Steels
Plain carbon steels are alloys of iron and carbon, with only small amounts of other elements. Their
properties are primarily determined by their carbon content and heat treatment, which dictate their
microstructure.
●Low Carbon Steels (< 0.25 wt% C):
○Microstructure: Predominantly ferrite with some pearlite.
○Properties: Soft, ductile, easily formable, good weldability.
○Applications: Automobile body panels, wires, structural shapes.
○Medium Carbon Steels (0.25 - 0.60 wt% C):
○Microstructure: Ferrite and increasing amounts of pearlite. Can be heat treated to form
martensite.
○Properties: Good balance of strength and ductility. Can be strengthened by heat treatment.
○Applications: Machine parts, axles, gears, crankshafts.
●High Carbon Steels (> 0.60 wt% C):
○Microstructure: Predominantly pearlite and proeutectoid cementite (above 0.76% C). Can be
heat treated to form martensite.
○Properties: High strength, high hardness, good wear resistance, but lower ductility.
○Applications: Cutting tools, springs, dies, wires.
Plain carbon steels are alloys of iron and carbon, with only small amounts of other elements. Their
properties are primarily determined by their carbon content and heat treatment, which dictate their
microstructure.
●Low Carbon Steels (< 0.25 wt% C):
○Microstructure: Predominantly ferrite with some pearlite.
○Properties: Soft, ductile, easily formable, good weldability.
○Applications: Automobile body panels, wires, structural shapes.
○Medium Carbon Steels (0.25 - 0.60 wt% C):
○Microstructure: Ferrite and increasing amounts of pearlite. Can be heat treated to form
martensite.
○Properties: Good balance of strength and ductility. Can be strengthened by heat treatment.
○Applications: Machine parts, axles, gears, crankshafts.
●High Carbon Steels (> 0.60 wt% C):
○Microstructure: Predominantly pearlite and proeutectoid cementite (above 0.76% C). Can be
heat treated to form martensite.
○Properties: High strength, high hardness, good wear resistance, but lower ductility.
○Applications: Cutting tools, springs, dies, wires.
7. Alloy Groups of Iron-Iron Carbide Equilibrium System
The Fe-Fe_3C diagram also categorizes various iron-based alloys based on their carbon
content and general characteristics:
●Pig Iron:
○Carbon Content: Very high (typically 3-4.5 wt% C or more).
○Characteristics: Crude, brittle, high carbon content makes it suitable for remelting and
processing into cast iron or steel.
It is an intermediate product from the blast furnace.
●Wrought Iron:
○Carbon Content: Very low (< 0.008 wt% C). Almost pure iron.
○Characteristics: Ductile, tough, fibrous (due to slag inclusions), excellent corrosion
resistance, easily forgeable. Historically important but largely replaced by low-carbon
steels.
●Steels:
○Carbon Content: Up to 2.14 wt% C (technically, though most commercial steels are
below 1.5 wt% C).
○Characteristics: Wide range of properties depending on carbon content and alloying
elements. Can be strengthened by heat treatment. Versatile engineering material.
The Fe-Fe_3C diagram also categorizes various iron-based alloys based on their carbon
content and general characteristics:
●Pig Iron:
○Carbon Content: Very high (typically 3-4.5 wt% C or more).
○Characteristics: Crude, brittle, high carbon content makes it suitable for remelting and
processing into cast iron or steel.
It is an intermediate product from the blast furnace.
●Wrought Iron:
○Carbon Content: Very low (< 0.008 wt% C). Almost pure iron.
○Characteristics: Ductile, tough, fibrous (due to slag inclusions), excellent corrosion
resistance, easily forgeable. Historically important but largely replaced by low-carbon
steels.
●Steels:
○Carbon Content: Up to 2.14 wt% C (technically, though most commercial steels are
below 1.5 wt% C).
○Characteristics: Wide range of properties depending on carbon content and alloying
elements. Can be strengthened by heat treatment. Versatile engineering material.
●Cast Irons:
○Carbon Content: 2.14 wt% C to 6.67 wt% C (typically 2.5-4.5 wt% C).
○Characteristics: High carbon content promotes formation of graphite (in
gray, ductile, and malleable cast irons) or cementite (in white cast iron).
Excellent castability, good wear resistance, damping capacity. Generally
brittle (especially white cast iron).
○Types:
■Gray Cast Iron: Graphite in flake form. Good machinability, damping.
■Ductile Iron (Nodular Iron): Graphite in spherical nodules. Better
ductility and strength than gray cast iron.
■Malleable Iron: Produced by heat treating white cast iron, converting
cementite into temper carbon (irregular graphite). Improved ductility.
■White Cast Iron: Carbon exists primarily as cementite.
Extremely hard
and brittle, excellent wear resistance. Used where extreme hardness is
needed or as an intermediate for malleable iron production.
○Carbon Content: 2.14 wt% C to 6.67 wt% C (typically 2.5-4.5 wt% C).
○Characteristics: High carbon content promotes formation of graphite (in
gray, ductile, and malleable cast irons) or cementite (in white cast iron).
Excellent castability, good wear resistance, damping capacity. Generally
brittle (especially white cast iron).
○Types:
■Gray Cast Iron: Graphite in flake form. Good machinability, damping.
■Ductile Iron (Nodular Iron): Graphite in spherical nodules. Better
ductility and strength than gray cast iron.
■Malleable Iron: Produced by heat treating white cast iron, converting
cementite into temper carbon (irregular graphite). Improved ductility.
■White Cast Iron: Carbon exists primarily as cementite.
Extremely hard
and brittle, excellent wear resistance. Used where extreme hardness is
needed or as an intermediate for malleable iron production.
8. Equilibrium Cooling of Eutectoid, Hypoeutectoid, and Hypereutectoid Steels
Equilibrium cooling refers to very slow cooling, allowing sufficient time for diffusion and phase transformations
to reach equilibrium as predicted by the phase diagram.
●Eutectoid Steel (0.76 wt% C):
○Cooling Path:
1.Above 727°C: 100% Austenite (γ).
2.At 727°C (eutectoid temperature): All austenite transforms simultaneously into pearlite.
○Resultant Microstructure: 100% Pearlite (alternating lamellae of ferrite and cementite).
○Properties: Good balance of strength and ductility, relatively hard due to the presence of cementite.
○Applications: Tools, railway tracks (some grades), structural components where good strength is
required.
●Hypoeutectoid Steel (< 0.76 wt% C):
○Cooling Path (Example: 0.4 wt% C Steel):
1.Above A3 line: 100% Austenite (γ).
2.Cooling between A3 and A1 lines: Austenite starts transforming into proeutectoid ferrite (α) at the
grain boundaries. The remaining austenite becomes enriched in carbon.
3.At 727°C (A1 line): The remaining carbon-enriched austenite (now with eutectoid composition)
transforms into pearlite.
Equilibrium cooling refers to very slow cooling, allowing sufficient time for diffusion and phase transformations
to reach equilibrium as predicted by the phase diagram.
●Eutectoid Steel (0.76 wt% C):
○Cooling Path:
1.Above 727°C: 100% Austenite (γ).
2.At 727°C (eutectoid temperature): All austenite transforms simultaneously into pearlite.
○Resultant Microstructure: 100% Pearlite (alternating lamellae of ferrite and cementite).
○Properties: Good balance of strength and ductility, relatively hard due to the presence of cementite.
○Applications: Tools, railway tracks (some grades), structural components where good strength is
required.
●Hypoeutectoid Steel (< 0.76 wt% C):
○Cooling Path (Example: 0.4 wt% C Steel):
1.Above A3 line: 100% Austenite (γ).
2.Cooling between A3 and A1 lines: Austenite starts transforming into proeutectoid ferrite (α) at the
grain boundaries. The remaining austenite becomes enriched in carbon.
3.At 727°C (A1 line): The remaining carbon-enriched austenite (now with eutectoid composition)
transforms into pearlite.
Resultant Microstructure: Proeutectoid Ferrite + Pearlite. The amount of ferrite increases as carbon content
decreases.
Properties: Softer and more ductile than eutectoid steel due to a higher proportion of soft ferrite. Strength
increases with carbon content (and thus pearlite content).
33
Applications: Construction, general structural components, machinery parts, depending on carbon content.
●Hypereutectoid Steel (> 0.76 wt% C):
○Cooling Path (Example: 1.0 wt% C Steel):
1.Above Acm line: 100% Austenite (γ).
2.Cooling between Acm and A1 lines: Austenite starts precipitating proeutectoid cementite (Fe_3C) at
the grain boundaries. The remaining austenite becomes depleted in carbon.
3.At 727°C (A1 line): The remaining carbon-depleted austenite (now with eutectoid composition)
transforms into pearlite.
●Resultant Microstructure: Proeutectoid Cementite + Pearlite. The amount of cementite increases as
carbon content increases.
○Properties: Harder and more brittle than eutectoid steel due to the presence of hard, brittle cementite.
Good wear resistance.
○Applications: Cutting tools, dies, wear-resistant parts where hardness is critical.
decreases.
Properties: Softer and more ductile than eutectoid steel due to a higher proportion of soft ferrite. Strength
increases with carbon content (and thus pearlite content).
33
Applications: Construction, general structural components, machinery parts, depending on carbon content.
●Hypereutectoid Steel (> 0.76 wt% C):
○Cooling Path (Example: 1.0 wt% C Steel):
1.Above Acm line: 100% Austenite (γ).
2.Cooling between Acm and A1 lines: Austenite starts precipitating proeutectoid cementite (Fe_3C) at
the grain boundaries. The remaining austenite becomes depleted in carbon.
3.At 727°C (A1 line): The remaining carbon-depleted austenite (now with eutectoid composition)
transforms into pearlite.
●Resultant Microstructure: Proeutectoid Cementite + Pearlite. The amount of cementite increases as
carbon content increases.
○Properties: Harder and more brittle than eutectoid steel due to the presence of hard, brittle cementite.
Good wear resistance.
○Applications: Cutting tools, dies, wear-resistant parts where hardness is critical.
9. IS and ISO Codification, Different Specifications and Designations of Steels
To ensure consistency, quality, and interchangeability of materials, various organizations develop standards and
codes for steel specifications and designations.
●IS (Indian Standards): Developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). These standards provide
specifications for various steel grades, including their chemical composition, mechanical properties,
dimensions, testing methods, and applications.
○Example: IS 2062: Specific for Hot Rolled Medium and High Tensile Structural Steel. It specifies
properties like yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation.
○Designation: Often alphanumeric, indicating the type of steel and its key property (e.g., Fe 410W for a
structural steel with a minimum tensile strength of 410 MPa, weldable quality).
●ISO (International Organization for Standardization): Global standards that aim to harmonize national
standards. ISO standards for steel cover a broad range, including:
○Chemical Composition: e.g., ISO 683 (Heat-treatable steels, alloy steels and free-cutting steels).
○Mechanical Properties: e.g., tensile strength, yield strength.
○Product Forms: e.g., plates, bars, tubes.
○Testing Methods: e.g., hardness, impact.
○Designation: ISO uses various systems, often reflecting a combination of properties or chemical
composition.
To ensure consistency, quality, and interchangeability of materials, various organizations develop standards and
codes for steel specifications and designations.
●IS (Indian Standards): Developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). These standards provide
specifications for various steel grades, including their chemical composition, mechanical properties,
dimensions, testing methods, and applications.
○Example: IS 2062: Specific for Hot Rolled Medium and High Tensile Structural Steel. It specifies
properties like yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation.
○Designation: Often alphanumeric, indicating the type of steel and its key property (e.g., Fe 410W for a
structural steel with a minimum tensile strength of 410 MPa, weldable quality).
●ISO (International Organization for Standardization): Global standards that aim to harmonize national
standards. ISO standards for steel cover a broad range, including:
○Chemical Composition: e.g., ISO 683 (Heat-treatable steels, alloy steels and free-cutting steels).
○Mechanical Properties: e.g., tensile strength, yield strength.
○Product Forms: e.g., plates, bars, tubes.
○Testing Methods: e.g., hardness, impact.
○Designation: ISO uses various systems, often reflecting a combination of properties or chemical
composition.
●Other Important Specifications and Designations (Examples):
○ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials): Widely used in North America.
■Example: ASTM A36 (Structural Carbon Steel), ASTM 1045 (Medium Carbon Steel with 0.45% C approx.).
■Designation System: For carbon and alloy steels, a four-digit number is common (e.g., 1xxx for carbon
steels, 4xxx for Molybdenum steels).
The last two digits usually indicate the approximate carbon content in
hundredths of a percent.
○EN (Euro Norms): European standards.
■Example: EN 10025 (Hot rolled products of structural steels).
■Designation System: Often uses a numerical designation (e.g., S275JR for structural steel with 275 MPa yield
strength and specific impact properties) or a material number (e.g., 1.0044).
41
○JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards):
■Example: JIS G3101 (Rolled Steel for General Structure).
○SAE/AISI (Society of Automotive Engineers/American Iron and Steel Institute): Historically important for
designating carbon and alloy steels.
■Example: SAE 1020 (Plain carbon steel with 0.20% C approx.), SAE 4140 (Chromium-Molybdenum steel with
0.40% C approx.).
Why are these specifications important?
●Quality Control: Ensure consistent quality and performance of materials.
●Interchangeability: Allow different manufacturers to produce equivalent materials.
●Safety: Critical for structural integrity and reliability in engineering applications.
●Communication: Provide a universal language for engineers, manufacturers, and suppliers.
●Legal Compliance: Many projects require materials to meet specific standards.
○ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials): Widely used in North America.
■Example: ASTM A36 (Structural Carbon Steel), ASTM 1045 (Medium Carbon Steel with 0.45% C approx.).
■Designation System: For carbon and alloy steels, a four-digit number is common (e.g., 1xxx for carbon
steels, 4xxx for Molybdenum steels).
The last two digits usually indicate the approximate carbon content in
hundredths of a percent.
○EN (Euro Norms): European standards.
■Example: EN 10025 (Hot rolled products of structural steels).
■Designation System: Often uses a numerical designation (e.g., S275JR for structural steel with 275 MPa yield
strength and specific impact properties) or a material number (e.g., 1.0044).
41
○JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards):
■Example: JIS G3101 (Rolled Steel for General Structure).
○SAE/AISI (Society of Automotive Engineers/American Iron and Steel Institute): Historically important for
designating carbon and alloy steels.
■Example: SAE 1020 (Plain carbon steel with 0.20% C approx.), SAE 4140 (Chromium-Molybdenum steel with
0.40% C approx.).
Why are these specifications important?
●Quality Control: Ensure consistent quality and performance of materials.
●Interchangeability: Allow different manufacturers to produce equivalent materials.
●Safety: Critical for structural integrity and reliability in engineering applications.
●Communication: Provide a universal language for engineers, manufacturers, and suppliers.
●Legal Compliance: Many projects require materials to meet specific standards.
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