Phonetics_and_phonology.pptx presentation

ppt

1. “ Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. ” --Ronald Wardhaugh : Introduction to Linguistics ( 1977) ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

2. Main branches of linguistics Phonology Phonetics Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Sociolinguistics ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

3. Theme 1. Phonetics as a linguistic science. An introduction to Phonology ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

4. Plan of the lecture: Introduction. Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics 2. General phonetics, Descriptive Phonetics, Historical or diachronical phonetics 3. Comparative-typological phonetics 4. Levels of a language 5. Phonological theories ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

5. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

6. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

7. Key words: field, language and speech occurrence, generality and peculiarity, top_x0002_ paradigmatic units, phonological field. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

8. Main literature: Gardiner A. The difference between "rechyu" and "yazykom". - Zvegintsev V.A. History of Yazykoznaniya XIX and XX centuries in essays and excerpts. Ch.P. - M., 1960, p. 19. 2. Solntsev V.M. Yazyk kak sistemno-strukturnoe obrazovanie. -M., 1971. 3. Benvenist E. General linguistics. -M., 1974. 4. Nurmonov A. Structural linguistics: roots and directions. Andijon. 2006. 5. Kodukhov V.I. Obshchee yazykoznanie. M .. 1974. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

9. Phonetics Phonetics is concerned with the sound component of communication. The origin of the word is a Greek “ phona ” – a sound, a voice. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

10. Phonetics (from the greek word “phone”-meaning sound,voice and “-tika-”a sience which studies the phonic substance and the expressions area of the language ,or otherwise the physical media of a language (sounds,syllables,stress and intonation). The phonetic elements or units are sounds, syllables, stress and intonation which have their linguistic function observed in the identification and distinction of the utterances. In such words or morphemes as lag- bag, meet-seat, etc.the first sounds help to distinguish their meaning. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

11. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

12. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

13. The following types of phonetics may be distinguished: 1.2General phonetics which studies the human sound –producing possibilities, the functioning of his speech mechanism and the ways they are used in all languages to pronounce speech sounds syllables, stress and intonation. It is a part of General Linguistics. 2.Descriptive phonetics studies the phonetic system of a certain language. For example: English phonetics, Russian phonetics, Uzbek phonetics etc. Historical or diachronical phonetics, which studies the changes a sound undergoes in the development of a language or languages. Its material may be based on written historical and literary monuments. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

14. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

15. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

16. 4.Levels of Language Structure and their Language and Speech Units. Phonology Phonetics Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Sociolinguistics . Paradigmatic relations ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

17. Three distinct branches of phonetics Auditory Phonetics: studies the perception and processing of speech sounds in the brain. Approaches to Phonetics ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

18. Three distinct branches of phonetics Acoustic phonetics : studies the physical properties of speech sounds Approaches to Phonetics ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

19. Three distinct branches of phonetics Articulatory Phonetics : studies the production of speech sounds by the organs of speech (where and how speech sounds are produced) - Approaches to Phonetics ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

20. Acoustic phonetics It focuses on the physical properties of sounds. The sound travels through from the speaker's mouth through the air to the hearer's ear, through the form of vibrations in the air. Because acoustic phonetics requires direct access to the physics of sound waves as these travel through the air (or any less common medium), it could only be established as a science in its own right after acoustic physics provided the framework and appropriately designed measuring instruments for more elaborate studies in the acoustics of speech sounds. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

21. Auditory phonetics Is concerned with how listener perceive sounds and hear sounds and how the ear, brain and auditory nerve perceives the sounds. This branch deals with the physiological processes involved in the reception of speech. Auditory phonetics researches into the way the human ear and brain perceive and analyse different speech sounds. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

22. Auditory phonetics Quite a lot is known about the anatomy of the ear, but as it is difficult to obtain any objective measurements from inside a subject's head, and even more so because the brain processes involved in analysing speech are very intricate, this branch of phonetics is arguably the least developed one ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

23. Articulatory phonetics Is the study of how the vocal tract produces the sounds of a language. The vocal tract is the passages above the larynx where air passes in the production of speech. In simpler terms it is the it of the mouth moves when we make a sound. Producing speech means employing one's vocal organs to modify an egressive airstream created by the lungs. In normal breathing, there are no constrictions to this air flow. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

24. Articulatory phonetics However, the organs that form part of the vocal tract, most notably the larynx, velum, tongue, and lips, are subject to conscious muscular activity which modifies their positions and thereby the shape of the cavities through which the air needs to pass. In articulatory phonetics, speech sounds are classified by the relative positions of the vocal organs and by their effects on the air flow. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

25. Acoustic phonetics The most prominent instrument involved in the physical quantification of speech sounds nowadays is the acoustic spectrograph. This device analyses the frequencies that overlap to create a uniform sound wave ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

26. Definition of Phonology and Phonetics Phonology is essentially ‘the description of the system and patterns of speech sounds in a language’ (Yule, G. (1993:54). The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. What is Phonology ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

27. While phonetics is concerned with the description of the set of phonetic properties that characterize all languages, phonology is concerned with the way these speech sounds form systems in language. Your phonological knowledge is therefore what you know about the sound system of your language. What is Phonology? ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

28. Phonetics and Phonology: A distinction Phonetics a science that deals with the articulatory,auditory and acoustic properties of sounds produced by the vocal tract Phonology how a set of the sounds produced by the vocal tract are organized into meaningful sound units in each language ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

29. Relationship between Phonology and Phonetics As noted above, Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken. Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in words etc. The theoretical relationship between the two fields is posited on the basis of what each one of them looks at. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

30. Relationship between Phonology and Phonetics Theoretically , both of them are concerned with the analysis of human speech sounds Whereas phonology looks at the relationship, occurrence and combination of sounds, phonetics looks at the production of the human speech sounds. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

31. Relationship between Phonology and Phonetics Both make use of each others concepts. Depending on the level of analysis, you will show redundant and non- redundant features. Redundant features are non- distinctive. Phonetic transcription is called narrow transcription. For instance, when you talk of allophones , you have moved from phonology to phonetics . You use phonological rules to describe the environment in which the allophones occur. The information is presented phonetically, not phonologically (phonemically ). For example: Alveolar stops (note: /t/ or /d/) become a voiced flap between a stressed vowel and an unstressed vowel. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

32. The “phonemic” period, which began in 1870 and includes the twentieth century. The first linguist to point out this distinction was I.A.Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 -1929), an outstanding Russian and Polish scholar. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay defined the phoneme as the “psychological” equivalent of the speech sound » . ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

33. Physiology and anatomy of Speech Production This course will focus on articulatory phonetics . We will now look at the organs involved in the production of speech sounds ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

34. Articulators/ Speech organs ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

35. Places of articulation 1. Bilabial (lips) 2. Labio-dental (lips-teeth) 3. Interdental Dental (teeth) 4. Alveolar ridge 5. Post-alveolar 6. Palatal (palate) 7. Velar (velum) 8. Glottal (glottis) 9. Uvula (uvulum) 9 ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

36. The place of articulation is where the passage of air is blocked For example /t/ and /d/ are both produced by blocking the passage of air at the alveolar ridge/dental region ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

37. Labialization Labialization (labialized): the addition of lip rounding to an articulation: e.g. in English, " sh " = [w], as in "she", and "r" too is often labialized, even before unrounded vowels e.g. in "sheet" or "reek". In some languages, labialization is contrastive: Twi (W. Africa) [ àkwá ] "round about way" vs. [ àkà ] "has bitten" Tashlhit Berber (S. Morocco) [ ikwti ] "to recall" vs. [ ikti ] "hot" ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

38. Velarization Velarization : raising of the back of the tongue In English, again, it is non distinctive, but a common addition to /l/ in final position in many accents (e.g. feel [ fil ] and for many Scots speakers it is the only variety. In Russian velarized stops contrast with palatalized ones, and velarization is also contrastive in Irish. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

39. Airstream mechanism: The manner in which an airstream is set in motion for the purposes of speech. An air-stream is produced by an air-stream mechanism.” ( Ambercrombie 1967: 24) Airstream or airflow (created by a difference in air pressure between two places) is necessary for sound to be generated. According to Pike (1943), there are 3 airstream mechanisms used in world languages: pulmonic (involving lungs ), velaric (involving velum and tongue) and glottalic (involving glottis and larynx). ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

40. Airstream mechanisms may produce egressive (outward) or ingressive (inward) airflow. Egressive : air flows out of the vocal tract. That happens when the air pressure inside the vocal tract is greater than the air pressure outside the vocal tract. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

41. Ingressive : air flows into the vocal tract. That happens when the air pressure inside the vocal tract is lower than the air pressure outside the vocal tract. Sound is a pulsating or non-pulsating airflow (depending on absence or presence of vocal fold vibration) modified by the articulators (lips, teeth, tongue etc). Most English sounds made with egressive pulmonic air. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

42. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

43. Articulation and classification of vowels Vowels are produced by an egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating vocal chords. The sound generated at the larynx is modified by the shape of the vocal tract to produce different vowels. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

44. Articulation and classification of vowels The main change in vocal tract shape is brought about by the position of the tongue. Vowels are therefore described in terms of tongue position . The tongue moves in a spatial continuum without making any constriction or contact with the vocal tract so they cannot be defined in the same way consonants are. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

45. Articulation and classification of vowels Traditionally vowels are plotted in two dimensional spaces with tongue fronting plotted along the horizontal axes and tongue height along the vertical axes. Vowels are therefore described in terms of height , backness/frontness and roundedness . ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

46. Monophthongs , Diphthongs and Triphthongs Monophthongs A vowel in which there is no appreciable change in quality during a syllable, as in “father.” Diphthongs A vowel in which there is a change in quality during a single syllable, as in make - meik you move from mid-high vowel e to high front vowel i Triphthong s A glide from one vowel to another and then to another,as in ‘ lower’,’player ’ ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

47. The English monophthongs The English monophthongs ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

48. The English monophthongs ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

49. The English monophthongs ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

50. English Diphthongs ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

51. English Diphthongs ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

52. English Diphthongs ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

53. English Diphthongs ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

54. English Diphthongs ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

55. triphthongs Is the most complex of all vowels It’s a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third vowel all produced rapidily For example power Hour Fire Royal ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

56. Articulation and classification of vowels Main classification Tongue height: high, mid, or low. Tongue advancement: front, central, or back. Lip rounding: rounded and spread Also, we talk about… Tenseness : tense or lax ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

57. Articulation and classification of vowels Tense vowels occur in words with a final so-called silent “e” in the spelling (e.g., “mate”, “mete”, “kite”, and “cute”). These vowels CAN occur in open syllables (V, CV, CCV, etc.) Lax vowels occur in the words without a “silent e” such as “mat”, “met”, “kit” and “cut”. These vowels CANNOT occur in open syllables, but are only found in closed syllables. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

58. Articulation and classification of consonants Classification of Consonants Consonants are virtually obstructions (of various types) of the air traveling in the vocal tract. They are described in terms of their manner of articulation, place (or point) of articulation, and voicing or phonation mode (3-way description). ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

59. Articulation and classification of consonants Manner of Articulation (type of obstruction) Plosives or stops: a complete closure is formed in the vocal tract (by lips or glottis or tongue closing against velum etc) and a burst of air (plosion) is freed when the closure is released. Nasals : a complete closure is formed in the vocal tract but the velum is lowered and the air escapes through the nasal cavity. No plosion is created. Fricatives : a narrow constriction is formed in the vocal tract so that the air escapes with difficulty, ultimately causing friction. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

60. Articulation and classification of consonants Manner of Articulation (type of obstruction) Approximants : passage for air to escape at vocal tract is large enough not to cause friction but not as large as it would be for a vowel. Taps / Flaps : the tongue makes brief contact with the roof of the mouth (no plosion is created). The two terms are used interchangeably although there is a difference between them: the former suggests deliberate brief closure while the latter only incidental. Affricates, Trill and Lateral sounds. Which sounds are these? ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

61. 2. Place of Articulation The place of articulation of a consonant is determined by the major articulator participating in its production. When the tongue is involved in the articulation of a consonant its description is determined by the articulator the tongue closes against or is raised towards. Thus we classify consonants as bilabial , labio -dental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, retroflex, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal and glottal. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

62. Articulation and classification of consonants The place of articulation of a consonant is determined by the major articulator participating in its production. When the tongue is involved in the articulation of a consonant its description is determined by the articulator the tongue closes against or is raised towards. Thus we classify consonants as bilabial , labio-dental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, retroflex, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal and glottal. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

63. Articulation and classification of consonants 3. Mode of Phonation or Voicing This is a binary description: if vocal fold vibration is involved in sound production the sound in question is voiced. Otherwise it is voiceless. The air stream from the lungs moves up the trachea and through the opening between the vocal chords called the glottis. If the vocal chords are apart the air stream passes easily through. Sounds produced this way are voiceless e.g. [p] [t] [k] [s] [f]. If the vocal chords are together the air-stream has to force its way through – causing them to vibrate. Such sounds are voiced sounds, e.g., [b] [d] [g] [z] [v]. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

64. Voicing: A consonant may be Voiced (lenis) Voiceless (fortis) Group the following consonants into lenis or fortis ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

65. RP Consonants ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

66. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

67. The International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA) The International Phonetic Alphabet ( IPA ) is a system of phonetic notation devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds ( phones or phonemes ) used in spoken human language. It is intended as a notational standard for the phonemic and phonetic representation of all spoken languages. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

68. The International Phonetic Alphabet Below are consonants of the world’s languages produced with a pulmonic egressive airstream. They are represented by a system of phonetics symbols which constitute the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) founded in 1886 and revised many times since then. All IPA symbols are language-independent (they do not belong to a specific language). ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

69. The IPA consonant chart White represents standard British English consonants, light blue possible allophones, and dark blue exotic consonants

70. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

71. Transcription methods Broad  uses a simple set of symbols. Narrow  shows more phonetic detail, either by just using more specific symbols or by also representing some allophonic differences. Phonemic  captures the phonemes of a langauge Systematic phonetic  shows allophones and diacritics ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

72. Phonemic analysis and transcription We have two basic types of transcription Phonemic : captures the phonemes of a language. It is also called broad . It uses a simple set of symbols. Narrow (Phonetic) : shows more phonetic detail, either by just using more specific symbols or by also representing some allophonic differences. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

73. Phonemic analysis and transcription Broad versus narrow transcription Phonetic transcriptions try to objectively capture the actual pronunciation of a word, whereas phonemic transcriptions are model dependent. For phonetic transcriptions, there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a " broad transcription "; in some cases this may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

74. Phonemic analysis and transcription Broad versus narrow transcription A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a " narrow transcription ". These are not binary choices, but the ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets. For example, in some dialects the English word pretzel in a narrow transcription would be [‘pʰɹ̥ʷɛʔt.sɫ̩], which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broader transcription is [‘pʰɹɛt.sɫ̩], which only indicates some of the easier to hear features. A yet broader transcription would be [‘pɹɛtsl]. Here every symbol represents an unambiguous speech sound, but without making any claims as to their status in the language. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

75. Diacritics ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

76. Diacritics DETAILS ON DIACRITICS Syllabicity diacritics ɹ̩ n̩ Syllabic e̯ ʊ̯ Non-syllabic ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

77. Diacritics Consonant-release diacritics tʰ dʰ Aspirated d̚ No audible release dⁿ Nasal release dˡ Lateral release ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

78. Diacritics Phonation diacritics n̥ d̥ Voiceless s̬ t̬ Voiced b̤ a̤ Breathy voiced b̰ a̰ Creaky voiced ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

79. Diacritics Articulation diacritics t̪ d̪ Dental ẽ z̃ Nasalized ɚ ɝ Rhoticity ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

80. Diacritics Phonation diacritics n̥ d̥ Voiceless s̬ t̬ Voiced b̤ a̤ Breathy voiced 1 b̰ a̰ Creaky voiced ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

81. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

82. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

83. CLASS ACTIVITY Give phonemic transcriptions for the following English words. Sing mail Hour urge Wash Was Love Pink Gem Game ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

84. Class activity 3 Write the symbols of the long vowels of the following: Broad, Ward, Calf, Learn, Cool ,Team, Err, seal write the symbols for the diphthongs in the following words: Tone, way, hair, style, beer, coil, hair, why, they ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

85. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

86. CLASS ACTIVITY 2 SATCHET PORT DEPOT AWE EWE ROW RAW YAM JAM BLUE ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

87. Phonemes and Allophones phoneme – a minimal meaningful sound unit /p/ is a phoneme in English Variants of a phoneme Examples: [p] and [p h ] as in / / stop and /p h it/ pit ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

88. A minimal pair: a pair of words that are identical except for a contrast in ONE sound . Examples in English: : English /sip/  /s/, /tip/  /t/ /pit/  /p/, /bit/  /b/ One way of identifying phonemes ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

89. Phoneme and Allophone A phoneme : a class of speech sounds that are identified by a native speaker as the same sound; e.g. /t/; unpredictable A phoneme is an abstract representation & can’t be pronounced (not a speech sound) An allophone : the actual phonetic segment produced by a speaker & has been classified as belonging to some phoneme; e.g. [t h ]; predictable Or an allophone : the various ways that a phoneme is pronounced; e.g. [ ʔ], [ ɾ] ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

90. Allophones How do the Swahili from the Kenyan coast pronounce ‘watoto’ ? Identify at least three allophones in any other language apart from English and Kiswahili ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

91. Phoneme or Allophone Two sounds are distinct (are in contrast) when: There is, at least, one environment where the difference between them is the only distinction between two utterances differing in meaning. Their distribution is not predictable by any general rule. Native speakers are sensitive to the difference between them. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

92. Allophone – [ ] Allophones refers to a variant of a phoneme. The allophones of a phoneme form a set of sounds that: Do not change the meaning of a word, Are all very similar to one another, and Occur in phonetic contexts different from one another (for example, syllable-initial as opposed to syllable-final. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

93. Allophones   English phonemes Common English allophones /P/ [p, p ̚, pʰ] /t/ [ t, t ̚, tʰ, ɾ, ʔ] /k/ [k, k ̚, kʰ] /b/ [b, b ̚] /d/ [d, d ̚] / g / [ g, g ̚]   ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

94. When phones occur in complementary distribution (i.e. never occur in the same phonetic environment) they are allophones e.g. English aspirated voiceless stops are in complementary distribution with unaspirated voiceless stops aspirated = pill till kill, unaspirated = spill still skill. [p h il] [t h il] [k h il] [spil] [stil] [skil] [p h ] [t h ] [k h ] + [p] [t] [k] = allophones of /p/ /t/ /k/ surface representation underlying representation ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

95. Kinds of Phonemic Distribution Free Variation : never cause a contrast in meaning How do you pronounce the following English words: Issues Economics Discuss any cases of identified free variation in your community ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

96. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

97. Supra-Segmentals Introduction to supra-segmental features-Features beyond the segment Stress Syllable Rhythm Pitch Intonation ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

98. Syllable Syllable Unit of speech consisting of either a single vowel (or a syllabic consonant) or a vowel and one or more consonants associated with it. Syllabification : how words break apart, the separation of a word into syllables. Every syllable contains at least one vowel ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

99. Structure of the English Syllable Technically, the basic elements of the syllable are the onset (one or more consonants), and the rime (also written as rhyme ). The rime is treated as the nucleus , plus any following consonant(s), treated as the coda . Thus syllables like me, to and no have an onset, nucleus but no coda. When a coda is present, as in the syllables up,cup and hat , they are called closed syllables. Open syllable : starts with one or more consonants and ends with V ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

100. Structure of the English Syllable Closed syllable : consonants at the end. CVC Both the onset and coda can consist of more than on consonant, also known as consonant cluster. For example in the word twist (CCVCC), stress (CCCVC) ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

101. CLASS ACTIVITY Write the syllable structure for: King String Ape Tape Attempt writing three different syllable structures of any three monosyllabic words in your mother tongue ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

102. Differences of syllable structure in languages Languages differ in terms of the constraints they impose on syllable structure: E.g. Hawaiian: No coda consonants Maximum of one consonant per onset Examples: ink > 'înika Norman > Nolemana E.g. Polish: many consonant clusters at the beginning of words that are impossible in English: bzdura "nonsense" babsk "witch" grzbiet [gzhbyet] "back" marnotrawstw [mar-no-trafstf] "of wastes" ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

103. PROSODY An informal definition : The ‘music’ of a language, its characteristic ‘melody’ and ‘rhythm’. A more formal definition : The system of prosodic contrasts that a language employs. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

104. Typical supra-segmental features : Supra-segmental features : Phonetic features that span more than a single speech segment. Features that span a whole syllable or are only apparent when one syllable is compared with others in its neighborhood Voice pitch Loudness or vocal effort Length or relative duration of a syl l able Supra-segmental features realize or express prosodic contrasts. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

105. ENGLISH PROSODY Stress: the relative prominence of a syllable. Stress: operates at the level of the word ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

106. English Prosody Rhythm: patterns of stress in time. Intonation: the pitch pattern of an utterance. Intonation: operates at the level of the phrase or whole utterance. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

107. Stress placement ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

108. Non-native speakers of English should practice hearing and producing these stress contrasts: an insult to insult an overflow to overflow an increase to increase a walkout to walk out ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

109. English Prosody Con vert Pro duce Im port Identify other words that are distinguished by stress placement in English. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

110. Rhythm Stressed syllables tend to occur at regular intervals of time.  Stressed  syllables  tend to o  ccur at  regular  intervals of  time. You can usually tap in regular time to the primary stressed syllables in a fluent English phrase. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

111. Rhythm English is said to be a ‘stress-timed’ language. Other languages are said to be ‘syllable timed’ (e.g. French) .How is rhythm patterned in Kiswahili? What can you say about the rhythm of your L1? NB: No language is perfectly rhythmic (isochronous) and this classification of types of language rhythm remains controversial. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

112. Tone Is the term used for the overall behaviour of the pitch It can be level or moving The latter are more common Level tone does not sound natural When saying yes or no in a final manner, falling tone is usually used For questioning manner rising tone is used (now we are already talking about function) ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

113. Tone and tone languages Tone is marked before the syllable: level _ yes falling yes rising yes In this way we can also mark the high tone level and low tone level The case for some other languages is different: In these the tone can determine on the meaning of the word in question . In Kikamba: the form ‘Iia’ ‘milk’ has several meanings depending on the tonal variation. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

114. Complex tones and pitch height Each of these may express particular attitudes : Fall : neutral statement Rise : neutral question, doubt Fall-Rise : scepticism Rise-Fall : emphatic statement Level : boredom, disinterest In ordinary speech intonation tends to take place within the lower part of the speaker´s pitch range. Only with strong feelings we use extra pitch height. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

115. A practical system of symbols has been developed to denote innotation ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

116. Intonation and sentence types Declaratives Most English declarative sentences, in their neutral, unmarked version, take rise-fall intonation contour and the tonic stress on the last lexically important word in the utterance: I have to leave. I’ll give it to John. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

117. Imperatives and exclamations Like declaratives, imperatives (often referred to as commands or requests when viewed pragmatically) generally have rising falling intonation, but they are often more forceful or affectively loaded than declarative sentences: Write more POEMS! ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

118. Questions • YES/NO questions Neutral or unmarked YES/NO questions (i.e. questions that involve the inversion of the subject and the auxiliary verb or the addition of do as the auxiliary in sentences that have no lexical auxiliary verb) generally follow the rising intonation. Different realizations of the rising contour are possible depending on which constituent of the utterance is being emphasized: Does John write POEMS ? (emphasis on “poems” ) Does JOHN write poems ? (emphasis on “John”). ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

119. Questions WH- questions Neutral or unmarked WH-questions (i.e. questions where the constituent being questioned appears in the form of a wh -word ( what , who, when, where , etc) are accompanied by the rising-falling intonation. Again, different realizations of the contour depend on which constituent of the utterance is in focus: What does John WRITE ? (focus on the result/product) What does JOHN write? (focus on agent). Such rising-falling intonation surprises some non-native speakers of English, who assume that all questions, regardless of type, should be spoken with rising intonation. ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy

120. Question tags are used most frequently to seek confirmation or to make a point, the (pitch) contour which usually accompanies them in English is the rising-falling pattern: It’s a nice DAY , IS n’t it ? People are worried about e CON omy, ARE n’t they ? ENGL 121/013: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonolgy