Plant And Animal Based Composites Kumar Kaushik Davim J Paulo

Plant And Animal Based Composites Kumar Kaushik Davim J Paulo
Plant And Animal Based Composites Kumar Kaushik Davim J Paulo
Plant And Animal Based Composites Kumar Kaushik Davim J Paulo

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6. Kaushik Kumar, J. Paulo Davim (Eds.)
Plant and Animal Based Composites

7. AdvancedComposites
Editedby
J.PauloDavim
Volume13

8. Also of interest
Series: Advanced Composites.
J. Paulo Davim (Ed.)
ISSN- 
Published titles in this series:
Vol.: Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites ()
Ed. by J. Babu, J. Paulo Davim
Vol.: Polymers and Composites Manufacturing ()
Ed. by K. Kumar, J. Paulo Davim
Vol.: Biodegradable Composites () Ed. by K. Kumar,
J. P. Davim
Vol.: Wear of Composite Materials () Ed. by J. P. Davim
Vol.: Hierarchical Composite Materials () Ed. by K. Kumar,
J. P. Davim
Vol.: Green Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim
Vol.: Wood Composites () Ed. by A. Alfredo, J. P. Davim
Vol.: Ceramic Matrix Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim
Vol.: Machinability of Fibre-Reinforced Plastics ()
Ed. by J. P. Davim
Vol.: Metal Matrix Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim
Vol.: Biomedical Composites () Ed. by J. P. Davim
Vol.: Nanocomposites () Ed. by J. P. Davim, C. A. Charitidis
Keratin-based Materials.
N. Reddy, W. Zhou, M. Ma
ISBN--- -, e-ISBN--- -
Polymeric Composites with Rice Hulls.
Ch. Defonseka,
ISBN----, e-ISBN----

9. PlantandAnimal
BasedComposites
Editedby
KaushikKumarandJ.PauloDavim

10. Editors
Dr.KaushikKumar
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering
BirlaInstituteofTechnology
Mesra,Ranchi835215,Jharkhand
India
[email protected]
Prof.Dr.J.PauloDavim
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering
UniversityofAveiro
CampusSantiago
3810-193Aveiro
Portugal
[email protected]
ISBN978-3-11-069521-2
e-ISBN(PDF)978-3-11-069537-3
e-ISBN(EPUB)978-3-11-069547-2
ISSN2192-8983
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2020951354
BibliographicinformationpublishedbytheDeutscheNationalbibliothek
TheDeutscheNationalbibliothekliststhispublicationintheDeutscheNationalbibliografie;
detailedbibliographicdataareavailableontheInternetathttp://dnb.dnb.de.
©2021WalterdeGruyterGmbH,Berlin/Boston
Coverimage:gettyimages/thinkstockphotos,AbaloneShell
Typesetting:IntegraSoftwareServicesPvt.Ltd.
Printingandbinding:CPIbooksGmbH,Leck
www.degruyter.com

11. Preface
The editors are pleased to present the bookPlant and Animal Based Composites
under the book seriesAdvanced Composites. The book title was chosen as it depicts
the upcoming trends in composite materials for the next decade. This book is a com-
pilation of different plant- and animal-based composites or in common words,natu-
ral composites. Emphasis is on the achievements, progress and recent developments
and their applications.
The increasing demand for environmentally friendly materials and the need for
cheaper fibers that increase the desirable mechanical properties force us to search
for natural products. Natural fibers/fillers are largely divided into two categories de-
pending on their origin: plant based and animal based. The fibers, in case of plant-
based composites, can be extracted from the various parts of the plant, that is,
bark/stem, leaves, fruits and so on, whereas, in the case of animal-based ones, the
same can be from the scale (fish), skin (animals), feather (birds, chicken, etc.), egg-
shell, shell (mollusks, sea urchins, crustaceans, turtles and tortoises, armadillos,
etc.), animal waste and so on.
One of the major disadvantages of the usage of these fibers is moisture absorp-
tion. Most of the nature-based fibers or fillers are hydrophilic in nature owing to the
presence of functional groups such as hydroxyl in their structure and also being
porous. Hence, they absorb a considerable amount of moisture from the surround-
ing environment. The high moisture absorption leads to a number of problems
when used as reinforcement materials such as:
(1) Fibers and fillers swell due to the absorption of moisture and shrink when
moisture is removed due to the dry atmosphere and elevated temperatures.
This frequent swelling–shrinking phenomena leads to the formation of cracks
and hence leads to reduced mechanical performance and durability of the
composites.
(2) High absorption of alkaline solution present within the matrix leads to the deg-
radation of fibers with time. These result in deterioration of the properties of
the composites.
(3) Moisture absorption of fibers and fillers leads to breakage of hydrogen bonds
between the fiber and matrix and, therefore, weakens the fiber/matrix interface
and, consequently, it deteriorates the mechanical strength.
Therefore, a number of fiber surface treatment methods are required to be under-
taken to reduce the moisture absorption of fibers for applying them in composites.
At present,Plant and Animal Based Compositeis a major discipline and many
researchers and scholars are working in these areas. This book provides insight for
all researchers, academicians, postgraduate or senior undergraduate students
working in the area. The chapters in the book have been provided by researchers
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110695373-202

12. and academicians working in the field and have gained considerable success in the
field.
The chapters in the book have been categorized intothree parts,namely,Part
I: State of Art; Part II: Plant-Based Composites; and Part III: Animal-Based
Composites.
Part IcontainsChapters 1–3, whereasPart IIhasChapters 4–7andPart III
withChapter 8.
Part Istarts withChapter 1, which provides the readers an insight into recent
developments in plant and animal fiber-reinforced composite. The chapter reviews
the recent reports about the properties, fabrication processes, applications and ad-
vancements in the field of composites fabricated with different biodegradable plant
and animal fiber-reinforced composites. Various types of matrix and reinforcements
that are available to be used with biopolymers for best maintainable green compo-
sites have also been addressed. These natural composites can be created at a low
cost, have practically identical mechanical properties with synthetic composites
and maintain a balance between ecology, technology and the economy.
Chapter 2elaborately deals with the advances in animal/plant–plastic compo-
sites. This chapter aims at exploring the preparation, characterization and applica-
tions of plant/animal fiber-reinforced polymer composites. The chapter starts with
a thorough overview of the various forms of plant/animal fiber-reinforced polymer
composites followed by examples of such composites and their promising future in
terms of research and development and their application in domestic and engineer-
ing products. Considering forest conservation and the efficient use of agricultural
as well as other renewable resources, such as solar, wind and tidal energy, the use
of renewable materials, such as plant/animal fiber-reinforced polymeric compo-
sites, is slowly becoming a key design requirement in the design and development
of parts for a wide range of industrial products. An extensive research into such
composites can lead to an even greener and healthier environment, to some extent.
Again, inChapter 3, the last chapter of this part, a detailed review of the ductile
attributes of natural fiber composites has been put forward. Normal fiber-strengthened
composites are a developing territory in the polymer discipline. Hence, this chapter
presents a detailed effort on the characteristics of natural fiber composites with an ex-
ceptional testimonial to the types of fibers, fabrication method and ductile attributes.
This is a very pertinent problem as these natural fiber composites are biodegradable
and noncoarse, and they exhibit the explicit attributes that are practically identical to
those of regular fiber composites. Due to their low cost, equally great mechanical attrib-
utes, extremely explicit quality, nonrasping, eco-friendly and ecological attributes,
they have gained a lot of ground and the ductile characters are essentially impacted by
the hook-up attachment among the matrix and the fibers.
Chapter 4, the next chapter of the book and the first chapter ofPart II, pro-
vides the reader with an exclusive study of plant-based fibers and resins in compo-
sites. In the present era, the use of sustainable crude materials in the composite
VI Preface

13. industry is turning out to be progressively well known in view of the natural after-
care and the necessity to replace fossil resources. Plant oils with triglyceride spines
can be artificially altered and used to integrate resin from inexhaustible assets.
Plant oils contain a dominance of triglyceride, the glycerol esters of unsaturated
fats. Five important types of unsaturated fats of the unsaturated fat chain are ob-
tained as one of the outputs from the hydrolysis process of triglyceride with 16 to 18
carbons with 0 to 3 times the securities. The five unsaturated fats are oleic, lino-
lenic, palmitic, linoleic and stearic acids. The percentage of specific unsaturated fat
varies in different plant oils and also in similar plant oils. The variation depends on
the plant species, weather and plant growth states. This chapter puts emphasis on
plant-based fibers, resins and fillers derived from different plants.
InChapter 5, an orthopedic application of plant-based composites has been
described. Orthotic calipers have been fabricated and tested with plant-based com-
posites. The main objective of the chapter was to use bark-based and fruit-based
reinforcement with epoxy as the matrix to create the braces for orthotic calipers.
The void content and mechanical behavior, including tensile and flexural test, were
performed and then compared with the currently used materials. After comparison,
it is observed that the specific strength and stiffness of bark-based reinforced com-
posite are better than that of the presently used aluminum alloy.
InChapter 6, the next chapter of the book, the content experimentally illus-
trates the mechanical potential of the polypropylene, jute and coir fiber-based com-
posites. Three types of composite specimens–polypropylene, polypropylene
reinforced with jute and polypropylene reinforced with jute and coir composites–,
are prepared using the injection molding method. The experimental results show
that the incorporation of jute and coir fibers into the polypropylene matrix resulted
in improvement of the tensile, flexural and impact properties of the composites.
Chapter 7, the last chapter of the section, provides the mechanical properties
of a very common plant-based composite,rice straw fibre reinforced with epoxy. The
chapter discusses the preparation of different types of rice straw fiber with epoxy
composite: rice straw fiber has been used without any surface treatment and treated
with hot water and NaOH with different volume fractions. The fibers are used in
aligned and cross-conditions with different layers. Mechanical properties as per the
standard have been analyzed and compared.
The only chapter ofPart IIIand the last chapter of the book, that is,Chapter 8
presents the thermomechanical properties of forcespun polycaprolactone (PCL) fi-
bers infused with fish scale-based hydroxyapatite (HA). This chapter highlights the
usage of animal-based reinforcement. In one word, this chapter deals with a
completely biodegradable composite, as both the matrix and the reinforcement are
biodegradable. HA is a biomaterial with excellent characteristics that is suitable for
biomedical applications. In this chapter, HA is synthesized from carpa fish scales
by the calcination method and nanomilled for particle size reduction, and these
particles were characterized using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy
Preface VII

14. and transmission electron microscopy. A novel forcespinning technique was used
to fabricate microfibers from PCL infused with synthesized HA. Thermomechanical
properties of the PCL/HA fiber mats were investigated using differential scanning
calorimetry, dynamic mechanical analysis and tensile tests. The analyses suggest
that infusing the HA in moderate quantities will enhance the thermomechanical
properties of the composite fibers.
First and foremost, we would like to thank God. It was God’s blessing that pro-
vided us the strength to believe in passion, hard work and pursue dreams. We
thank our families for having patience with us for taking yet another challenge that
decreased the amount of time we could spend with them. They were our inspiration
and motivation. We would like to thank our parents and grandparents for allowing
us to follow our ambitions. We would like to thank all the contributing authors as
they are the pillars of this structure. We would also like to thank them for their be-
lief in us. We would like to thank all of our colleagues and friends in different parts
of the world for sharing their ideas in shaping our thoughts. We will be satisfied
with our efforts when professionals connected with all fields related to lightweight
materials get benefitted.
We owe a huge thanks to all of our technical reviewers, editorial advisory
board members, book development editor and the team ofWalter de Gruyter
GmbHfor their availability to work on this huge project. All of their efforts helped
to make this book complete and we could not have done it without them.
Last, but definitely not least, we would like to thank all individuals who have
taken the time out and helped us during the process of editing this book, without
whose support and encouragement we would have probably given up the project.
Kaushik Kumar
J. Paulo Davim
VIII Preface

15. About the editors
Kaushik Kumar, B.Tech. (Mechanical Engineering, REC (Now NIT), Warangal), MBA (Marketing,
IGNOU) and Ph.D. (Engineering, Jadavpur University), is an associate professor in the Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India. He has 18 years of
teaching and research experience and over 11 years of industrial experience in a manufacturing
unit of global repute. His areas of teaching and research interest are composites, optimization,
nonconventional machining, CAD/CAM, rapid prototyping and quality management systems. He
has 9 patents; authored 30+ books; edited 29 books, 53 book chapters, 150 international journal
publications; and has 18 international and 8 national conference publications to his credit. He is
on the editorial board and review panel of seven international and one national journals of repute.
He has been felicitated with many awards and honors.
J. Paulo Davimis a Full Professor at the University of Aveiro, Portugal. He is also distinguished as
honorary professor in several universities/colleges in China, India and Spain. He received his Ph.D.
degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1997, M.Sc. degree in Mechanical Engineering (materials and
manufacturing processes) in 1991, Mechanical Engineering degree (5 years) in 1986, from the
University of Porto (FEUP), the Aggregate title (Full Habilitation) from the University of Coimbra in
2005 and the D.Sc. (Higher Doctorate) from London Metropolitan University in 2013. He is Senior
Chartered Engineer by the Portuguese Institution of Engineers with an MBA and Specialist titles in
Engineering and Industrial Management as well as in Metrology. He is also Eur Ing by FEANI-Brussels
and Fellow (FIET) of IET-London. He has more than 30 years of teaching and research experience in
Manufacturing, Materials, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, with special emphasis in
Machining & Tribology. He has also interest in Management, Engineering Education and Higher
Education for Sustainability. He has guided large numbers of postdoc, Ph.D. and master’s students
as well as has coordinated and participated in several financed research projects. He has received
several scientific awards and honors. He has worked as evaluator of projects for ERC-European
Research Council and other international research agencies as well as examiner of Ph.D. thesis for
many universities in different countries. He is the Editor in Chief of several international journals,
Guest Editor of journals, books Editor, book Series Editor and Scientific Advisory for many
international journals and conferences. Presently,he is an Editorial Board member of 30 international
journals and acts as reviewer for more than 100 prestigious Web of Science journals. In addition,
he has also published as editor (and co-editor) more than 150 books and as author (and co-author)
more than 15 books, 100 book chapters and 500 articles in journals and conferences (more than
280 articles in journals indexed in Web of Science core collection/h-index 57+/10500+ citations,
SCOPUS/h-index 62+/13000+ citations, Google Scholar/h-index 80+/21500+ citations).
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110695373-203

16. Contents
Preface V
About the editors IX
List of contributors XIII
Part I:State of art
Shravan Kumar Nutenki, Tanya Buddi, Anitha Akkireddy and K. V. Durga Rajesh
Recent developments in plant and animal fiber-reinforced composite 3
Harrison Shagwira, Thomas O. Mbuya and F. M. Mwema
Advances in animal/plant–plastic composites: preparation, characterization
and applications 25
S. Sathees Kumar and B. Sridhar Babu
A review of ductile attributes of natural fiber composites 39
Part II:Plant-based composite
S. S. Godara, Vinay Swami and R. S. Rana
Study of plant-based fibers and resins in composites 55
Nisha Kumari and Kaushik Kumar
Orthopedic application of plant-based composites: a case on orthotic
calipers 71
R. Uzwalkiran and B. Sridhar Babu
Development and mechanical characterization of jute/polypropylene/coir
composites 91
Chikesh Ranjan
Mechanical behavior of plant-based composite: a case with rice straw 105

17. Part III:Animal-based composite
Deepa Kodali, Vincent Hembrick-Holloman, Shaik Jeelani
and Vijaya K. Rangari
Thermomechanical properties of forcespun polycaprolactone fibers infused
with fish scale-based hydroxyapatite 127
Index 149
XII Contents

18. List of contributors
Anitha Akkireddy
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering
and Technology
Hyderabad, Telangana
India
Chikesh Ranjan
Department of Mechanical Engineering
RTC Institute of Technology
Ranchi, Jharkhand
India
Deepa Kodali
Department of Materials Science Engineering
Tuskegee University
Tuskegee, AL
USA
K. V. Durga Rajesh
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation
Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh
India
S. S. Godara
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rajasthan Technical University
Kota, Rajasthan
India
Harrison Shagwira
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dedan Kimathi University of Technology
Nyeri, Kenya
Kaushik Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology Mesra
Ranchi, Jharkhand
India
Thomas O. Mbuya
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering
University of Nairobi
Nairobi, Kenya
F. M. Mwema
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dedan Kimathi University of Technology
Nyeri, Kenya
Nisha Kumari
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Medi-Caps University
Indore, Madhya Pradesh
India
R. S. Rana
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Maulana Azad National Institute of
Technology
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
India
S. Sathees Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
CMR Institute of Technology
Hyderabad, Telangana
India
Shaik Jeelani
Department of Materials Science Engineering
Tuskegee University
Tuskegee, AL
USA
Shravan Kumar Nutenki
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering
and Technology
Hyderabad, Telangana
India
B. Sridhar Babu
Department of Mechanical Engineering
CMR Institute of Technology
Hyderabad, Telangana
India
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110695373-205

19. Tanya Buddi
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering
and Technology
Hyderabad, Telangana
India
R. Uzwalkiran
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Surathkal
Surathkal, Karnataka
India
Vijaya K. Rangari
Department of Materials Science Engineering
Tuskegee University
Tuskegee, AL
USA
Vinay Swami
Department of Aeronautical and Mechanical
Engineering
Rajasthan Technical University
Kota, Rajasthan
India
Vincent Hembrick-Holloman
Department of Materials Science Engineering
Tuskegee University
Tuskegee, AL
USA
XIV List of contributors

20. PartI:Stateofart

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26. The Project Gutenberg eBook of The War in
Syria, Volume 2 (of 2)

27. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
Title: The War in Syria, Volume 2 (of 2)
Author: Charles Napier
Release date: May 20, 2017 [eBook #54751]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Produced by KD Weeks, Brian Coe and the Online
Distributed
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WAR IN
SYRIA, VOLUME 2 (OF 2) ***

29. Transcriber’s Note:
Footnotes have been collected at the end of each
chapter, and are linked for ease of reference.
Minor errors, attributable to the printer, have been
corrected. Corrections appear with a underline highlight.
The original text can be viewed by placing the cursor
atop the correction. Please see the transcriber’s note at
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any textual issues encountered during its preparation.
The cover image has been created, based on title page
information, and is added to the public domain.

30. THE
WAR IN SYRIA.
BY
COMMODORE SIR CHARLES NAPIER, K.C.B.,
&c., &c., &c.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. II.
LONDON:
JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.
M.DCCC.XLII.
London :
Harrison and Co., Printers ,
St. Martin’s Lane.

31. CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
  PAGE
 
Chapter I.
 
Gale on the Egyptian and Syrian Coasts—The Author’s
return to Marmorice Bay—Letters from the Admiral,
the General and the Ambassador regarding the
Convention—The Author’s Replies—Letter of the
Admiral to Mehemet Ali—Commotion occasioned by
the Convention—Admiral’s Letter to the Admiralty—
Instruction of the 14th November—Captain Fanshawe
dispatched to Alexandria—Instruction to the Admiral
1
 
 
Chapter II.
 
Captain Fanshawe’s proceedings at Alexandria—Letter
from Mehemet Ali to the Admiral—Official Report of
Captain Fanshawe—Letter of Mehemet Ali to the
Grand Vizier—English Ships again ordered to the
Coast of Syria—Part of the Convention carried into
effect by the Admiral
20
 
 
Chapter III.

32.  
Captain Fanshawe’s Arrival at Constantinople—Interview
with the Grand Vizier—Conference of Ambassadors
and Rechid Pacha—Conduct of Lord Ponsonby; his
Letter to Lord Palmerston—The Porte accepts the
submission of Mehemet Ali—Letter of Rechid Pacha to
the Ambassador and of the Vizier to Mehemet Ali—
Captain Fanshawe returns to Marmorice
33
 
 
Chapter IV.
 
Disinclination of the Porte to confer the Hereditary
Pachalic on Mehemet Ali—Departure of the Turkish
Commissioners—Their orders—Opposition of the
Austrian, Prussian, and Russian Ministers to the views
of Lord Ponsonby—Lord Palmerston’s opinion of his
conduct—Rewards conferred on the Officers of the
Squadron at Acre—News from England—Approval of
the Convention—Instruction of the 15th of December
—Lord Palmerston’s Letter to Lord Ponsonby—Prince
Metternich and Count Nesselrode, in approval of the
Convention
41
 
 
Chapter V.
 
The Author ordered to Alexandria to carry the
Convention into effect—Interviews with the Pacha and
Boghos Bey—Letter from Boghos Bey explaining the
Pacha’s Intentions—Lieut. Loring dispatched to see
the Evacuation of Syria carried into effect; his
Instructions—Letters to the Chief Officers in Syria—
Arrival of the Turkish Commissioners at Alexandria-
61

33. Surrender of the Turkish Fleet—Bad Faith of the
Turks-Correspondence between the Author and
Boghos Bey respecting the Cotton Crop—The
Commercial Treaty
 
 
Chapter VI.
 
The Author visits Cairo—The Mahmoudieh Canal—Fire
on board the Steamer—Voyage up the Nile—
Appearance of the Country—Condition of the People—
Arrival at Cairo—Visit to Abbas Pacha—Palace of
Schoubrah—Establishments of the Pacha—Industry of
the Arabs—Visit to the Pyramids—Quit Cairo
76
 
 
Chapter VII.
 
Letter from Captain Stewart—Apprehended Treachery of
the Turkish Authorities—Question of the Syrian Troops
—Double dealing of Mehemet Ali—The Author’s
Letters to the chief British and Turkish Officers—
Letter to the Admiral
89
 
 
Chapter VIII.
 
Affairs in Syria—Letters of Sir Charles Smith to Lord
Palmerston—Course that ought to have been pursued
after the Battle of Boharsof—Ignorance as to
Ibrahim’s Movements and Intentions—General Michell
to Lord Palmerston—M. Steindl’s Report respecting
the Advance upon Gaza—Captain Stewart to the
97

34. Admiral—General Michell’s and Captain Stewart’s
Opinion as to Lord Ponsonby’s Orders—
Correspondence between Captain Stewart and
General Jochmus
 
 
Chapter IX.
 
Examination of the Conduct of General Jochmus
regarding Ibrahim Pacha’s Retreat—Sir Robert
Stopford styled by him Commander-in-Chief of the
Allied Forces—The General’s Reports to Sir Robert
Stopford—Unwillingness of the Admiral to prolong the
War—Reported Destruction of the Egyptian Army—
Advance upon Gaza—Colonel Alderson’s Narrative of
the Skirmish of Medjdel
119
 
 
Chapter X.
 
General Jochmus’s farther Reports to Sir Robert
Stopford—Destruction of the Magazines at Maan—
Ignorance as to Ibrahim’s movements—Ibrahim
crosses the Jordan to Jericho, and menaces
Jerusalem, while supposed to be wandering in the
Desert—General Jochmus’s Account of the
Movements of Ibrahim—Reported Destruction of his
Infantry—Ibrahim did not intend to enter Palestine—
His Statement to Colonel Napier
134
 
 
Chapter XI.
 

35. Fruitless Journey of the Envoys sent in quest of Ibrahim
Pacha—Arrival of part of the Egyptian Army at Gaza—
Promised Neutrality of the Turks—The Egyptians
informed of the Cessation of Hostilities by the English
Officers—Terms recommended by Mr. Wood to be
imposed upon Ibrahim Pacha—Colonel Napier’s
Narrative of the Retreat of Ibrahim Pacha
141
 
 
Chapter XII.
 
Conduct of Mr. Wood—His Letter to the Seraskier
examined—His Advice disregarded by the British
Officers—Mission of Colonel Alderson to Gaza—
Colonel Rose’s Account of the State of Ibrahim’s Army
—Colonel Alderson’s Character of Ibrahim Pacha—
Death of General Michell
157
 
 
Chapter XIII.
 
Detail of the Retreat of the Egyptians—Treacherous
Intentions of the Turkish Authorities—Decided
Conduct of the British Officers—Guarantees
exchanged—Fright of Rechid Pacha—Letter from
Ibrahim to the Seraskier—The Author’s Letters to
Lords Minto and Palmerston
172
 
 
Chapter XIV.
 
Contradictory Statements as to the Numbers of the Egyptian Army—
Reason for abiding by the Reports of the

36. British Officers—Colonel Alderson’s Detail of the Retreat
—General Jochmus’s Statement—Lieut. Loring’s
Mission
182
 
 
Chapter XV.
 
Embarkation of the Egyptians—Mode in which it was
conducted—Departure of Ibrahim Pacha—Retreat of
Souliman’s Division—Complete Evacuation of Syria—
Letter of Lord Ponsonby—Delivery of the Turkish Fleet
—Anxiety of Mehemet Ali for the safety of his Army—
Letter from Boghos Bey to the Author on the subject
191
 
 
Chapter XVI.
 
Examination of the Conduct of the Allied Ministers at
Constantinople—Lord Ponsonby’s Propositions
regarding the Hereditary Government of Egypt—
Approved by the other Allied Ministers, but on
consideration rejected by them—Lord Palmerston’s
Conversation with the Turkish Minister—Note of the
Four Powers in favour of the Hereditary Tenure
199
 
 
Chapter XVII.
 
Determination of the Allied Courts to secure the
Hereditary Pachalic for Mehemet Ali—Correspondence
between Baron Stunner and Lord Ponsonby—Decisive
Instructions from Lord Palmerston to Lord Ponsonby—
Conference of the Allied Ministers with Rechid Pacha
214

37. —Project for settling the Egyptian Question—Lord
Ponsonby’s Observations at the Conference—The
Firmans decided on—Refusal of Lord Ponsonby to
allow the English Consul-General to return to Egypt—
Lord Ponsonby’s Letter to Rechid Pacha
 
 
Chapter XVIII.
 
Delay in forwarding the Firmans to Mehemet Ali—
Instructions to the Commissioner—The Author’s Visit
to the Egyptian Flag-ship—Substance of the Firmans
—Objections of the Pacha—The Author’s Advice—
Letter to Lord Palmerston—The Author’s last Interview
with Mehemet Ali—Return to Malta—Correspondence
with Sir Robert Stopford—Return to England
226
 
 
Chapter XIX.
 
Meeting of the Foreign Ministers in London—Protocol of
the 5th March—Note of Chekib Effendi—Note of the
13th of March—Lord Palmerston’s explanation of the
Views of the Allies regarding the Hereditary Tenure—
Conference of the 16th March—Protocol—Endeavour
to include France in a Convention for closing the
Straits of the Dardanelles and Bosphorus—False
Position of the Porte—Views of Lord Ponsonby and of
the other Ambassadors—Instructions of the Austrian
and British Governments—Opinions of M. Guizot—
Turkish Plan of Settlement—Note of the 10th May
244
 
 

38. Chapter XX.
 
Colonel Napier’s Account of his Missions to Egypt—
Seizure of the Maronite and Druse Emirs and Sheikhs
—Their Condition in Egypt—Their Return to Syria—
False Assertions of the French—Mission for the
Liberation of the Syrian Soldiers—Difficulty of
ascertaining their Number—Bad Faith of the Pacha—
Infamous Proposal of a Turkish Officer—Sudden
termination of the Negotiation—Suspicious conduct of
the Egyptians—Liberation of the Syrians
259
 
 
Chapter XXI.
 
Prince Metternich’s Orders to the Internuncio—Lord
Ponsonby’s Correspondence with Baron Stürmer—
Hesitation of the Porte—Message from Lord Ponsonby
to Rifat Pacha—The new Firman granted—Accepted
by Mehemet Ali—Termination of the Eastern Question
267
 
 
Chapter XXII.
 
Review of the Turco-Egyptian Question—Mehemet Ali
not the Aggressor—Hostile Preparations of the Porte
—Representations of the Allied Powers—What
Interests affected by the Independence of Mehemet
Ali—Views of France—Designs of Russia
275
 
 
Chapter XXIII.
 

39. Errors of the Pacha—His proper Course of Action—
Mismanagement of Ibrahim Pacha in Syria—Gain or
Loss of Turkey by the acquisition of Syria—Conduct of
the Turks in Lebanon—Quarrels of the Mountaineers—
Ill treatment of the Prince—Consequent hatred of
Turkish rule—Conclusion
285
 
 
APPENDIX.
 
I. Instructions given by the Sultan to Hafiz Pacha, found
at the Turkish Head-Quarters after the battle of Nizib
299
 
II. Translation of a Petition (in Copy) from the Nations
and Inhabitants of Mount Lebanon and Syria, to
Sultan Abdul Medjid of Constantinople
303
 
Letter addressed by the Inhabitants of Mount Lebanon
to his Excellency the British Ambassador
306
 
Letter addressed by the Inhabitants of Mount Lebanon
to his Excellency the French Ambassador
308
 
III. Letter from Commodore Napier to Lieut.-Colonel
Hodges
310
 
IV. Extract of Letter from Commodore Napier to Admiral
the Hon. Sir Robert Stopford, G.C.B.
313
 
V. Instructions to Captain Fanshawe, on his Mission to
Alexandria
316
 

40. VI. Protocol of the Conference held at the house of the
Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Sublime Porte, the
20th of December, 1840, between the Minister for
Foreign Affairs, on one part, and the Representatives
of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, on the
other
318
 
VII. Letter from Lieutenant-Colonel Napier to Sir Charles
Napier
329
 
VIII. Letter from Boghos Bey to Sir Charles Napier 332

41. ERRATA.
Vol. I., p. 88, line 16, for southward, close to the castle, read
northward, close to the castle.
Vol. II., p. 41, line 3, for 22nd November, read 11th December.
”      p . 199, line 4, for Opposed, read Approved.

42. THE WAR IN SYRIA.

43. CHAPTER I.
Gale on the Egyptian and Syrian Coasts—The Author’s return to Marmorice Bay—
Letters from the Admiral, the General and the Ambassador regarding the
Convention—The Author’s Replies—Letter of the Admiral to Mehemet Ali—
Commotion occasioned by the Convention—Admiral’s Letter to the Admiralty—
Instruction of the 14th November—Captain Fanshawe dispatched to
Alexandria—Instruction to the Admiral.
Among the reasons that induced me to enter into negotiation with
the Pacha of Egypt, it will be recollected that I have mentioned the
uncertain state of the weather, which rendered it possible that the
British squadron might at any minute be blown off the coast; and I
found that I had concluded my arrangements only just in time. For I
had hardly got the Prometheus away, on the 28th of November,
1840, when it began to blow, which freshened to a gale in the night;
the morning brought more moderate weather, but towards dusk it
came on with great violence, and lasted thirty-six hours. The
Powerful was struck by a heavy sea, which started her fore-channels
and endangered the fore-mast; the new rigging of the Rodney and
Cambridge had given out so much, that their masts became
insecure, and seeing no further necessity for keeping the squadron
at sea, I proceeded to Marmorice Bay, where I anchored on the 8th
of December, and was much gratified to be received by the squadron
with three cheers, and the rigging manned, with the same
enthusiasm I had before experienced on joining the squadron off
Alexandria.
Captain Henderson, of the Gorgon, first communicated to me that
my Convention had been rejected by the Admiral, which I have
reason to believe he approved of in the first instance, but was

44. overruled by the authorities in Syria. Next morning the Princess
Charlotte and Bellerophon arrived from Beyrout. They had
experienced the same gale we did off Alexandria, and rode it out in
St. George’s Bay; the Bellerophon, driven from the anchorage at
Beyrout, was obliged to cut her cable and make sail, and after
scraping the land as far down the coast as Latakia, was saved by a
miraculous shift of wind; great credit is due to Captain Austin, and
the officers and crew of the Bellerophon, for saving the ship. The
Pique was obliged to cut away her masts to prevent her going on
shore at Caiffa; and the Zebra parted and was thrown on the beach,
with the loss of two men only. The Austrian squadron quitted the
coast of Syria with the English, and the French vessels of war
remained.
On the Admiral’s arrival at Marmorice, letters from himself, Sir
Charles Smith, and Lord Ponsonby, were put into my hand. I insert
them here, together with the replies.
“Sir,

“Princess Charlotte, St. George’s Bay,
Beyrout, December 2, 1840.
“I have received, by the Prometheus, your letter and the
Convention which you have entered into with Boghos Bey, for the
evacuation of Syria.
“I am sorry to say that I cannot ratify, or approve of this measure:
setting aside the unauthorized manner and the unnecessary haste
with which so important a document was executed, with the
Commander-in-Chief within two days’ sail of you, the articles of that
Convention, if carried into execution, in the present state of affairs in
Syria, would be productive of much more evil than good, and
occasion much embarrassment. You will immediately stop the
Egyptian transports from coming to this coast; and should any
arrive, I have given orders that they should return to Alexandria.
  “I am, &c.,
(Signed)            “ Robert Stoéford ,
Admiral.

45. “Commodore Napier, C. B., H.M.S. Powerful,
Senior Officer off Alexandria.”
“Sir,

“H.M.S. Powerful, Marmorice Bay,
December 14, 1840.
“I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 2nd of
December, disapproving of the Convention I had entered into with
the Egyptian Government for the evacuation of Syria and the
surrender of the fleet. I have only to regret, that what I did with the
best intentions, and believed to be in accordance with the views of
the Allies, should not have met your approbation.
“I beg to assure you that, it was not from any want of respect to
you that I did not communicate with you before signing it, but it was
under the impression that it was of the utmost importance to seize
the opportunity, when the Pacha was highly incensed against France,
to bring him, without loss of time, to terms without the mediation of
that power.
“I have also to acknowledge the receipt of the copy of a letter you
have sent me from Lord Ponsonby, the original of which, I presume,
is gone to Alexandria, and I beg to inclose you a copy of my reply.
  “I have &c.,
(Signed)            “ C. Naéier,
Commodore.”
“The Hon. Sir R. Stopford,
Commander-in-Chief, &c., &c., &c.”
“Sir,

“Head Quarters, Beyrout,
30th November, 1840.
“Had you fortunately abstained from honouring me with your
letter of the 27th instant, I should have been spared the pain of
replying to it. I am not aware that you have been invested with
special powers or authority to treat with Mehemet Ali as to the
evacuation of Syria by the Egyptian troops; and if you have such
special powers and authority, you have not taken the trouble of
acquainting me therewith.

46. “The Convention into which you have entered has been, as relates
to the advanced stage of military events in Syria, more than attained
by the retreat of Ibrahim Pacha. If therefore, you have unknown to
me, had authority to treat, I must decline to be a party to
recommending the ratification of the said Convention; and if
unauthorised to treat, such Convention is invalid, and is, by me,
protested against as being highly prejudicial to the Sultan’s cause, in
as far as it has, or may have, relation to the operations of the army
under my command. It is needless for me to add that a copy of this
protest shall be forwarded to Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs.
  “I have, &c.,
“C. F. Smith, Major-General,
“Commanding the Forces in
Syria.”
“Commodore Napier, C.B.,
H.M.S. Powerful.”
“Sir,

“H.M.S. Powerful, Marmorice,
January 6, 1841.
“Had I unfortunately abstained from writing to you, and the
Admiral had quited the coast, you would have had just cause to
have complained of my want of courtesy.
“When I left Beyrout, Sir Robert Stopford was Commander-in-Chief
of the allied forces by sea and land, it was therefore unnecessary for
me to communicate to you what my powers were, as on him alone
devolved the duty of approving or disapproving of my Convention.
He disapproved of it, and Ibrahim Pacha returned to Damascus. I
quite disagree with you that the Convention was prejudicial to the
interests of the Porte, and I am happy to say it has been approved
of (with the exception of the guarantee) by Her Majesty’s
Government, and I am now going to Alexandria to see it carried into
execution.
  “I have, &c.,
“Charles Naéier, Commodore.”

47. “To Sir Charles Smith, &c., &c.,
Gibraltar.”
“Sir, “Therapia, December 7, 1840.
“I had the honour last night to receive your communication of a
Convention, dated Medea steamer, Alexandria, 27th November,
1840, signed Charles Napier, Commodore, and Boghos Bey.
“I immediately laid that Convention before the Sublime Porte, and
acquainted my colleagues, the Austrian Internuncio, the Prussian
Envoy, and the Russian Chargé d’Affaires, with it. It is my duty to
acquaint you that the Sublime Porte has made a formal protest
against your acts, declaring you have no power or authority
whatever to justify what you have done, and that the Convention is
null and void.
“My colleagues above-mentioned, and myself, entirely concur with
the Sublime Porte, and declare that we are ignorant of your having
the least right to assume the powers you have exercised; and that
we consider the Convention null and void, ab initio.
“It is my duty to call upon you to abstain from every attempt to
carry your Convention into execution, in any degree whatever, and
to state that you are bound by your duty to Her Majesty, to continue
to act with the ships under your command, as you did act before you
assumed the right to make the aforesaid Convention, and as you
would have acted in conformity with your orders, if that Convention
had never been made by you.
“I have sent a copy of this dispatch to Admiral the Hon. Sir Robert
Stopford, and also to Her Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs.
  “I have, &c.,
(Signed)          “ Ponsonby .”
“To Commodore Napier.”
“My Lord,

“H.M.S. Powerful, Marmorice Bay,
Dec. 14, 1840.
“The Commander-in-Chief has sent me a copy of a letter
addressed to me by your Lordship, the original of which I presume

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