political patterns and processes in geography

political patterns and processes in AP human geography

1. Political Patterns and Processes

2. The three fundamental questions to study “ Political Patterns and Processes” in human Geography How do we organize ourselves? How do we identify ourselves? How do we interact and live?

3. This chapter reviews how humans have organized the surface of the Earth into countries (also called states) and the conflicts that sometimes arise . The Earth changes constantly as boundaries and borders. The boundaries of countries * change suddenly because of war. *change gradually as states switch. S witch states: refers to the strategic role that some countries or regions play in global networks and systems Alliances and the forces of globalization greatly impact the political geography of the Earth today by reshaping borders, influencing national sovereignty, and fostering interconnectedness among countries.

4. Stateless Nation

5. Territory: refers to a specific geographic area. Territoriality: is the behavior or social characteristic associated with defending or claiming control over a territory. In many contexts, territoriality describes how people, animals, or groups assert ownership, establish boundaries, or exercise control over an area. “S tate” refers to a country, NOT a political subdivision for example: Nevada and Maine, like other states in the United States, are considered political subdivisions because they operate as an administrative division within the larger framework of the U.S. federal government. Political subdivisions are smaller governmental units within a country that have specific governing powers. Characteristics of a State: Each country has a defined population and borders. The boundaries are clearly defined. Many states exist globally. Nation: A unified group of people sharing a common culture. Examples of nations without a state or political territory of their own include the Kurds , the Navajo , and the Roma . Nation-State: A state where over 90% of the population is made up of a specific cultural group. Examples include Japan, Iceland, Armenia, Bangladesh, and Lesotho

6. Antarctica: This continent is neither a nation nor a state . it has no permanent residents and is not claimed by any country. Heartlands: (Core Areas/ The capital): The regions within countries where economic development is usually the greatest and is located within its core. Growth Pole: Brasilia became a growth pole after Brazil moved its capital from coastal Rio de Janeiro inland to draw people and jobs into the undeveloped interior, fostering economic growth in that region. (A relocating capital)

7. Relocating Capitals/ Forward Capital: Countries may move their capitals for various reasons: 1- For strategic location / 2- 3- Balanced development / Symbol of Modernization Examples: Brazil moved its capital from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia to promote economic growth in its interior. Pakistan moved its capital from Karachi to Islamabad near Kashmir to assert its claim to the contested territory with India, making Islamabad a “forward capital” representing a bold statement. Islamabad / Brasilia are considered forward capitals.

8. Boundaries and Their Influence

9. The shape of a country influences : 1. how easy it is to develop economically. 2. helps or hinders transportation and communication between different parts of the country and between the capital and the outlying areas of the country.

10. The table here summarizes the categories used to describe the shapes of countries and gives some examples of each type.

11. Approximately 30 percent of the countries in Africa are landlocked as a result of the colonial era. Uganda, Central African Republic, Rwanda, Burundi, and Malawi are just a few of these countries without access to the ocean. The similarities and the differences between f rontiers and boundaries. Frontiers and boundarie s are important ways of marking space. Frontiers are almost uninhabited areas, such as those found on the Arabian Peninsula and Antarctica. Unlike frontiers , which are areas not controlled by any state, boundaries are thin, invisible markers that are physical or cultural or a combination of both. Because they represent barriers to travel, physical boundaries such as mountains, deserts, and water often serve to separate states

12. The characteristics of cultural boundaries 1- Ethnic divisions, keeping different cultural groups separate , they respect the cultural differences between groups with in a region. 2- Geometric boundaries drawn during colonial times, often ignore ethnic or cultural divisions. Leading to potential conflicts or issues. 3- Religion has influenced boundary setting, such as the British setting boundaries in India based on religion during its partition. They separate regions by religious majority groups. Hindu is the majority in India/ Muslims are the majority in Pakistan. 4- Language influenced boundary lines, as seen when Europe was redrawn at the Versailles Peace Conference.to respect language distinctions.

13. There are different types of boundaries: 1. Antecedent boundaries are boundaries placed before the cultural landscape developed, meaning they were set very early in the area’s settlement history. Before cultural development took place. 2. Subsequent boundaries are drawn after the cultural landscape in place, meaning they were established later to reflect the social, political and economic developments in the area. They adapt the cultural and demographic changes over time. 3. Consequent boundaries are a type of boundary that is drawn to accommodate existing language, religious, or other cultural boundaries, aligning with the area’s cultural divisions. Helping to reduce conflict between groups of people. Flexible 4. Superimposed boundaries are sometimes forced on existing boundaries, such as the division of Africa by European colonial powers during the nineteenth century, ignoring the cultural and ethnic landscape of the region. 5. Relict boundaries are old boundaries that are no longer in use between countries, such as the now nonexistent boundary between North and South Vietnam. Another example is t he Great Wall of China , built in the third century BC as a defensive border against invasions.

14. Boundary disputes and problems: Positional disputes arise when countries disagree about the interpretation of boundary documents. 1. Positional Disputes: These disputes happen when countries disagree about the interpretation of boundary documents. This can lead to conflicts over the exact location or meaning of a border. 2. Superimposed Boundaries: Disputes may occur over boundaries imposed by external forces that divide an ethnic group into two different countries. These boundaries can lead to friction if they separate communities with shared ethnic, cultural, or historical backgrounds. 3. Irredentism: This occurs when an ethnic group within one country seeks to reunite with its ethnic population in a neighboring country . For example, Somalia has had conflicts with Ethiopia over the rights of Somalis living in Ethiopia, as the Somali population wishes to unify with Somalia. 4. Resource Disputes: These disputes arise when two countries contest ownership of a natural resource located along or near the border. • Example: A well-known example is the conflict over a rich oil field on the border between Iraq and Kuwait. This dispute was a significant factor leading to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990-1991, which eventually triggered the Persian Gulf War.

15. Evolution of the Contemporary Political Pattern

16. Cultural Hearths and Political Organization All cultural hearths developed political organizations to control their people and lands. Modern Political State: The concept of the modern political state evolved to ensure survival and territorial control. Germany and Territorial Justification through ‘Theories’ 1- Friedrich Ratzel, a German geographer, developed the organic theory of the state, which suggests that states need territory to grow and survive. Germany applied this theory to justify its invasions during World War II .

17. Imperialism • Imperialism involves military threat, cultural domination, and economic sanctions to control a country and its resources. Colonialism • Colonialism imposed formal controls by mother countries over their colonies, leading to the establishment of superimposed boundaries. Conflict Due to Superimposed Boundaries • Many multiethnic countries still face conflicts today because of the arbitrary boundaries created by European colonial powers.

18. 4. Decolonization is the process by which former colonies achieve independence: • United States: Independence in the 18th century. • Latin America: Independence during the 19th century. • Africa: Independence in the 20th century. Heartland-Rimland Theory 1 Halford Mackinder, an English geographer, developed the heartland theory . • The heartland (core of Eurasia) was viewed as strategically dominant due to its vast size. • The rimland comprised surrounding territories. • Mackinder’s ideas influenced efforts to limit Russian expansion by colonizing nearby regions. The goal was to prevent Soviet domination, particularly in Europe.The United States joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to achieve this aim.

19. Heartland The Heartland is the central part of the world, located in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. It is far from the oceans and full of resources like minerals and land. It’s important because whoever controls this area can control much of the world. Rimland The Rimland is the coastal area around the Heartland, including places like Europe, the Middle East, and Asia’s coasts. It’s important because it has access to the oceans, making it great for trade and controlling sea routes.

20. Domino Theory 2: The domino theory was an influential anti communist idea between 1945 and 1990. • It suggested that if one country became communist, neighboring countries would follow them, like falling dominoes. • This theory heavily influenced U.S. foreign policy and directly led to involvement in conflicts such as the Vietnam War. Cold War Balance of Power: • The Cold War was a period of tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, from the end of World War II to the Soviet Union’s dissolution in 1991. • It was marked by a struggle for balance of power between the noncommunist “free world” and communist forces.

21. T errorism as a Tool of Intimidation and Coercion: • In recent years, the use of terrorism has increased. • Terrorism is defined as the use of violence in a controlled and intentional way to force attention onto certain issues. Terrorist Attacks vs. Assassination: • Terrorist attacks target a population rather than a specific person. • Targeting an individual is classified as assassination, not terrorism. Rebels vs. Terrorists: • The distinction between acts committed by a rebel or a terrorist is often unclear and difficult to define. Rebels are people or groups who fight against a government or authority, often to bring change. Terrorists are people or groups who use violence, like bombings or attacks, to create fear and achieve their goals.

22. St at e-Sponsored Terrorism: • State-sponsored terrorism differs from general terrorism and involves three escalating levels of participation: 1. Providing sanctuary to individuals who commit terrorist acts. 2. Supplying weapons, military intelligence, and financial support to terrorists. 3. Planning acts of terrorism as a state. A state engaging in any one or all of these activities is considered a state sponsor of terrorism.

23. Challenges to the Contemporary Political System

24. 1. Challenges to National Governments: • Various organizations and factors challenge the traditional dominance of national governments in the global political system. E xamples include: • Stateless terrorist groups • Multinational and transnational corporations • Supranational and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). 2. Globalization and Transnational Corporations (TNCs): • TNCs make decisions that transcend the authority of individual states. • Their operations, involving multiple countries, affect global and local economies through: 1. Resource allocation 2. Staffing 3. Production 4. Marketing.

25. Sovereignty, Fragmentation, Unification, and Alliance

26. Supranational and Multinational Organizations: • These organizations (e.g., EU, NAFTA) require member states to partially surrender their authority. • Members give up some individual rights to achieve collective goals, particularly in trade and economic policies. Compare between The EU and NAFTA The EU is a supranational organization, NAFTA is an international agreement. In the EU , member states give up a degree of their individual autonomy in areas such as economic and military policy. The EU now has a central administrative capital in Belgium and a single currency, the euro. For their sacrifice, member states have become part of a greater and more stable economic and military power. In NAFTA , the United States, Canada, and Mexico have agreed to open their borders to increased trade. In the process, they have not given up their individual powers in the way the European Union members have. Both the EU and NAFTA are attempts to band together for increased freedom and economic prosperity.

27. Role of NGOs: • NGOs advocate for special interests (e.g., women’s rights, children’s rights, AIDS prevention). • They use media to influence governments by pressuring them to take or limit actions. • This impacts domestic policies, as governments must respond to international pressures. Impact of Modern Communications Technology on Immigration: • Technology enables immigrants to maintain strong ties to their homelands. • This reduces the pressure to assimilate into new countries and strengthens loyalty to their countries of origin. • Challenges arise for national governments regarding traditional ideas of citizenship and national unity.

28. Key Concepts of Sovereignty and Governance Sovereignty: refers to a country’s recognized authority over its people and territory. “ it is the foundation of a state’s authority.” The power distributed the sovereignty in federal and unitary system: Federal State: a government system where local units (e.g., states ) share power with a central authority. Examples: United States, Canada, Germany, and Australia. Unitary State: is concentrated in a strong central government. Examples: France, Sweden. • Devolution in unitary states can cause fragmentation, as seen in the breakup of the Soviet Union into a confederation of independent states.

29. Geographical Fragmentation “ Exclaves and Enclaves” : Exclave: A part of a country geographically separated from the main territory (e.g., Nagorno-Karabakh). Enclave: A territory completely surrounded by another country. Ethnic and Cultural Conflicts: • Examples: Conflicts in Nagorno-Karabakh due to overlapping cultural and religious ties with Armenia and Azerbaijan. Forces Impacting States 1.Centripetal Forces: Unify a country and strengthen national stability. Examples: • Nationalism • Charismatic leaders • Common institutions 2.Centrifugal Forces: Divide a country and threaten stability. Examples: • Religious differences • Poor infrastructure • Ethnic and cultural divisions

30. Separatism and Devolution Separatism: Movements by cultural or ethnic groups seeking autonomy independence. Examples: The Moros in the Philippines, the Bretons in France, and the Sikhs in India. Devolution: Central governments transferring powers to minority groups to address separatist demands. The government becomes uncentral Challenge: Unequal treatment / economic neglect / further marginalization and unrest. Alliances and Cooperation 1 .Purpose of Alliances: Mutual defense or trade. Examples: ASEAN, NAFTA, EU, CARICOM. 2. Impact of International Alliances: Provide economic and security benefits. • Countries may cede some authority to achieve common goals

31. ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement EU: European Union CARICOM: Caribbean Community USMCA: United States Mexico Canada Agreement

32. T he United Nations and Sovereignty 1. Role of the United Nations (UN): • The UN aims to include all countries of the world as members. • Some exceptions exist, such as Taiwan , which is excluded based on the view that it is a province of the People’s Republic of China. 2. Policy of Humanitarian Intervention: • The UN has increasingly adopted a policy of intervention to protect human rights. • This approach sometimes bypasses traditional state sovereignty and jurisdiction, challenging the concept of absolute national authority. 3. Supranational Influence: By intervening in sovereign matters, the UN functions as a supranational organization. • Its actions demonstrate the ability to override a country’s complete control over its inhabitants in certain situations. 4 . Consensus as a Global Force: While the UN cannot compel countries to resolve disputes, it can use global majority consensus to influence actions and decisions. This consensus acts as a significant source of pressure on nations to conform to international norm

33. The UN focuses on consensus-driven global governance. USMCA promotes economic collaboration within a region. The EU represents deeper political and economic unification for shared prosperity.

34. The Law of the Sea

35. Introduction to the Law of the Sea United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) : In 1982, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was adopted to regulate oceans. • The treaty establishes rules for water boundaries and rights to use ocean resources. • The United States has never officially ratified the treaty. Rights of Coastal States under UNCLOS: 1- Territorial Sea (12 Nautical Miles): • Coastal states have exclusive fishing rights and sovereignty within this zone. 2- Contiguous Zone (24 Nautical Miles): • States have limited jurisdiction to enforce laws on immigration, sanitation, and hot pursuit within this area. 3- Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ, 200 Nautical Miles): • States can explore and exploit natural resources (e.g., fishing, oil) within this zone.

36. 4- High Seas Beyond EEZs: • The high seas are open to free use by all countries. • Activities allowed include fishing, flying over, conducting scientific research, and navigation. Conflicts Over EEZ Claims: • Overlapping EEZ claims in areas like the Pacific Ocean and South China Sea lead to disputes. • Countries must negotiate terms to avoid future conflicts and tensions over resource use.

37. Geography of Representation Refers to the methods and techniques used to visually convey spatial information and geographic phenomena.

38. Definition of Territorial Organization: • Government representation is determined by spatial areas. In representative governments, such as the United States, residents of a specific area (e.g., a congressional district) elect representatives to represent their views and interests in the larger governing body. Redrawing Voting Districts: Voting district boundaries are periodically redrawn to ensure: 1. Better representation of residents’ voting interests. 2. Fair and equal representation. 3. In the United States, state legislatures handle redistricting. 4. In Europe , independent commissions are responsible for redrawing boundaries. Gerrymandering: The process of redrawing district boundaries to benefit a particular political party.

39. Tactics of Gerrymandering: Wasted Vote: decreasing their voting power. Excess Vote: minimizing their overall influence. Odd-Shaped Boundaries : Boundaries are drawn in irregular shapes to group like-minded voters into one district to know how do they think and their perspectives , even if they are spatially dispersed