Principles of Administration

Illustrates the basic principles of administration and organization.

1. Principles of Administration By: Dr. Vaishali Gupta

2. Principles of Administration Hierarchy Span of Control Unity of Command Power and Authority Supervision Delegation Co-ordination

3. Hierarchy Meaning- Hierarchy means the rule or control of the lower by the higher. In administration hierarchy means a graded organization of several successive steps or levels, which are interlinked. It implies creation of superior-subordinate relationship

4. Definitions- Max Weber’s bureaucratic model emphasized the principle of “hierarchy” in which there is supervision of the lower offices by the higher ones. Henri Fayol referred to hierarchy as the “scalar chain”. L. D. White the superior subordinate relationship through a number of levels of responsibility reaching from the top to the bottom of the structure. Mooney and Reiley called hierarchy as “scalar process”.

5. Basic Features:- The entire administrative function is divided into units. Units are organized in the form of a pyramid. Authority is distributed through levels. Hierarchical organization observes the principle of “through proper channel”. Unity of command is ensured by the means of hierarchy and authority requisite to responsibility is reposed at every level. Integration, discipline and communication are the prime functions of hierarchy

6. Advantages- It promotes division of labour and specialization work. It secures complete unity of purpose by integrating of various units of organizations. The scalar system removes confusion, conflict and friction in the functioning of an organization. It not only provides channel of command and control but also channels of communications both upward and downward. It formalized procedures promote certainty, precision and efficiency in administration . It gives effect to “through proper channel” method of dealings.

7. Disadvantages:- The rigid observance of the rule of “through proper channel” involves red-tape which in turn causes inordinate delay in the disposal of work. Hierarchical system discourages initiative, rigidifies, routine and hinders adaptation to change. It also promotes deception corruption and insensitivity to the public wishes. In over-extended hierarchies human relations are neglected , motivation and morale suffer.

8. Remedy of Hierarchical Disadvantage- Henri Fayol’s “Gang Plank” which refers to the need for level jumping in hierarchy bound organization. Fayol suggests that a bridge can be thrown across the formal lines of authority. Recourse to gang plank is possible only where the immediate superiors authorize such a relationship.

9. Span of control span of control refers to the number of subordinates an officer can effectively control or direct. It is related to the span of attention given by V.A.Graicunas

10. No. of subordinates:- No supervisor can supervise the work of an unlimited number of people. Sir Ian Hamilton states the limit as ranging from three to four. Haldane and Wallace place the limit as ten to twelve. L. Urvik states it as five to six at higher level and ten to twelve at lower level.

11. Determining factors According to Luther Gullick three major factors determine the span of control are:- Element of diversification of functions. Element of time. Element of space.

12. Factors that affects span of control:- The nature of work shall determine how detailed/close or distant/superficial supervision is required. Degree of affinity intra-unit a chunk of work, will determine how broad or narrow span of control. Personality of supervisor and the subordinates.

13. Time is the next crucial factor. Delegation of authority will lead to a wider pan of control. Techniques of supervision will also determine the span of control. Increasing automation/information revolution and growing role of specialists has led to the greater span of control.

14. Unity of command Definition:- Unity of command means that “each subordinate should have one and only one superior,” with orders flowing from and accountability flowing to that single superior. It bases itself on the old proverb that “no man can serve two masters”.

15. Henri Fayol calls it “unity of direction”. Piffner and Presthus “the concept of unity of command requires that every member of an organization report to one and only one superior.”

16. Arguments in favor:- Though more than one superior issues orders to an employee there has to be unity in the direction of these commands. There is absence of conflict due to monocratic accountability and centralized decision making. Unity of command enables effective supervision. Clear fixation of responsibility is made possible. Armed forces and intelligence agencies require unity of command.

17. Arguments against:- It is not a practicable proposition today as professional authority along with administrative position has to be considered. It hardly has any relevance to committee commission and autonomous research organizations. In a fast changing society with technological innovations and change such concepts have hardly any relevance. It has no relevance to development administration and administrative development.

18. Authority Authority is the legitimate right to command or influence others in order to make them behave in a good directed manner. American college dictionary defines authority as “a power or right to direct the action or thoughts of others. Henri Fayol defined it as “the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience .

19. Difference between power and authority : Power: Power is the capacity of an actor to affect the actions of others in accordance with his own intention. Coercion is the defining characteristic of power. It requires no formal position to be recognized as power. Authority: Authority exists when one person voluntary submits to the will of another. Legitimacy is the defining characteristic of authority. Authority is always institutional power which has legitimacy.

20. Approaches to authority: The socio-legal theory : according to this theory, the ultimate source of administrative authority is the society that allows the creation of social institutions-public and private. This theory held the traditional view that authority develops at the top and moves down. The acceptance theory : this theory suggests that the ultimate source of authority lies in the willingness of subordinates to accept a superior’s command or orders (behavioral approach).

21. Types of authority: Max Weber: Traditional authority : this authority rests upon the long established customs traditions and precedents. Charismatic authority : this authority relies on the exceptional qualities, strength, magnetism and aura of a person as a hero. Regal rational authority :this type of authority is vested in the office of a person rather than in the individual. Amitai Etizioni also suggests three categories of authority ,coercive ,normative and utilitarian authority.

22. Limits to authority : Authority is limited by a few express and implied restrictions: Legislative controls delimit the domains of exercise of authority by the executive. Courts ‘uphold the constitution’ and check exercise of arbitrary authority on the part of the executive. Certain constitutional safeguards like, appeals to the President the Governor Lok Ayukata etc. Press and media play a vigilant role on the behalf of the people. Hierarchy determines the quantum of authority to be exercised at each level.

23. Authority and responsibility : Authority and responsibility are understood as two sides of the same coin. Henri Fayol observed that authority should be commensurate with responsibility. Responsibility is understood as the obligation to carry out certain duties. Different kinds of responsibility: Political responsibility ultimate responsibility for the success or failure rests on the minister concerned. Institutional responsibility gets manifest as responsiveness to the policy concerned. Professional responsibility in carrying out of day-to- day operations.

24. Supervision Supervision is the compound of two words ‘super’ and ‘vision’, meaning overseeing. supervision therefore, literally means overseeing the work of others. It may be defined as directing and guiding the work of subordinates by their superiors. Margaret Williamson defines supervision as “a process by which workers are helped by a designated staff member to learn according to their needs to make best use of their knowledge and skills and improve their abilities so that their jobs effectively and with increasing satisfaction to themselves and the agency”.

25. Types of supervision: Line supervision : It refers to the control exercise by the persons in the hierarchical line of command. It is directing and commanding type and administrative in nature. It is in accordance with the principle of unity of command which requires direction by only one supervisor. Functional supervision : It is plural or multiple supervision. it places an individual under a large number of supervisors who are specialists. it is the responsibility of staff personnel.

26. Techniques of supervision : J.D.Millet has put forward various techniques of supervision: Prior approval of individual projects. Promulgation of service standards. Budgetary limitations on magnitude of operations. Approval of key subordinate personnel. A reporting system on work process. Inspection of results. A proper work plan may also be added to the above mentioned techniques.

27. Effectiveness of supervision : It depends on the application of the concept of span of control. It requires that the jurisdiction of the units to be supervised should be clearly defined both in the terms of area and function. It also depends on the success of the administrative system in recruiting and retaining high quality personnel at both junior and intermediate levels.

28. Qualities of a supervisor : thoroughness, Fairness, Initiative, Tactful, Enthusiasm, Emotional control.

29. Delegation Definition: Delegation means entrusting part of a superior’s work to his subordinates. According to Mooney , delegation in simple words implies conferring of specified authority by a higher to a lower authority. J.D.Millet “the essence of delegation is to confer discretion upon others, to use their judgment in meeting specific problems within the framework of their duties.

30. Characteristic: The subordinate acts within limits prescribed by delegation. Delegation involves superiors and subordinates. Delegation means partial delegation as entire authority is not delegated. Authority assigned is subject to variance.

31. Principles of delegation : Delegation should be done in a clear manner. It should be planned and systematic. Authority delegated should be coequal with responsibility in the process of delegation. Delegation should be succeeded by an appraisal of the task so delegated.

32. Advantages: Delegation of authority relieves the superior administrator of certain time-consuming work. It creates various decision making centers which help in the settlement of much business at the point where it arises. It allows handling of many matters in the field offices. It leads to division of work and specialization. It avoids delay in administration. It produces skills and knowledge of higher administration in the subordinates.

33. Barriers to delegation: Organizational barriers : Tightly controlled and centralized management system. Lack of well-established organizational methods and procedures to delegate authority . Inexperienced and ill-trained employees. The type of work or function being managed. The size and location of the organization.

34. Personal barriers: Highly developed egotism on the part of the persons who rise to the higher positions. The fear of superiors that subordinates are incapable of making proper decisions. Their impatience with the slower pace of work. Absence of emotional maturity in the top men. The desire of leaders to be always in the limelight and take credit for everything. Lack of knowledge on the part of the superiors what to delegate and how. Accountability of the chief to those above him.

35. Remedies to the barriers : Establishing proper methods and procedures of work in the organization. Developing proper means of communication and coordination. Planned and regularized contacts with staff. Developing systematic plan for reviewing operational records and reports of subordinates. Selecting and training capable subordinates. Defining specifically the various responsibilities and authority delegated to them.

36. Limits to the delegation: Following power can not be delegated : The supervision of work of the first line. General financial supervision and the power to sanction expenditure above a specified amount. Rule making power. Making of specified appointments. Hearing appeals from the decision of at least the immediate subordinates. Power of inspection, supervision, control and review.

37. Coordination Definitions: Coordination is the integration of several parts into an orderly whole to achieve the performance of undertaking. Monney and Reiley define coordination as the achievement of orderly group effort and unity of action in pursuit of a common purpose. According to George Terry it is collective action plus synchronization of efforts .

38. Elements of coordination : It is a process and not a static state of affairs. It has orderliness as its aim. It as unity of action as its goal. Need for coordination : To avoid duplication of work which is wasteful. To resolve conflicts. To secure team work and cooperation among the employees. To ensure economy and efficiency in the organization.

39. Techniques of coordination : Planning provides for anticipating/ foreseeing areas of possible inter-dependence and friction and hence pre-emptive remedies to whatever extent possible. Consultations. Conferences and committees like NDC, zonal councils etc. Staff agencies.

40. Informal means could also be employed which often prove to be more effective than formal ones. standardization of procedures and methods. written instructions clearly spelling out work directions for each level. Inter-departmental committees. Good leadership. Organizational hierarchy and well-defined line of communication.

41. Hindrances to coordination: Uncertainty about the future hampers attempt at providing preemptive measures for coordination. Lack of knowledge and experience can lead to amateurish attempts at integration. Poor planning may prove abortive. Chief executive’s personality may exacerbate instead of dissolving differences. Workers personality may have same effect. Willingness to cooperate may or may not be there. According to Harlend Cleveland coordination can only be achieved to limited degree.