Principles of plant breeding.

Basic on principle of plant breeding, defination, role, objective, aims, history, etc.

1. Principles of plant breeding and breeding of field crops By – animesh raj

2. INTRODUCTION OF PLANT BREEDING “Plant breeding is the art and science of improving the heredity of plants for the benefit of human kind .” - J.M . Poehlman , 1959. Plant breeding means the improvement in the heredity of crops and production of new crop varieties which are far better then original types in all aspects.

3. How Humans are dependent on plants Food :- Breeding of field crops provides us food either directly ( food grains ) or indirectly (meat and milk). Shelter :- In addition to food by produce of agriculture farms are used in making shelter by farmers of rural areas. Clothing :- Breeding for fibre crops like cotton provides clothes for the human population. Fuels : - Crops like Euphorbia and Jatropha are used for Biofuel production. Now a days, Maize is also used as an important source of Ethanol production . Drugs: - medicines

4. The important activities of plant breeding Creation of variability through hybridization, tissue culture and mutagenesis Selection of elite types from the diverse populations Evaluation of selected genotypes in multi-location trials Identification of superior genotype based on testing, Seed multiplication and, Distribution of the new variety to the farmers for commercial cultivation.

5. Objectives of Plant Breeding 1. Increased yield Majority of our breeding programmes aims at increased yield. This is achieved by developing more efficient genotypes. The classical examples are utilization of Dee Gee Woo Gen in rice and Norin10 in wheat. Identification and utilization of male sterility

6. 2. Improving the quality: - Rice - Cooking quality, aroma and grain color. Wheat- B aking quality and gluten content. Pulses -Protein content and improving Sulphur containing amino acids Oilseeds- PUFA content (poly unsaturated fatty acids) 3. Elimination of toxic substance: - HCN content in jowar plants. Lathyrogen content in Lathyrus sativus(sweet pea) ( β N oxalyamine alanine BOAA ) Erucic acid in Brassicas Cucurbitacin in cucurbits

7. 4. Resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses: - Biotic stress: Evolving pests and diseases resistant varieties there by reducing cost of cultivation, environmental pollution and saving beneficial insects. Abiotic stress: It is location specific problem. Soil factors and edaphic factors some times poses severe problems. Breeding resistant varieties is the easy way to combat abiotic stress 5. Change in maturity duration – Evolution of early maturing varieties 6. Improved agronomic characters -Production of more tillers – E.g . Rice, Bajra, etc.

8. 7. Reducing the plant height to prevent lodging – Rice 8. Photo insensitivity – Red gram, sorghum 9. Non-shattering nature – Green gram, Brassicas 10. Synchronized maturity – Pulses 11. Determinate Growth habit –determinate growth – Pulses 12. Elimination or introduction of dormancy –Groundnut

9. Scope of plant breeding Since the cultivable land is shrinking and there is no scope for increasing the area under cultivation, the only solution to meet the food requirement is by increasing the crop yield through genetic improvement of crop plants. There are two ways by which yield improvement is possible: - 1 . Enhancing the productivity of crops By the proper management of soil and crops involving suitable agronomic practices and harvesting physical resources . By using high potential crop varieties created by appropriate genetic manipulation of crop plants. 2 . Stabilizing the productivity achieved This is done by using crop varieties that are bred especially for wide adaptation or for specific crop zones to offset the ill effects of unfavourable environmental conditions prevailing in the areas.

10. Creation Of v ar i a t i on s e l ect i on E v alu a t i on multiplication distribution Naturally existing variability Creation of new variability Activities in plant breeding Germplasm collection Plant Introduction Domestication Hybridization Mu t a t i on Polyploidy Genetic engineering Somaclonal variation

11. Plant breeding, the past, present and future scopes we achieved break through in crops such as rice, wheat, pearl millet, jowar and maize . The indica x japonica cross derivative ADT 27 is the first high yielding rice of Tamil Nadu. The identification of Dee Gee Woo Gen and release of Wonder rice IR 8 ( peta x DGWG ) changed the scenario from poverty to problem of plenty. Like wide identification of dwarfing gene in Japanese wheat variety Norin -10 by Borlaug and breeding of Mexican dwarf wheat varieties led to the release of wheat varieties like Kalyan sona in India

12. In pearl millet, breeding by male sterile line Tift 23A at Tifton , Georgia by Burton and his coworker and later on its introduction to India led the release of hybrid bajra HB1 to HB4 , which increased bajra production many fold. In Jowar, breeding of first male sterile line combined kafir 60A and its introduction into India led to the release of first hybrid sorghum CSH 1 ( CK 60A x IS 84) during 1970s . At present we are in search of alternate source of cytoplasm in almost all crops to breed hybrids with new source of cytoplasm to prevent the possibility of appearance of new pest and diseases. Thus, the future of plant breeding is a challenging task. The deployment of innovative breeding techniques will be a new tool to assist the conventional breeding techniques.

13. History of Plant Breeding:- In broad sense history of plant breeding can be divided into 4 parts Pre Mendelian era:- before 1900 Mendelian era: - 1900 to 1920. Post Mendelian era: - 1921 to 1950 Modern era: - after 1950

14. 1. Pre Mendelian era:- 9000 BC First evidence of plant domestication in hills above Tigris River 5000 BC Agricultural communities exist in Mesopotamia 4000 BC Egyptians used yeast in wine and bread making 3000 BC Domestication complete for all important food crops in the old world 1000 BC Domestication complete for all important food crops in the new world. 700 BC Assyrians and Babylonians - Hand pollination of date palm 1665 Hooke (England) – 1 st Described the cell and known as father of cell- biology. 1676 Millington - Anthers function as male organs 1694 Camerarius (Germany) - First to demonstrate sex in plants.

15. 1717 F a i r chi l d – p r o duced t he f i r st a r t i fic i al hybr i d , popul a rly known as Fairchild’s mule , by crossing Carnation with Sweet William variety of Dianthus . 1753 Linnaeus - Published "Species Plantarum ". Binomial nomenclature of plant taxonomy officially begins with his general list of plant species. 1761-66 Koelreuter (Germany) - Demonstrated that hybrid offspring received traits from both parents and were intermediate in most traits. 1779 Knight - Emphasized the practical aspects of hybrids. 1801 Lamarck - given Theory of evolution through inheritance of acquired characters . 18 1 9 Shi r r e f f - Uti l i z ed pu re l i ne s e l e c t i on t o d e vel o p a new oat c ul t i v a r (released in 1824), and a new wheat cultivar (released in 1832)

16. 1831 Brown - Discovered the eukaryotic cell nucleus 1837-38 Schleiden and Schwann - Developed the cell theory 1859-89 Darwin - Published "Origin of Species“ and noted inbreeding, sterility , and differences in reciprocal crosses 1866 Mendel - Published “Experiments in plant hybridization” & discovered unit factors (genes), segregation of F 2 , recombination of 2 or more genes, and dominance of one allele over another, formulated the laws of inheritance 1884 Strasburger - Demonstrated fertilization and showed the fusion of the 2 nuclei to form the zygote 1899 Novaschin and Guignard - Discovered double fertilization of egg and endosperm 1899 Hopkins - Described ear to row selection method.

17. 2. Mendelian era:- 1900 Correns (Germany), DeVries (Holland) and Von Tschermak (Austria) Independently rediscovered Mendel’s laws of heredity. Bateson - Introduced the terms “ allelomorph ”, “homozygote”, heterozygote, "F 1 " and " F 2 “ 1902 A. DeVries (Holland) - Proposed the mutation theory of evolution on his experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana . Bif f e n (Engl a nd) – o n h i s st u di e s o n i nheri t a nce o f s t udi e s o n dis e ase resistance; found that stripe rust resistance was due to a single gene 1903 Johannsen - Developed the pure line theory of selection

18. 1904 Hannig - Contributed to the idea of embryo culture 1906 Bateson - Introduced the term "genetics“ YULE – gave the initial idea of multiple factor hypothesis. 1908 Nilsson- Ehle – given the explanation of multiple factor hypothesis for Grain colour of Wheat. 1908-09 Hardy (England) and Weinberg (Germany) – independently given algebraic equation that describes the algebraic equation within a population, also known as Hardy- Weinberg law. 1914 Shull - Introduced the term "heterosis " Blakeslee - Discovered trisomics in Datura .

19. 3. Post Mendelian era:- 1927 Muller - Reported artificial mutations in animals by X-rays 1928 Stadler - Described the mutagenic effects of X-rays in barley 1929 McClintock - First to report and number 10 chromosomes in maize 1931 Stern, Creighton and McClintock - Provided the cytological proof of crossing-over 1933 Rhoades - Discovered cytoplasmic male sterility in maize 1944 Avery, MacLeod and McCarty - Described the transforming principle and suggested that DNA, not protein, is the hereditary material 1945 Hull - Proposed recurrent selection method 1946 Comstock et al. - Suggested reciprocal (half-sib) recurrent selection 1950 McClintock - Described the Ac-Ds system of transposable elements in maize.

20. 4. Modern era:- 1952 Jensen - 1 st suggested the use of multilines in Oats. 1953 N.E.Borlaug – 1 st outlined the method of developing multilines in wheat. 1955 Benzer – Based on his work on rII locus of T4 Bacteriophage he gave the subdivisions of genes in cistron , recon and muton . 1963 Vanderplank – developed the concept of vertical and horizontal resistance. 1964 N.E.Borlaug – developed the high yielding dwarf varieties of Wheat which resulted in green revolution.

21. 1968 Donald – developed the concept of crop ideotype in wheat. 1978 - Development of worlds 1 st Rice hybrid (CMS based) for commercial cultivation in China. 1983 – Development of 1 st transgenic (genetically engineered) plant of Tobacco in U.S.A. 1987 – Development of 1 st transgenic cotton plant by Monsanto company in U.S.A. 1994 – Flavr Savr tomato was introduced by Calgene company of California. It was the 1 st commercially grown genetically engineered crop.

22. History of Plant Breeding in India 1871- Government of India created the Department of Agriculture. 1905- T h e I m p e rial A gr i c ul t ural Rese a r c h I ns t i t u t e w a s es t a bl i sh e d i n P usa (Bihar), this was the first Agricultural Research Institute in the country. 1921- The Indian Central cotton committee was established. 1929- Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was established in New Delhi. 1936- Imperial Agricultural Research Institute shifted to its present location in New Delhi. 1956- Project for Intensification of Regional Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets ( PIRCOM ) was initiated in order to intensify research on these crops.

23. 1957- All India Coordinated Maize Improvement Project was started with the objective of exploiting Heterosis . 1961- First Maize hybrid was released ( Ganga1 , Ganga101 , Deccan and Ranjit ) 1964- First Sorghum hybrid ( CSH -1) was released. 1965- First Bajra hybrid ( HB -1) was released. 1 9 9 1 – 1 st p i geon pea hybr i d ( I C P H -8 ) was releas e d fr om ICRI S A T , Hyderabad

24. Modes of reproduction

25. Reproduction Reproduction  is the biological process by which new individual organisms "offspring" are produced from their "parents".  The vegetative parts of the plant are the roots, stem and leaves. The reproductive parts of the plant are the flowers. In plants there are two main types of reproduction . A ) Asexual reproduction :- In asexual reproduction new plants are produced without the help of seeds. B ) Sexual reproduction :- In sexual reproduction new plants are produced from seeds.

26. A) Asexual reproduction :- In plants there are different types of asexual reproduction. They are vegetative propagation, budding, fragmentation, spore formation etc. a) Vegetative propagation :- In this method, new plants are produced from the vegetative parts like the root, stem or leaves. E.g. :- If the stem cutting of a rose plant or money plant is planted in the soil we can get a new plant. Potato has small buds called eyes. If a part of the potato with an eye is cut and planted in the soil we can get a new plant. If a part of ginger is planted in the soil we can get a new plant. Bryophyllum leaf cutting develops into a new plant. If a part of a cactus plant is planted in the soil we can get a new plant

27. Vegetative propagules Runners Suckers Stolon's Bud Rhizomes bulbs

28. Money plant Potato plants sprouting from eyes Ginger with new plants Bryophyllum leaf with new plants Cactus

29. Fragmentation :- E.g.:- Spirogyra In this method the plant breaks up into two or more fragments and each fragment grow into new plants.

30. Spore formation :- E.g.:- Fungus, Fern etc. In this method the fungus produces spores. The spores germinate and produces new plants. Spore formation in fungus

31. Artificial vegetative reproduction Multiplication of plants by vegetative parts through artificial methods is known as artificial vegetative reproduction. Such reproduction occurs by cutting of shoots, roots , layering, grafting, budding etc..

32. b) Apomixis Apomixis refers to the development seed without sexual fusion. Embryo develops without fertilization thus apomixis is an asexual means of reproduction. Further divided into two types: - i) Obligate apomixis: - reproduction in some species occurs only by apomixis. E.g.– shadbush, meadow grass, mat grass, etc ii ) Facultative apomixis: - in some species sexual reproduction also occurs in addition to apomixis. E.g.- Kentucky blue grass.

33. Types of apomixis Parthenogenesis Apogamy Apospory Adventive embryony

34. i. Parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis refers to development of embryo from the egg cell without fertilization. Two types: - Haploid e.g. - Solenum nigrum b) Diploid e.g . - taraxacum

35. ii) Apogamy The origin of embryo from either synergids or antipodal cells of embryo sac is called apogamy . Two types : - Haploid Diploid e.g.- Allium, iris and some other species

36. iii) Apospory In apospory, first diploid cell of ovule lying outside the embryo sac develops into another embryo sac without reduction. The embryo then develops directly from the diploid egg cell without fertilization . Types of apospory: - generative apospory somatic apospory

37. IV Adventive embryony The development of embryo directly from the diploid cell of ovule lying outside the embryo sac belonging to either nucellus or integuments is referred to as adventive embryony

38. Role of apomixis in plant breeding Rapid production of pure lines. Maintenance of superior genotypes . Conservation of heterosis.

39. B. Sexual reproduction: - Flowers are the reproductive parts of the plant. Stamen is the male reproductive part and pistil is the female reproductive part. Flowers which have only the stamen or only the pistil are called unisexual flowers. E.g. :- Maize, Papaya, Cucumber etc. Flowers which have both the stamen and pistil are called bisexual flowers. E.g.:- Rose, Mustard, Petunia etc. The stamen has a filament and anther. The anther contains pollen grains which contain the male gametes. The pistil has stigma, style and ovary. The ovary contains ovules which contain the female gamete or egg. In sexual reproduction the male and female gamete fuse together to form a zygote.

40. Pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination. Pollen grains are transferred by wind, water or insects. If pollen grains lands on the stigma of the same flower, it is called self pollination. If pollen grains of one flower lands on the stigma of another flower it is called cross pollination.

41. Mode of pollination 1) Autogamy Development of seed by self pollination. Several mechanism that promotes self pollination: - I . Bisexuality II. Homogamy III. Cleistogamy IV. C hasmogamy

42. 2) Allogamy Development of seed by cross pollination Mechanisms which promotes autogamy: - Dicliny Dichogamy Heterostyly Herkogamy Self incompatibility Male sterility

43. Classification of crops based on mode of pollination and mode of reproduction Autogamous species Allogamous species Often allogamous species Rice, wheat, barley, oat, cheakpea, pea cowpea, soybean, blackgram, common bean, mothbean, linseed, lentil, sesamum, khesri, sunnhemp, chilles. Tomatoes, brinjal, okra, peanut, potato etc.. Corn , pearlmillet, rye, alfalfa, raddish, cabbage ,sunflower, sugerbeet, castor, red clover, white clover, safflower, spinch, onion, garlic, turnip, squash, muskmelon, water melon, cucumber, pumpkin, kenaf, oilpalm, carrot, coconut, papaya , sugercane, coffee, cocoa, tea,apple, pears, peaches, cherries, grapes, almond, strawberries, pineapple, banana, irish, cassava, taro, rubber, sweet potato etc.. Sorghum, cotton, pigeonpea, tobacco, rai, tobacco, triticale etc..

44. Fertilisation :- The process of fusion of the male and female gametes to form a zygote is called fertilisation. After fertilisation the zygote develops into an embryo. The ovule then develops into the seed and the ovary develops into the fruit.

45. Seed dispersal: - The carrying away of seeds from one place to another is called dispersal of seeds. Seeds are dispersed by wind, water and animals. Seeds dispersed by wind are light, have wings or hairs so that they are easily blown away by wind. E.g.:- drumstick. maple, sunflower, aak etc. Seeds dispersed by water have spongy or fibrous outer cover so that they can float on water. E.g. :- coconut Seeds dispersed by animals have spines with hooks so that they can attach to the bodies of animals. E.g. :- xanthium

46. Difference between sexual and asexual reproduction Asexual Reproduction Advantages: - does not require special cells or a lot of energy can produce offspring quickly in a stable environment creates large, thriving population Disadvantages: - limited ability to adapt face massive die-off if environment changes Sexual Reproduction Advantages: - lots of variation within a species able to live in a variety of environmental settings able to adapt to changes in the environment Disadvantages: - needs time & energy produce small populations

47. S u m m e r y of mode of reproduction f o und in crop plant T e r m s Brief description / definition Asexual reproduction Multiplication of plants without fusion of male and female gametes. 1) Vegetative r e p r o d u c t i i on Multiplication by vegetative plant parts a)Natural By rhizome, tubers, corm, bulb, runner, suckers etc… b)Artificial By stem and root cutting, grafting, budding, layering. 2 ) A p o m i xi s Development of embryo without sexual fusion. a p o g a m y Embryo either from synergids or antipodal cells a p o s p o r y Embryo originates from diploid egg cell of another embryo sac developed from other diploid tissue. Adventive embyony Embryosac originate direcly from diploid cells belonging to either nucellus or integuments 3) Sexual r e p r o d u c t i on Multiplication of plants by fertilized embryos A u t o g a m y Development of seed by self polination Allogamy Develoment of seed by cross pollination