Principles of Team Building and Phases Team Development

Important Time Management Skills

1. Principles of Team Building Lecture Notes
By
Upenyu Sakarombe
Email: [email protected]
Lecturer: U. Sakarombe

2. 
Harvard Business Review, 2011. Harvard Business
Review: Building Better Teams. Boston: Harvard
Business Review Press
Hollyforde, S. and Whiddett, S., 2002. The Motivation
Handbook. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development.
Miller, B. C., 2004. Quick Team Building Activities for
Busy Managers: 50 Exercises that Get Results in Just 15
Minutes. New York; London: AMACOM.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Referral Text

3. 
Agroupmaybedefinedastwoormorepeoplewhointeractwitheach
othertoaccomplishcertaingoalsormeetcertainneeds.
Ateamisagroupwhosemembersworkintenselywitheachotherto
achieveaspecificcommongoalorobjective.
Allteamsaregroups,butnotallgroupsareteams.
Thetwocharacteristicsthatdistinguishteamsfromgroupsare:
a.Theintensitywithwhichteammembersworktogether
b.Thepresenceofspecific,overridingteamgoalorobjective
Groupsandteamscanhelpanorganisationgainacompetitiveadvantage
becausetheycan:
1.Enhanceitsperformance
2.Increaseitsresponsivenesstocustomers
3.Increaseinnovation
4.Increaseemployees’motivationandsatisfaction
Groups and Teams
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

4. 
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Differences between groups and
teams

5. 
Self–ManagedWorkTeams
-areteamsinwhichmembersareempoweredandhavetheresponsibilityandautonomytocomplete
identifiablepiecesofwork.
Teammembersdecidewhattheteamwilldo,howitwilldoit,andwhichteammemberswillperform
whichspecifictasks.
Managersprovideteamswithoverallgoals,butletteammembersdecidehowtomeetthosegoals.
Managersusuallyformself-managedworkteamstoimprovequality,increasemotivationandsatisfaction,
andlowercosts.
Toensurethatself-managedworkteamsareeffective,managersshould:
I. Giveteamsenoughresponsibilityandautonomytobetrulyself-managing
II.Carefullyselectmembersoftheworkteam
III.Asamanager,realisethatyourrolecallsforguidance,coaching,andsupporting,notsupervising.
WeaknessesofSelf-managedteams:-
I. Membersareoftenreluctanttodisciplineoneanother
II. Teamshaveadifficulttimefiringteammemberswhoareperformingpoorly.
III.Teammembersoftendonotfeelcomfortableevaluatingeachothers’performance.
IV.Sometimesittakesmembersofself-managedworkteamslongertoaccomplishtasks
Types of Teams
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

6. 
VirtualWorkTeams
-virtualteamsarememberswhorarelyornevermeet
face-to-faceandinteractbyusingvariousformsof
informationtechnology.
Asorganisationsarebecomingincreasingglobal,virtual
teamsallowemployeestosolveproblemsandexplore
opportunitieswithoutbeinglimitedbygeographic
location.
Virtualteamsmightevenincludememberswhoarenot
partoftheorganisation,butwhopartofanorganisation
usedforoutsourcing
Types of Teams
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

7. 
SpecialistTeam
Specialpurposeteamsareteamsthatareformedtofulfila
specialpurposeoraonetimeoffproject.
Theseteamsincludeworkingcommitteesforaparticular
event,oracommitteethatcomestogethertosolveaparticular
problem.
Usually,theseteamsarenotpermanentandtheyareusually
disbandedoncethepurposeoftheteamisserved.
Pros:Synergistic,multi-disciplinaryteamsetuptoachievea
specialgoal.Membersarechosenaccordingtowhatis
necessary;willbeessential.
Cons:Takesteammembersawayfromtheircurrent
responsibilitiesduetoconflictingschedulesandobjectives.
Takestimetobuildsynergy.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Types of Teams

8. 
FunctionalTeams
Thesetypesofteams,alsocalledfunctionalteams,
performspecificfunctionsinanorganization.
Theyincludemembersfromthesamedepartmentor
workareawhomeetregularly.
Amanagerholdstheprimaryresponsibility,with
subordinatesreportingtothisperson.
Often,thesearepermanent.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Types of Teams

9. 
Multi-functionalTeams
Theseteamsconsistofmembersformedfromdifferentareasof
expertise.
Theymaycometogetherforashorttermbasisorsometimes
they’reformedpermanently.
Thisdependsonthenatureoftheorganizationtheyworkin.
Pros:Peoplewithdifferentdisciplineswilloffermultiplepoints
ofview.Expectinnovationanddifferentideastocomeoutof
meetings.Bringsoutpotentialineachindividual.
Cons:Onlyusefulforproject-basedorganizations,orfora
projectpurpose.Maketaketimetobuildsynergy.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Types of Teams

10. 
Independentteams
typicallyinvolvescenarioswhereeachindividualmemberoftheteamacts
orperformscompleteprojectsindividuallybuttheirperformancestill
affectsorinfluences,tovaryingdegrees,therestoftheteam.
Interdependentteams
Whenmanyofusthinkofateam,wemostfrequentlyimaginean
interdependentteam.Inaninterdependentteam,thesuccessofeach
memberis,tosomedegree,reliantuponthesuccessofotherteam
members.
Todistinguishthisfromindependentteamsthatsharethesameendresult,
interdependentteamsfrequentlyallowfordifferentteammembersto
performdifferentactivities(theextenttowhichmayvary).
Forexample,afootballteamisaperfectexampleofaninterdependent
styleteam.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Types of Teams

11. 
MultidisciplinaryTeam
isateamofprofessionalsincludingrepresentativesofdifferentdisciplineswho
coordinatethecontributionofeachprofessionwithlittleoverlap.
Professionalsworkinginparallelwithclearroles.
Eachprofessionalsetstheirownindividualgoalswiththepatientsand
communicatesthesegoalsandoutcomeswiththerestoftheteamwhereappropriate.
Ledbyconsultantorteamleader.
Interdisciplinaryteams
Differfrommultidisciplinaryteamsinthattheparticipantssharegoalsandoverlap
practice,ratherthanworkingonseparatedisciplinespecificgoals.
Interdisciplinaryteamsinvolve:
Professionalsinvolvedinjointproblemsolving,workingbeyondtheirownscopeof
practice.
Treatmentgoalsoverlapandcollaboratewithotherdisciplines.
Regularcommunicationbetweenteammembers.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Types of Teams

12. 
Abeliefinsharedaimsandobjectives;
Asenseofcommitmenttothegroup;
Acceptanceofgroupvaluesandnorms;
Afeelingofmutualtrustanddependency;
Fullparticipationbyallmembersanddecision-makingby
consensus;
Afreeflowofinformationandcommunications;
Theopenexpressionoffeelingsanddisagreements;
Theresolutionofconflictbythemembersthemselves
Alowerlevelofstaffturnover,absenteeism,accidents,errors
andcomplaints
Characteristics of an effectiveness work
group
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

13. 
DependencyandInclusion
Thisisthedesiretoconnectandassociatewithotherpeople.Earlyoninagroup,
individualswanttointeractandbuildrelationships.Theyneedtobecomefamiliarwith
eachotherasthereare,asyet,nocloseties.Therecanbealotofrestlessness,tensionand
mobilityasindividualstrytofindmutualinterests,allies,andpossibilities.
groupmemberstendtoactindependentlyandarecautiouswiththeirbehaviour,whichis
drivenbythewanttobeacceptedbyallmembersofthegroup.Anyconflict,controversy
orpersonalopinionsareoftenavoided,asteammembersformimpressionsofeachother
andgainanunderstandingofwhatthegroupwilldotogether.
Counterdependencyandfighting
oftenstartswherethereisaconflictbetweenteammember’snaturalworkingstylesora
disagreementofopinionorvalues.Everyoneworksdifferentlyandhastheirownstyle,but
thiscansometimescausepersonalitiestoclashandaffecthowateamworks.
Duringtheconflict,teammemberswillbecomeincreasinglyfrustratedandwilllose
motivationforthetaskorproject.Althoughconflictresolutionisoftenthegoalofwork
teamsduringthestormingstage,conflictmanagementisgenerallywhatisachieved.
Stages of group development into teams
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

14. 
TrustandStructure
teammembersbecomeincreasinglypositiveabouttheteamasawhole,theother
membersasindividualsandwhattheteamisdoing.Moraleishighasgroup
membersactivelyacknowledgeeachother’stalents,skillsandexperience.
Teamrelationshipsarebetterthanever,theyrespectandtrusteachotherandthe
groupremainsfocusedonthepurposeandendresult.Membersbecomemore
flexibleandinterdependentoneachotherandcommunicationimproves
Work
Individualsarenowcompetent,autonomousandabletohandlethedecisionmaking
processwithoutneedoftheleaderssupervision.
Leadershipwithintheteamisflexibleandmayshiftamongmembersintermsof
whoismostcapableofsolvingaparticularproblem.Theteamismorestrategically
aware;theteamknowsclearlythepurposeandwhytheyaredoingwhatthey’re
doing.Theteamhasasharedvisionandabletoworkindependentlyandwithno
interferenceorparticipationfromtheleader.
Teamsthatperformatahigh-levelareabletofunctionasaunitandfindeffective
workingstrategieswithoutinappropriateconflict
RefertoBruceTuckman’sforming,storming,norming,andperformingmodel.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Stages of group development into
teams

15. 
Lifecyclemodels
Describetheprocessofchangeastheunfoldingofaprescribedand
linearsequenceofstagesfollowingaprogramthatisprefiguredatthe
beginningofthecycle(decidedwithinthegrouporimposedonit).
Teleologicalmodels
Describechangeasapurposefulmovementtowardoneormoregoals,
withadjustmentsbasedonfeedbackfromtheenvironment.
Dialecticalmodels
Describechangeasemergingfromconflictbetweenopposingentities
andeventualsynthesisleadingtothenextcycleofconflict.
Evolutionarymodels
Describechangeasemergingfromarepeatedcycleofvariation,
selectionandretentionandgenerallyapplytochangeinapopulation
ratherthanchangewithinanentityovertime
Group Development Models
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

16. 
KurtLewin'sindividualchangeprocess
ThefirstsystematicstudyofgroupdevelopmentwascarriedoutbyKurtLewin,who
introducedtheterm"groupdynamics“.
Hisideasaboutmutual,cross-levelinfluenceandquasi-stationaryequilibria,
althoughuncommoninthetraditionalempiricalresearchongroupdevelopment,
haveresurgedrecently.
Hisearlymodelofindividualchange,whichhasservedasthebasisofmanymodels
ofgroupdevelopment,describedchangeasathree-stageprocess:unfreezing,
change,andfreezing.
Unfreezing:Thisphaseinvolvesovercominginertiaanddismantlingtheexisting
"mindset".Défensemechanismshavetobebypassed.
Change:Inthesecondstagechangeoccurs.Thisistypicallyaperiodofconfusion
andtransition.Oneisawarethattheoldwaysarebeingchallengedbutdoesnot
haveaclearpicturetoreplacethemwithyet.
Freezing:Inthethirdstagethenewmindsetiscrystallizingandone'scomfortlevelis
returningtopreviouslevels.Thisisoftenmisquotedas"refreezing’’
Group Development Models
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

17. 
Tuckman'sStagesmodel
BruceTuckmanreviewedaboutfiftystudiesofgroupdevelopment(includingBales'model)inthemid-sixtiesand
synthesizedtheircommonalitiesinoneofthemostfrequentlycitedmodelsofgroupdevelopment(Tuckman,
1965).Tuckman'smodelofgroupdevelopmentdescribesfourlinearstages(forming,storming,norming,and
performing)thatagroupwillgothroughinitsunitarysequenceofdecisionmaking.Afifthstage(adjourning)was
addedin1977whenanewsetofstudieswerereviewed(Tuckman&Jensen,1977).
Forming:Groupmemberslearnabouteachotherandthetaskathand.Indicatorsofthisstagemightinclude:
Unclearobjectives,Uninvolvement,Uncommittedmembers,Confusion,Lowmorale,Hiddenfeelings,Poor
listening,etc.
Storming:sgroupmemberscontinuetowork,theywillengageeachotherinargumentsaboutthestructureofthe
groupwhichoftenaresignificantlyemotionalandillustrateastruggleforstatusinthegroup.Theseactivities
markthestormingphase:Lackofcohesion,Subjectivity,Hiddenagendas,Conflicts,Confrontation,Volatility,
Resentment,anger,Inconsistency,Failure.
Norming:Groupmembersestablishimplicitorexplicitrulesabouthowtheywillachievetheirgoal.Theyaddress
thetypesofcommunicationthatwillorwillnothelpwiththetask.Indicatorsinclude:Questioningperformance,
Reviewing/clarifyingobjectives,Changing/confirmingroles,Openingriskyissues,Assertiveness,Listening,
Testingnewground,Identifyingstrengthsandweaknesses.
Performing:Groupsreachaconclusionandimplementthesolutiontotheirissue.Indicatorsinclude:Creativity,
Initiative,Flexibility,Openrelationships,Pride,Concernforpeople,Learning,Confidence,Highmorale,Success.
Adjourning:Asthegroupprojectends,thegroupdisbandsintheadjournmentphase.Thisphasewasadded
whenTuckmanandJensen'supdatedtheiroriginalreviewoftheliteraturein1977.Duringtheadjourningstage,
theleadershouldtransitionintoasupportingroleinordertoexpandtheinitiative(i.e.,createfutureleadership
opportunitiesforthegroupmembers)
Group Development Models
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

18. 
Tubbs'systemsmodel
StewartTubbs"systems"approachtostudyingsmallgroupinteractionled
himtothecreationofafour-phasemodelofgroupdevelopment:
Orientation:Inthisstage,groupmembersgettoknoweachother,theystart
totalkabouttheproblem,andtheyexaminethelimitationsand
opportunitiesoftheproject.
Conflict:Conflictisanecessarypartofagroup'sdevelopment.Conflict
allowsthegrouptoevaluateideasandithelpsthegroupconformityand
groupthink.
Consensus:Conflictendsintheconsensusstage,whengroupmembers
compromise,selectideas,andagreeonalternatives.
Closure:Inthisstage,thefinalresultisannouncedandgroupmembers
reaffirmtheirsupportofthedecision.
Group Development Models
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

19. 
Fisher's theory of decision emergence in groups
Fisher outlines four phases through which task groups tend to proceed when engaged in
decision making. By observing the distribution of act-response pairs (a.k.a. "interacts") across
different moments of the group process, Fisher noted how the interaction changed as the group
decision was formulated and solidified. His method pays special attention to the "content"
dimension of interactions by classifying statements in terms of how they respond to a decision
proposal (e.g. agreement, disagreement, etc.
Orientation: During the orientation phase, group members get to know each other and they
experience a primary tension: the awkward feeling people have before communication rules and
expectations are established. Groups should take time to learn about each other and feel
comfortable communicating around new people.
Conflict: The conflict phase is marked by secondary tension, or tension surrounding the task at
hand. Group members will disagree with each other and debate ideas. Here conflict is viewed as
positive, because it helps the group achieve positive results.
Emergence: In the emergence phase, the outcome of the group's task and its social structure
become apparent. Group members soften their positions and undergo an attitudinal change that
makes them less tenacious in defending their individual viewpoint.
Reinforcement: In this stage, group members bolster their final decision by using supportive
verbal and nonverbal communication.
Group Development Models
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

20. 
Poole's multiple-sequences model
MarshallScottPoole'smodelsuggeststhatdifferentgroupsemploydifferentsequences
inmakingdecisions.
Poolesuggeststhreeactivitytracks:taskprogress,relational,andtopicalfocus.
Interspersedwiththesearebreakpoints,markingchangesinthedevelopmentofstrands
andlinksbetweenthem.
Normalbreakpointspacethediscussionwithtopicshiftsandadjournments.Delays,
anotherbreakpoint,areholdingpatternsofrecyclingthroughinformation.Finally,
disruptionsbreakthediscussionthreadswithconflictortaskfailure.
Tasktrack:Thetasktrackconcernstheprocessbywhichthegroupaccomplishesits
goals,suchasdealingdoingproblemanalysis,designingsolutions,etc.
Relationtrack:Therelationtrackdealswiththeinterpersonalrelationshipsbetweenthe
groupmembers.Attimes,thegroupmaystopitsworkonthetaskandworkinsteadon
itsrelationships,sharepersonalinformationorengageinjoking.
Topictrack:Thetopictrackincludesaseriesofissuesorconcernsthegrouphaveover
time
Breakpoints:Breakpointsoccurwhenagroupswitchesfromonetracktoanother.Shifts
intheconversation,adjournment,orpostponementareexamplesofbreakpoints.
Group Development Models
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

21. 
McGrath'sTime,Interaction,andPerformance(TIP)theory
McGrath's(1991)workemphasizedthenotionthatdifferentteamsmightfollow
differentdevelopmentalpathstoreachthesameoutcome.
Healsosuggestedthatteamsengageinfourmodesofgroupactivity:inception,
technicalproblemsolving,conflictresolution,andexecution.
Accordingtothismodel,modes"arepotential,notrequired,formsofactivity"
resultinginModesIandIV(inceptionandexecution)beinginvolvedinallgroup
tasksandprojectswhileModesII(technicalproblemsolving)andIII(conflict
resolution)mayormaynotbeinvolvedinanygivengroupactivity.
ModeI:Inception:Inceptionandacceptanceofaproject(goalchoice
ModeII:TechnicalProblemSolving:Solutionoftechnicalissues(meanschoice
ModeIII:ConflictResolution:Resolutionofconflict,thatis,ofpoliticalissues
(policychoice)
ModeIV:Execution:Executionoftheperformancerequirementsoftheproject(goal
attainment)
Group Development Models
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

22. 
Thismodelalsostatesthatgroupsadoptthesefourmodeswithrespecttoeachofthreeteam
functions:production,well-being,andmembersupport.Inthissense,groupsareseenas"always
actinginoneofthefourmodeswithrespecttoeachofthethreefunctions,buttheyarenot
necessarilyengagedinthesamemodeforallfunctions,noraretheynecessarilyengagedinthe
samemodeforagivenfunctionondifferentprojectsthatmaybeconcurrent".Thefollowingtable
illustratestherelationshipbetweenmodesandfunctions.
Group Development Models
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Functions
Production Well-being Member Support
Mode I:
Inception
ProductionDemand
/ Opportunity
InteractionDemand/
Opportunity
InclusionDemand/
Opportunity
Mode II:
Problem Solving
TechnicalProblem
Solving
RoleNetwork
Definition
Position/Status
Attainment
Mode III:
Conflict Resolution
PolicyConflict
Resolution
Power/Payoff
Distribution
Contribution/Payoff
Relationships
Mode IV:
Execution
Performance Interaction Participation

23. 
Belbin
AwidelyrecognisedteamroletheorywassuggestedbyBelbinin1981.Belbinbelievesthateachofuspossessesapatternof
behaviourthatcharacterisesoneperson'sbehaviourinrelationshiptoanotherinfacilitatingtheprogressofateam.
Atendencytobehave,contributeandinterrelatewithothersinaparticularway.“
1.PlantsPL:Plantsareinnovatorsandinventorsandcanbehighlycreative.
2.ResourceInvestigators(RI):ResourceInvestigatorsareoftenenthusiastic,quick-off-the-markextroverts.Theyaregoodat
communicatingwithpeoplebothinsideandoutsidethecompany.
3.MonitorEvaluators(ME):MonitorEvaluatorsareserious-minded,prudentindividualswithabuilt-inimmunityforbeing
overenthusiastic.Theyareslowinmakingdecisionspreferringtothinkthingsover.
4.Co-ordinators(C0):ThedistinguishingfeatureofCoordinatorsistheirabilitytocauseotherstoworktowardssharedgoals.
Mature,trustingandconfident,theydelegatereadily.
5.Shapers(SH):Shapersarehighlymotivatedpeoplewithalotofnervousenergyandaneedforachievement.Usuallytheyare
aggressiveextrovertsandpossessstrongdrive.
6.Implementers(IMP):Implementershavepracticalcommonsenseandagooddealofself-controlanddiscipline.Theyfavour
hardworkandtackleproblemsinasystematicfashion
7.TeamWorkers(TW):TeamWorkersarethemostsupportivemembersofateam.Theyaremild,sociableandconcernedabout
others.Theyhaveagreatcapacityforflexibilityandadaptingtodifferentsituationsandpeople.
8.Completer-finishers(CF):Completer-Finishershaveagreatcapacityforfollowthroughandattentiontodetail.Theyareunlikely
tostartanythingthattheycannotfinish.Theyaremotivatedbyinternalanxiety,yetoutwardlytheymayappearunruffled.
9.Specialists(SP):Specialistsarededicatedindividualswhopridethemselvesonacquiringtechnicalskillsandspecialised
knowledge.Theirprioritiescentreonmaintainingprofessionalstandardsandonfurtheringanddefendingtheirownfield.
Group Development Models
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

24. 
PeterHoneyhasbuiltonBelbin’swork.
HehasdevelopedBelbi’ntheoryandhaspresentedhisown5layered
framework.
Leader–Challenger–Worker–Thinker–Helper
Leader:Ensuresguidanceandclearaimsfortheteam.
Ensuresthateveryindividualremainsfocusedonthetask,hasaspecificrole
andiseagertosucceed.
Challenger:Apersonwhoquestionseffectivenessandpushesfor
improvementandbetterresults.
Worker:Apersonwhoiswillingtorolluphissleevesandworkhardfor
thesakeoftheothers.
Thinker:Thispersonconsiderseachaspectcarefully.Hetakesastepback
toanalyseeachaspectoftheworkinordertoimproveit.
Helper:Thispersonreconcilestensionbetweenindividualsintheteam.
Theaimistoachievesatisfactionandahappyteam.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Group Development Models

25. 
Groupdynamics
isasystemofbehaviorsandpsychologicalprocesses
occurringwithinasocialgroup(intragroupdynamics),or
betweensocialgroups(intergroupdynamics).
Thestudyofgroupdynamicscanbeusefulin
understandingdecision-makingbehaviour,trackingthe
spreadofdiseasesinsociety,creatingeffectivetherapy
techniques,andfollowingtheemergenceandpopularity
ofnewideasandtechnologies.
Groupdynamicsareatthecoreofunderstandingracism,
sexism,andotherformsofsocialprejudiceand
discrimination
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Group Dynamics

26. 
History
The history of group dynamics (or group processes)has a consistent, underlying premise: 'the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.' Asocial groupis an entity that has qualities which cannot be understood just by studying the
individuals that make up the group. In 1924,GestaltpsychologistMax Wertheimeridentified this fact, stating ‘There are
entities where the behaviour of the whole cannot be derived from its individual elements nor from the way these
elements fit together; rather the opposite is true: the properties of any of the parts are determined by the intrinsic
structural laws of the whole’.
As a field of study, group dynamics has roots in both psychology and sociology.Wilhelm Wundt(1832–1920), credited as
the founder of experimental psychology, had a particular interest in the psychology of communities, which he believed
possessed phenomena (human language, customs, and religion) that could not be described through a study of the
individual.Other key theorists includeWilliam McDougall (psychologist), who believed in a 'group mind,' which had a
distinct existence born from the interaction of individuals.
[2]
Ultimately, it wassocial psychologistKurt Lewin(1890–1947) who coined the termgroup dynamicsto describe the positive
and negative forces within groups of people.
In 1945, he establishedThe Group Dynamics Research Centerat the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first institute
devoted explicitly to the study of group dynamics.Throughouthis career, Lewin was focused on how the study of group
dynamics could be applied to real-world, social issues.
An increasing amount of research has appliedevolutionary psychologyprinciples to group dynamics. Humans are
argued to have evolved in an increasingly complicated social environment and to have manyadaptationsconcerned with
group dynamics. Examples include mechanisms for dealing with status, reciprocity, identifying cheaters, ostracism,
altruism, group decision, leadership, and intergroup relations.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Group Dynamics

27. 
GustaveLeBon
GustaveLeBonwasaFrenchsocialpsychologistwhoseseminalstudy,TheCrowd:AStudyofthePopularMind(1896)led
tothedevelopmentofgrouppsychology
WilliamMcDougall
TheBritishpsychologistWilliamMcDougallinhisworkTheGroupMind(1920)researchedthedynamicsofgroupsof
varioussizesanddegreesoforganization.
SigmundFreud
InGroupPsychologyandtheAnalysisoftheEgo,(1922),SigmundFreudbasedhispreliminarydescriptionofgroup
psychologyonLeBon'swork,butwentontodevelophisown,originaltheory,relatedtowhathehadbeguntoelaborate
inTotemandTaboo.TheodorAdornoreprisedFreud'sessayin1951withhisFreudianTheoryandthePatternofFascist
Propaganda,andsaidthat"ItisnotanoverstatementifwesaythatFreud,thoughhewashardlyinterestedinthepolitical
phaseoftheproblem,clearlyforesawtheriseandnatureoffascistmassmovementsinpurelypsychologicalcategories.
JacobL.Moreno
JacobL.Morenowasapsychiatrist,dramatist,philosopherandtheoreticianwhocoinedtheterm"grouppsychotherapy"
intheearly1930sandwashighlyinfluentialatthetime
KurtLewin
KurtLewin(1943,1948,1951)iscommonlyidentifiedasthefounderofthemovementtostudygroupsscientifically.He
coinedthetermgroupdynamicstodescribethewaygroupsandindividualsactandreacttochangingcircumstances
WilliamSchutz
WilliamSchutz(1958,1966)lookedatinterpersonalrelationsasstage-developmental,inclusion(amIincluded?),control
(whoistopdoghere?),andaffection(doIbelonghere?).Schutzseesgroupsresolvingeachissueinturninordertobe
abletoprogresstothenextstage.
Conversely,astrugglinggroupcandevolvetoanearlierstage,ifunabletoresolveoutstandingissuesatitspresentstage.
Schutzreferredtothesegroupdynamicsas"theinterpersonalunderworld,"groupprocesseswhicharelargelyunseen
andun-acknowledged,asopposedto"content"issues,whicharenominallytheagendaofgroupmeetings.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Key Theorists: Group Dynamics

28. 
WilfredBion
WilfredBion(1961)studiedgroupdynamicsfromapsychoanalyticperspective,andstatedthathewasmuch
influencedbyWilfredTrotterforwhomheworkedatUniversityCollegeHospitalLondon,asdidanotherkey
figureinthePsychoanalyticmovement,ErnestJones.
Hediscoveredseveralmassgroupprocesseswhichinvolvedthegroupasawholeadoptinganorientationwhich,
inhisopinion,interferedwiththeabilityofagrouptoaccomplishtheworkitwasnominallyengagedin.
Hisexperiencesarereportedinhispublishedbooks,especiallyExperiencesinGroups.TheTavistockInstitutehas
furtherdevelopedandappliedthetheoryandpracticesdevelopedbyBion.
BruceTuckman
BruceTuckman(1965)proposedthefour-stagemodelcalledTuckman'sStagesforagroup.Tuckman'smodelstates
thattheidealgroupdecision-makingprocessshouldoccurinfourstages:
Forming(pretendingtogetonorgetalongwithothers)
Storming(lettingdownthepolitenessbarrierandtryingtogetdowntotheissueseveniftempersflareup)
Norming(gettingusedtoeachotheranddevelopingtrustandproductivity)
Performing(workinginagrouptoacommongoalonahighlyefficientandcooperativebasis)
Tuckmanlateraddedafifthstageforthedissolutionofagroupcalledadjourning.(Adjourningmayalsobereferred
toasmourning,i.e.mourningtheadjournmentofthegroup).Thismodelreferstotheoverallpatternofthegroup,
butofcourseindividualswithinagroupworkindifferentways.Ifdistrustpersists,agroupmayneverevengetto
thenormingstage.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Key Theorists: Group Dynamics

29. 
M.ScottPeck
M.ScottPeckdevelopedstagesforlarger-scalegroups(i.e.,communities)whichare
similartoTuckman'sstagesofgroupdevelopment.Peckdescribesthestagesofa
communityas:
Pseudo-community
Chaos
Emptiness
TrueCommunity
Communitiesmaybedistinguishedfromothertypesofgroups,inPeck'sview,by
theneedformemberstoeliminatebarrierstocommunicationinordertobeableto
formtruecommunity.
Examples of common barriers are: expectations and
preconceptions;prejudices;ideology,counterproductivenorms,theologyand
solutions;theneedtoheal,convert,fixorsolveandtheneedtocontrol.
Acommunityisbornwhenitsmembersreachastageof"emptiness"orpeace.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Key Theorists: Group Dynamics

30. 
Hackman'sMultilevelPerspective
 TheMultilevelPerspectiveisanintegrationoftheseanalysesintooneunifiedapproach.Itsuggeststhatgroup
developmentandsuccesscanbebestunderstoodbytakingintoaccountcomponentsfoundatalllevelsofanalysis.
 Groupbehaviorcanbebrokendowninto3levelsofanalysis:theindividuallevel(micro),thegrouplevel(meso)andthe
organizationalorsocietallevel(macro).
 Micro-Level:IndividualLevel:Referstothepersonalqualitiesandcharacteristicsofindividualgroupmembers,aswell
astheiractions.
 Meso-Level:GroupLevel:Referstothequalitiesandcharacteristicsofthegroupasawhole,suchashowcohesivethe
groupis,whatisitssize,howisitstructured,etc.
 Macro-Level:OrganizationalorSocietalLevel:Referstothequalities,characteristics,andprocessesofthelarger
collectivesofwhichagroupisapartof(i.e.,theorganizationorthecommunity).
Hackmanproposedfiveconditionsthatincreasethechancethatgroupswillbesuccessful.Theseinclude:
 Beingarealteam:whichresultsfromhavingasharedtask,clearboundarieswhichclarifywhoisinsideoroutsideofthe
group,andstabilityingroupmembership.
 Compellingdirection:whichresultsfromaclear,challenging,andconsequentialgoal.
 Enablingstructure:whichresultsfromhavingtaskswhichhavevariety,agroupsizethatisnottoolarge,talentedgroup
memberswhohaveatleastmoderatesocialskill,andstrongnormsthatspecifyappropriatebehaviour.
 Supportivecontext:whichoccursingroupsnestedinlargergroups(e.g.companies).Incompanies,supportivecontexts
involvesa)rewardsystemsthatrewardperformanceandcooperation(e.g.groupbasedrewardslinkedtogroup
performance),b)aneducationalsystemthatdevelopsmemberskills,c)aninformationandmaterialssystemthatprovides
theneededinformationandrawmaterials(e.g.computers).
 Expertcoaching:whichoccursontherareoccasionswhengroupmembersfeeltheyneedhelpwithtaskorinterpersonal
issues.Hackmanemphasizesthatmanyteamleadersareoverbearingandunderminegroupeffectiveness.
Key Theorists: Group Dynamics
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe

31. 
Thecomfortzoneisabehaviouralstatewithinwhichaperson
operatesinananxiety-neutralcondition,usingalimitedsetof
behaviourstodeliverasteadylevelofperformance,usually
withoutasenseofrisk.
Thisimpliesthat,providingthereisnochangeinthe
‘anxiety’ortheskillsapplied,thelevelofperformance
willremainconstant.
Equally,ifthereisachangeinthe‘anxiety’ortheskills
appliedthenachangeinthelevelofperformancewill
result–eitherupwardsordownwards.
Whatisitsimplicationsforperformancemanagement?
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Comfort Zone

32. 
SocialInertia
istheresistancetochangeortheenduranceofstablerelationshipsinsocietiesorsocial
groups.
Individualsourcesofresistancetochangeresideinbasichumancharacteristicssuchas
perceptions,personalities,andneeds.
Thefollowingsummarizesfivereasonswhyindividualsmayresistchange:
HABIT-whenconfrontedwithchange,thistendencytorespondinouraccustomedways
becomesasourceofresistance.
SECURITY-Peoplewithahighneedforsecurityarelikelytoresistchangebecauseit
threatenstheirfeelingofsafety.
ECONOMIC FACTORS-Changesinjobtasksorestablishedworkroutinesalsocanarouse
economicfearsifpeopleareconcernedthattheywon'tbeabletoperformthenewtasksor
routinestotheirpreviousstandards,especiallywhenpayiscloselytiedtoproductivity.
FEAROFTHEUNKNOWN -Changessubstituteambiguityanduncertaintyfortheknown.
If,forexample,theintroductionofwordprocessorsmeansthatdepartmentalsecretaries
willhavetolearntooperatethesenewpiecesofequipment,someofthesecretariesmay
fearthattheywillbeunabletodoso
SELECTIVEINFORMATION PROCESSING-Individualsshapetheirworldthroughtheir
perceptions.Oncetheyhavecreatedthisworld,itresistschange
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Social Inertia

33. 
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Intragroup Dynamics
Intragroup dynamics
alsoreferredtoasingroup,within-group,orcommonlyjust‘groupdynamics’
aretheunderlyingprocessesthatgiverisetoasetofnorms,roles,relations,and
commongoalsthatcharacterizeaparticularsocialgroup.
Examplesofgroupsincludereligious,political,military,andenvironmental
groups,sportsteams,workgroups,andtherapygroups.
Amongstthemembersofagroup,thereisastateofinterdependence,through
whichthebehaviors,attitudes,opinions,andexperiencesofeachmemberare
collectivelyinfluencedbytheothergroupmembers.
Inmanyfieldsofresearch,thereisaninterestinunderstandinghowgroup
dynamicsinfluenceindividualbehavior,attitudes,andopinions.
Groupsalsoinfluenceindividual’sdecision-makingprocesses.
Theseincludedecisionsrelatedtoingroupbias,persuasion,obedience,and
groupthink.
Therearebothpositiveandnegativeimplicationsofgroupinfluenceon
individualbehavior.

34. 
Intergroup dynamics
referstothebehavioralandpsychologicalrelationship
betweentwoormoregroups.
Thisincludesperceptions,attitudes,opinions,and
behaviorstowardsone’sowngroup,aswellasthose
towardsanothergroup.
Insomecases,intergroupdynamicsisprosocial,positive,
andbeneficial(forexample,whenmultipleresearch
teamsworktogethertoaccomplishataskorgoal).
Inothercases,intergroupdynamicscancreateconflict.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Intergroup Dynamics

35. 
Social Identity
Thesocialgroupisacriticalsourceofinformationaboutindividualidentity.
Anindividual’sidentityorself-concepthastwocomponents:personalidentityandsocial
identity(orcollectiveself).
One’spersonalidentityisdefinedbymoreidiosyncratic,individualqualitiesand
attributes.
Incontrast,one’ssocialidentityisdefinedbyhisorhergroupmembership,andthe
generalcharacteristics(orprototypes)thatdefinethegroupanddifferentiateitfromothers.
Wenaturallymakecomparisonsbetweenourowngroupandothergroups,butwedonot
necessarilymakeobjectivecomparisons.
Instead,wemakeevaluationsthatareself-enhancing,emphasizingthepositivequalitiesof
ourown.
Inthisway,thesecomparisonsgiveusadistinctandvaluedsocialidentitythatbenefits
ourself-esteem.
Oursocialidentityandgroupmembershipalsosatisfiesaneedtobelong.
Ofcourse,individualsbelongtomultiplegroups.Therefore,one’ssocialidentitycanhave
several,qualitativelydistinctparts(forexample,one’sethnicidentity,religiousidentity,
andpoliticalidentity).
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Approaches of intergroup dynamics

36. 
SocialCohesion
groupcohesionreferstotheprocessesthatkeepmembersofasocialgroupconnected.
Termssuchasattraction,solidarity,andmoraleareoftenusedtodescribegroupcohesion.
Itisthoughttobeoneofthemostimportantcharacteristicsofagroup,andhasbeen
linkedtogroupperformance,intergroupconflictandtherapeuticchange.
Groupcohesion,asascientificallystudiedpropertyofgroups,iscommonlyassociated
withKurtLewinandhisstudent,LeonFestinger.
Lewindefinedgroupcohesionasthewillingnessofindividualstosticktogether,and
believedthatwithoutcohesivenessagroupcouldnotexist.
AsanextensionofLewin’swork,Festingerdescribedcohesionas,thetotalfieldofforces
whichactonmemberstoremaininthegroup.
Later,thisdefinitionwasmodifiedtodescribetheforcesactingonindividualmembersto
remaininthegroup,termedattractiontothegroup.
Sincethen,severalmodelsforunderstandingtheconceptofgroupcohesionhavebeen
developed,includingAlbertCarron’shierarchicalmodelandseveralbi-dimensional
models.
BeforeLewinandFestinger,therewere,ofcourse,descriptionsofaverysimilargroup
property.Forexample,EmileDurkheimdescribedtwoformsofsolidarity(mechanicaland
organic),whichcreatedasenseofcollectiveconsciousandanemotion-basedsenseof
community.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Approaches of intergroup dynamics

37. 
Black Sheep Effect
Beliefs within the in group are based on how individuals in the group see their other
members. Individuals tend to upgrade likeable in-group members and deviate from
unlikeable group members, making them a separate out group.
This is called the black sheep effect.
A person's beliefs about the group may be changed depending upon whether they
are part of the in group or out group.
New members of a group must prove themselves to the full members, or “old-
timers”, to become accepted.
Full members have undergone socialization and are already accepted within the
group.
They have more privilege than newcomers but more responsibility to help the group
achieve its goals.
Marginal members were once full members but lost membership because they failed
to live up to the group’s expectations.
They can re-join the group if they go through re-socialization.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
The Black Sheep Effect

38. 
Groups are very much a part of social life; indeed groups
influence people greatly.
People form attitudes based on the influence that groups
have on them. What are acceptable and unacceptable
patterns of behaviour are learned from the group.
the norms that govern behaviour that the individual
subscribes to are what the group determines and
approves and what the group disapproves, the individual
avoids.
The group also sanctions, in other words, rewards people
for what it considers good behaviour and punishes those
who violate standard rules of conduct and by so doing,
behaviour patterns are reinforced in people
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Group Influence on Individual
Behaviour

39. 
Accordingtosocialidentitytheory,intergroupconflictstartswithaprocessofcomparison
betweenindividualsinonegroup(theingroup)tothoseofanothergroup(theoutgroup).
Thiscomparisonprocessisnotunbiasedandobjective.Instead,itisamechanismforenhancing
one’sself-esteem.
Intheprocessofsuchcomparisons,anindividualtendsto:
 favortheingroupovertheoutgroup
 exaggerateandovergeneralizethedifferencesbetweentheingroupandtheoutgroup(toenhance
groupdistinctiveness)
 minimizetheperceptionofdifferencesbetweeningroupmembers
 remembermoredetailedandpositiveinformationabouttheingroup,andmorenegative
informationabouttheoutgroup
Evenwithoutanyintergroupinteraction(asintheminimalgroupparadigm),individualsbeginto
showfavoritismtowardstheirowngroup,andnegativereactionstowardstheoutgroup.
Thisconflictcanresultinprejudice,stereotypes,anddiscrimination.
Intergroupconflictcanbehighlycompetitive,especiallyforsocialgroupswithalonghistoryof
conflict.
Incontrast,intergroupcompetitioncansometimesberelativelyharmless,particularlyin
situationswherethereislittlehistoryofconflict(forexample,betweenstudentsofdifferent
universities)leadingtorelativelyharmlessgeneralizationsandmildcompetitivebehaviors.
Intergroupconflictiscommonlyrecognizedamidstracial,ethnic,religious,andpoliticalgroups.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Intergroup Conflict

40. 
ContactHypothesis
In1954,GordonAllportsuggestedthatbypromotingcontactbetweengroups,prejudicecanbereduced.Further,he
suggestedfouroptimalconditionsforcontact:equalstatusbetweenthegroupsinthesituation;commongoals;6
intergroupcooperation;andthesupportofauthorities,law,orcustoms.
Sincethen,over500studieshavebeendoneonprejudicereductionundervariationsofthecontacthypothesis,anda
meta-analyticreviewsuggestsoverallsupportforitsefficacy.
Insomecases,evenwithoutthefouroptimalconditionsoutlinedbyAllport,prejudicebetweengroupscanbe
reduced.
To obtain beneficial effects, the situation must include positive contact. Some of the criteria are as follows:
Equal status.Both groups must engage equally in the relationship. Members of the group should have similar
backgrounds, qualities, and characteristics. Differences in academic backgrounds, wealth, skill, or experiences should
be minimized if these qualities will influence perceptions of prestige and rank in the group.
Common goals.Both groups must work on a problem/task and share this as a common goal, sometimes called
asuperordinate goal, a goal that can only be attained if the members of two or more groups work together by pooling
their efforts and resources.
Intergroup cooperation.Both groups must work together for their common goals without competition. Groups need
to work together in the pursuit of common goals.
Support of authorities, law or customs.Both groups must acknowledge some authority that supports the contact and
interactions between the groups.
Personal interaction.The contact situation needs to involve informal, personal interaction with outgroup members.
Members of the conflicting groups need to mingle with one another. Without this criterion they learn very little about
each other and cross-group friendships do not occur.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Intergroup Conflict Reduction

41. 
The Jigsaw Classroom
The jigsaw classroom is an interdependent learning technique that fosters positive inter-ethnic
relations.
The jigsaw classroom consists of the following phases. First, small learning groups of 5 or 6 students
from different ethnic backgrounds are formed, and each student learns a portion of the topic subject.
Then, each member of the learning group teaches that portion of the subject to the rest of the learning
group.
The jigsaw classroom is an effective application for reducing intergroup bias and integrating different
ethnic groups in elementary school settings because there is evidence that experiences in earlier stages
of our lives greatly changes our perceptions and behaviour.
Success of the jigsaw classrooms in reducing intergroup bias is based on the way this intervention is
structured.
The jigsaw classroom contains essential prerequisites for bias reduction such as superordinate goals,
interdependence, and equal-status interaction.
Intergroup cooperation can be achieved by superordinate goals (i.e. goals that can only be reached by
collaboration of every group).
In the jigsaw classroom, the superordinate goal is to learn the material completely.
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Intergroup Conflict Reduction

42. 
Asante Sana
Zikomo
Matendwa
Lecturer: Sire U. Sakarombe
Conclusion