Project report on LHC " Large Hadron Collider " Machine

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1. A SEMINAR REPORT
ON
LARGE
HADRON COLLIDER MACHINE
SESSION-2017-18
Guided By-
Mr. Chiranjib Sahu
(Lecturer in Physics)
Submitted By-
Jyotismat Raul
Roll No-15PHY028
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE (AUTO) , ANGUL

2. GOVERNMENT COLLEGE (AUTO) , ANGUL
Department of Physics
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “LARGE HADRON
COLLIDER MACHINE” has been satisfactorily presented by Jyotismat
Raul , Roll No-15PHY028
. It is certified that, project report is submitted
to Department of Physics , Government College (Auto) , Angul for the 6th
semester of Bachelor of Science during the academic year 2017-18.
Submitted to:-
Mr. Chiranjib Sahu
(Lecturer in Physics)
Department of Physics , Government College (Auto) , Angul

3. GOVERNMENT COLLEGE (AUTO) , ANGUL
Department of Physics
DECLARATION
I ,
Jyotismat Raul , Student of Bachelor of Science of Department of Physics ,
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE (AUTO) , ANGUL hereby declare that the project
report
presented on the topic ―LARGE HADRON COLLIDER MACHINE” is outcome of our
own work ,
is bona-fide, correct to the best of ou r knowledge and this work h as been carried
out taking
care of Physical Eth ics.
Jyotismat Raul
Roll No. - 15PHY028

4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Every work started and carri ed out wi th systematic approach turns
out to be Successful . Any accompl ished requires the effort of many peopl e and
this work is No di fferent. This project difficult due to numerous reasons
some of error correcti on was beyond my control . Sometimes I was like
rudderless boat wi thout knowi ng what to do next. It was then the timely
guidance of that has seen us through al l these odds. I woul d be very grateful to
him for his inspirati on, encouragement and guidance in al l phases of
the
endeavor.
It
is my great pl easure to thank Mr. Chiranjib Sahu , Lecturer in Physics
for his constant encouragement and valuable advice for thi s seminar. I also
wish to express my grati tude towards al l other staff members for thei r kind help.
Finally, I would thank Mr. B.K. Raj , HOD ,Dept. of Physics who was
tremendously contributed to this project directly as well as indirectly; gratitude
from the depths of my heart is due to him. Regardless of source I wi sh to express
my gratitude to those who may contri bute to thi s work, even though
anonymously.

5. LARGE HADRON COLLIDER MACHINE
The Key of Universe!
INTRODUCTION
LHC stands f
or Large Hadron Collider. Large due to its
size(approximately 27 km in
circumf erence), Hadron because it accelerates
protons or ions, which are hadrons, and Collider because these particles form
two beams travelling in
opposite directions, which collide at four points where
the two rings of the machin
e intersect. Hadrons (from the Greek ‗adros‘
meanin
g ‗bulky‘) are particles composed of quarks. The protons and neutrons that
atomic nuclei are made of belong to this family. On the other hand, leptons are
particles that are n
ot made of quarks. Electrons and muons are examples of
leptons (from the Greek ‗leptos‘ meaning ‗thin‘).

Figure 1 LHC Introduction

6. Figure 2 Map of Project Plant

7. When it was designed?
Back in
the early 1980s, while the Large Electron-Positron (LEP) collider was
bein
g desig ned and built, groups at CERN were already busy looking at the
long-term f
uture. After many years of work on the technical aspects and physics
requirements of such a machin
e, their dreams came to fruition in December 1994
when CERN‘s g
overnin g body, the CERN Council, voted to approve the
construction of the LHC. The green ligh
t for the project was given under the
condition that the n
ew accelerator be built within a constant budget and on the
u
nderstanding that any non-Member State contributions would be used to
speed u
p and improve the project. Initially, the budgetary constraints implied
that the LHC was to be conceived as a 2
-stage project. However, following
contributions f
rom Japan, the USA, India and other non-Member States,
Coun
cil voted in 1995 to allow the project to proceed in a single phase.
Between 1996 and 1998, four experiments
—ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb
receiv
ed off icial approval and construction work commenced on the four sites.
Since then, two smaller experiments have joined the quest: TOTEM, in
stalled next
to CMS, and LHCf, next to ATLAS.
Figure 3 Aerial view of LHC

8. Cost of the Project-
The cost for the machine alone is about 5 billion CHF (about 3 billion Euros). The total project
cost breaks down roughly as follows:
Table 1
Cost of Project
Construction costs (MCHF) Personnel Materials Total
LHC machine and areas 1224 3756 4980
CERN share to detectors 869 493 1362
LHC computing (CERN share) 85 83 168
Total 2178 4332 6510

9. Overview-
The LHC re-uses the tu nnel that was built for CERN‘s previous big accelerator,
LEP, dismantled in
2000. The tunn el was built at a mean depth of 100 m, due to
g
eological considerations (again translating into cost) and at a slig ht gradient of
1.4%. Its depth v
aries between 175 m (under the Jura) and 50 m (towards Lake
Geneva).The tun
nel has a slope for reasons of cost. At the time when it was
built f
or hosting LEP, the construction of the vertical shafts was very costly.
Therefore, the leng
th of the tunn el that lies un der the Jura was minimized.
Other constrain
ts involved in the positionin g of the tunn el were it was essential
to h
ave a depth of at least 5 m below the top of the ‗molasses‘‘ (green
sandstone) stratum}the tunn
el had to pass in the vicinity of the pilot tunnel,
constructed to test excavation techniques}it had to link to the SPS. This meant that
there was only
one degree of freedom (tilt). The angle was obtained by
minimizing the depth of
the shafts.
Table 2 Idea of the Project
Quantity number
Circumference 26659m
Dipole operating temperature
1.9K (-271.3°C)
Number of magnets 9593
Number of main dipoles 1232
Number of main quadruples 392
Number of RF cavities 8 per beam
Nominal energy, protons 7 Tev
Nominal energy, ions 2.76Tev/u(*)
Peak magnetic dipole field 8.33T
Min. distance between bunches ~7m
Design Luminosity 10
34
cm
-2
s
-1
No. of bunches per proton beam 2808
No. of protons per bunch (at start) 1.1x10
11
Number of turns per second 11245
Number of collisions per second 600 million
(*) Energy per nucleon
.

10. Main Goals of LHC-
1)Our current understanding of the Universe is in
complete. The
Standard Model of particles an d
forces summarizes our present knowledge
of particle phy
sics. The Standard Model has been tested by various
experiments and
it has proven particularly successful in anticipating the
existence of previously un
discovered particles. However, it leaves many
u
nsolved questions, which the LHC will help to answer.
2)The Standard Model does not explain the origin of mass, nor why some
particles are very
heavy while others have no mass at all.
3)The Standard Model does not offer a un
ified description of all the
f
undamental forces, as it remai ns difficult to construct a theory of gravity
similar to those f
or the other forces. Super sy mmetry a theory that
h
ypothesis the existence of more massive partners of the standard particles
we know —
could f acilitate the un ification of fu ndamental forces. If super
symmetry is rig
ht, then the lightest super symmetric particles should be
f
ound at the LHC.
4)Cosmological and astrophysical observations have shown that all of the
v
isible matter accounts for only 4% of the Univ erse. The search is open
f
or particles or phenomena responsible for dark matter (23%) and dark
energy (73%). A v
ery popular idea is that dark matter is made of neutral —
but still u
ndiscovered super symmetric particles.
5)The LHC will also help
us to in vestigate the my stery of antimatter. Matter
and
antimatter must have been produced in the same amounts at the time of
the Big Bang
, but from what we have observed so far, our Univ erse is made
only of matter. Why
? The LHC could help to prov ide an answer.

11. Figure 4 Universe division
In addition to the studies of proton–
proton collisions, heavy-ion collisions
at the LHC will provide a window onto the state of matter that would
h
ave existed in the early Univ erse, called ‗quark-glu on plasma‘. When
h
eavy ions collide at high energies they form for an instant a ‗fireball‘ of
h
ot, dense matter that can be studied by the experiments.

12. Acceleration of Particles in LHC (General Concept of Working)-
The accelerator complex at CERN is a succession of machin
es with in creasing ly
h
igher energies. Each machine injects the beam in to the next one, which takes
over to bring the beam to an even higher energy, and so on.
In the LHC—the
last element of this chain each particle beam is accelerated up to the record
energy of 7TeV. In addition,
most of the other accelerators in the chain have
their own experimental halls, where the beams are used for experiments at
lower energies.
The brief story of a proton accelerated through the accelerator complex at CERN
is as f
ollows:
1)Hydrogen atoms are taken from a bottle containing hy
drogen. We get
protons by strippin
g orbiting electrons from hy drogen atoms.
2)Protons are in
jected into the PS Booster (PSB) at energy of 50 MeV from
Linac2.
The booster accelerates them to 1.4 GeV. The beam is then fed to the Proton
Syn
chrotron (PS) where it is accelerated to 25 GeV. Protons are then sent to the
Super Proton Syn
chrotron (SPS) where they are accelerated to 450 GeV. They
are f
inally transferred to the LHC (both in a clockwise and an anticlockwise
direction, the f
illing time is 4‘20‘‘ per LHC ring ) where they are accelerated for
20
minutes to their n ominal energy of 7 Tev. Beams will circulate for many hours
in
side the LHC beam pipes un der normal operating conditions.
Protons arrive at the LHC in bunches, which are prepared in the smaller
machin
es. For a complete scheme of filling, mag netic fields and particle
currents in the accelerator chain. I
n addition to accelerating protons, the
accelerator complex also accelerates lead ions. Lead ions are produced from a
h
ighly purif ied lead sample heated to a temperature of about 500°C. The lead
v
apour is ionized by an electron current. Many diff erent charge states are
produced with a maximum around Pb29+. These ions are selected and
accelerated to 4.2
MeV/u (energy per nu cleon) before passing through a carbon
foil, which strips most of them to Pb54+. The Pb54+ beam is accumu
lated, and
then accelerated to 72 MeV/u in the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR), which
transfers them to the PS. The PS accelerates the beam to 5.9 GeV/u and sends
it to the SPS after first passing it through a second
foil where it is fu lly stripped
to Pb82+. The SPS accelerates it to 177 GeV/u then sends it to the LHC, which
accelerates it to 2.76 Tev/u.

13. Detectors in LHC-
There are six experiments in
stalled at the LHC: A Large Ion Collider
Experiment (ALICE), ATLAS, the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS), the Large
Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) experiment, the Large Hadron Collider forward
(LHCf) experiment and the Total Elastic and diffractive cross section
Measurement (TOTEM) experiment. ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb are
in
stalled in four h uge underground caverns built around the four collision points
of the LHC beams. TOTEM will be in-stalled close to the CMS in
teraction point
and LHCf
will be in stalled near ATLAS.
1.ALICE-
ALICE is a detector specialized in
analyzing lead-ion collisions. It
will study the properties of quark-glu
on plasma, a state of matter
where quarks and gluons, un
der conditions of very high
temperatures and densities, are no longer confined in
side hadrons.
Such a state of matter probably existed just after the Big Bang,
before particles such as protons and neutrons were formed. The
in
ternational collaboration in cludes more than 1500 members from
104 in
stitutes in 31 cou ntries (July 2007).
Figure 5 ALICE

14. 2.
ATLAS-

ATLAS is a general-purpose detector design
ed to cover the widest
possible rang
e of phy sics at the LHC, from the search for the Higg s
boson to super symmetry (SUSY) and extra dimensions. The main
f
eature of the ATLAS detector is its enormous dough nut-shaped
magn
et system. This consists of eigh t 25-m long superconducting
magn
et coils, arrang ed to form a cylin der around the beam pipe
through the centre of the detector. ATLAS is the largest-volume
collider-detector ever constructed. The collaboration consists of
more than 1900 members from 164 institutes in
35 countries (April
2007).
Figure 6 ATLAS

15. 3.CMS-

CMS is a g
eneral-purpose detector with the same physics goals as
ATLAS, but dif
ferent technical solutions and design . It is built
aroun
d a h uge superconducting solenoid. This takes the form of a
cylindrical coil of superconducting cable that will generate a magnetic
f
ield of 4 T, about 100 000 times that of the Earth. More than 2000
people work for CMS, from 181 in
stitutes in 38 countries (May
2007).
Figure 7 CMS

16. 4.LHCb-
LHCb specializes in
the study of the slig ht asymmetry between
matter and antimatter present in
interactions of B-particles (particles
contain
ing the b quark). Understanding it should prove in valuable in
answerin
g the question: ―Why is our Univ erse made of the matter
we observe?‖ Instead of surrounding
the entire collision point with
an enclosed detector, the LHCb experiment uses a series of sub-
detectors to detect mainly forward particles. The first sub-detector
is built aroun
d the collision point; the next ones stand one behin d the
other, over a leng
th of 20 m. The LHCb collaboration has more than
650 members f
rom 47 institutes in 14 countries (May 2007).
Figure 8 LHCb

17. 5.LHCf-
LHCf is a small experiment that will measure particles produced
v
ery close to the direction of the beams in the proton-proton
collisions at the LHC. The motivation is to test models used to
estimate the primary energy of the ultra high-energy cosmic rays. It
will h
ave detectors 140 m from the ATLAS collision point. The
collaboratio
n has 21 members from 10 in stitutes in 6 countries (May
2007).
Figure 9 LHCf

18. 6.TOTEM-
TOTEM will measure the effective size or ‗cross-section‘ of the
proton at LHC. To do this TOTEM must be able to detect
particles produced v
ery close to the LHC beams. It will in clude
detectors h
oused in specially design ed vacuum chambers called
‗Roman pots‘, which are connected to the beam pipes in
the
LHC. Eig
ht Roman pots will be placed in pairs at four locations near
the collision point of the CMS experiment. TOTEM has more than
70 members f
rom 10 institutes in 7 countries (May 2007).
Figure 1
0 TOTEMS

19. Expected Data Flow from LHC-
The LHC experiments represent about 150 million sensors del iv
ering data 40 million ti mes
per second. After f
iltering there will be about 100 collisions of in terest per second.
1.
ATLAS will produce about 320 MB/s
2. CMS will produce about 300 MB/s
3. LHCb will produce about 50 MB/s
4.ALICE will produce about 100 MB/s during proton-proton running and 1.25 GB/s
during heavy-ion running.
Power Consumption in LHC-
It is around 120 MW (230 MW for all CERN), which corresponds more or less to the power
consumption for households in the Canton (State) of Geneva. Assuming an average of 270
working days for the accelerator (the machine will not work in the winter period), the estimated
yearly energy consumption of the LHC in 2009 is about 800 000 MWh. This includes site base
load and the experiments.
The total yearly cost for running the LHC is therefore, about 19 million Euros. CERN is supplied
mainly by the French company EDF (Swiss companies EOS and SIG are used only in case of
shortage from France).
Helium Consumption at the LHC-
The exact amount of helium loss during operation of the LHC is not yet known. The actual value
will depend on many factors, such as how often there are magnet quenches, power cuts and other
problems. What is well known is the amount of helium that will be needed to cool down the
LHC and fill it for first operation. This amount is around 120 t.

Rules Regarding Access to the LHC-
Outside beam operation, the larger part of the LHC tunnel will be only weakly radioactive, the
majority of the residual dose rates being concentrated in specific parts of the machine, such as
the dump caverns —
where the full beam is absorbed at the end of each physics period and the
regions where beams are collimated.
Only a selection of authorized technical people will be able to access the LHC tunnel. A
specialized radiation protection technician will access it first and measure the dose rate at the
requested intervention place, to assess when, and for how long, the intervention can take place.

20. Are LHC Collisions dangerous?
The LHC can achieve energies that no other particle accelerators have reached before. The
energy of its particle collisions has previously only been found in Nature. And it is only by using
such a powerful machine that physicists can probe deeper into the key mysteries of the Universe.
Some people have expressed concerns about the safety of whatever may be created in high-
energy particle collisions. However there are no reasons for concern.
Unprecedented energy collision-
On Earth only! Accelerators only recreate the natural phenomena of cosmic rays under control-
led laboratory conditions. Cosmic rays are particles produced in outer space in events such as
supernovae or the formation of black holes, during which they can be accelerated to energies far
exceeding those of the LHC. Cosmic rays travel throughout the Universe, and have been
bombarding the Earth‘s atmosphere continually since its formation 4.5 billion years ago. Despite
the impressive power of the LHC in comparison with other accelerators, the energies produced in
its collisions are greatly exceeded by those found in some cosmic rays. Since the much higher-
energy collisions provided by nature for billions of years have not harmed the Earth, there is no
reason to think that any phenomenon produced by the LHC will do so.
Mini Big Bang-
Although the energy concentration (or density) in the particle collisions at the LHC is very high,
in absolute terms the energy involved is very low compared to the energies we deal with every
day or with the energies involved in the collisions of cosmic rays. However, at the very small
scales of the proton beam, this energy concentration reproduces the energy density that existed
just a few moments after the Big Bang that is why collisions at the LHC are sometimes referred
to as mini big bangs.
Black Holes-
Massive black holes are created in the Universe by the collapse of massive stars, which contain
enormous amounts of gravitational energy that pulls in surrounding matter. The gravitational pull
of a black hole is related to the amount of matter or energy it contains the less there is, the
weaker the pull. Some physicists suggest that microscopic black holes could be produced in the
collisions at the LHC. However, these would only be created with the energies of the colliding
particles (equivalent to the energies of mosquitoes), so no microscopic black holes produced
inside the LHC could generate a strong enough gravitational force to pull in surrounding matter
.If the LHC can produce microscopic black holes, cosmic rays of much higher energies would
already have produced many more. Since the Earth is still here, there is no reason to believe that
collisions inside the LHC are harmful.

21. Strangelets-
Strangelets are hypothetical small pieces of matter whose existence has never been proven. They
would be made of ‗strange quarks‘ — heavier and unstable relatives of the basic quarks that
make up stable matter. Even if strangelets do exist, they would be unstable. Furthermore, their
electromagnetic charge would repel normal matter, and instead of combining with stable
substances they would simply decay.
If Strangelets were produced at the LHC, they would not wreak havoc. If they exist, they would
already have been created by high-energy cosmic rays, with no harmful consequences.
Radiation-
Radiation is unavoidable at particle accelerators like the LHC. The particle collisions that allow
us to study the origin of matter also generate radiation. CERN uses active and passive protection
means, radiation monitors and various procedures to ensure that radiation exposure to the staff
and the surrounding population is as low as possible and well below the international regulatory
limits.
For comparison, note that natural radioactivity — due to cosmic rays and natural environmental
radioactivity — is about 2400 μSv/year in Switzerland. A round trip Europe–Los Angeles flight
accounts for about 100 μSv. The LHC tunnel is housed 100 m underground, so deep that both
stray radiations generated during operation and residual radioactivity will not be detected at the
surface. Air will be pumped out of the tunnel and filtered. Studies have shown that radioactivity
released in the air will contribute to a dose to members of the public of no more than 10μSv/year.
Conclusion-
The Large Hadron Collider is just a next step for modern Physics to understand the working and
function of Universe. This experiment made us to know about the existence of Higgs Boson.
There is reason which proves that LHC is dangerous for human being because there is high rank
of security and controlled condition. LHC is not only helpful for the Physicists and scientists but
it is also helpful for the human being because if we are able to know about the design the
working of Universe, there will be a great opportunity to resolve the long term disasters before it
will take place. We can also develop new particles which will be helpful for making new metals.
Hence we conclude that LHC is not just an experiment but is the Key of Universe.

22. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.CERN Brochu
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9. www.jyotismat.blogspot.in