Psychological-Foundations-Cognitive-and-Humanistic-Theories.pptx

All about psychological foundations and cognitive theories

1. Psychological Foundations Cognitive and Humanistic Theories

2. Cognitive Theory a psychological framework that focuses on the internal processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and using information. It posits that human behavior is largely influenced by how individuals perceive, think, remember, and solve problems. Rather than viewing individuals as passive responders to stimuli (as in behaviorism), cognitive theory emphasizes the active role of the mind in interpreting experiences and guiding actions.

3. Jean Piaget a Swiss developmental psychologist, is best known for his theory of cognitive development , which outlines how children's thinking evolves through a series of four distinct stages . He proposed that children are not passive recipients of knowledge but actively construct understanding as they interact with their environment. His theory emphasizes that cognitive development occurs in a fixed, universal sequence of stages, each characterized by increasingly sophisticated levels of thought.

4. The Four Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years) Children learn about the world through their senses and actions (e.g., touching, looking, listening). Key milestone: Object permanence – understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not seen.

5. 2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) Symbolic thinking emerges, and children begin using words and images to represent objects. Limitations include egocentrism (difficulty seeing perspectives other than their own) and lack of understanding of conservation (quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance).

6. 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years) Children develop logical thinking about concrete, tangible concepts. They gain the ability to understand conservation , reversibility , classification , and seriation (ordering objects by size, number, etc.).

7. 4 . Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up) Abstract, hypothetical, and systematic thinking develops. Adolescents can think about future possibilities, moral reasoning, and complex problem-solving.

8. Albert Bandura a Canadian-American psychologist best known for developing social learning theory , which later evolved into social cognitive theory . His research emphasized how people learn behaviors through observing , imitating , and modeling others. One of his most famous experiments—the Bobo doll experiment —demonstrated how children can adopt aggressive behaviors by watching adults act aggressively. Bandura also introduced the concept of self-efficacy , which is a person’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific tasks or situations.

9. Social Learning Theory

10. Ulric Neisser was a pioneering American psychologist often referred to as the "father of cognitive psychology." He played a central role in developing the field through his influential 1967 book Cognitive Psychology , which helped shift psychology's focus from behaviorist approaches to the study of internal mental processes such as perception, memory, and thinking. Neisser emphasized the importance of studying cognition in real-world contexts and later became a strong advocate for ecological validity in psychological research.

11. Core Concept of Cognitive Theory 1. Schemas: Mental Frameworks for Organizing Knowledge Schemas are mental structures that help individuals organize and interpret information. Developed through experience, schemas serve as cognitive frameworks that guide perception, attention, memory, and understanding of new information (Bartlett, 1932; Piaget, 1952). These frameworks influence how we perceive the world and can lead to biases in thinking when the information we encounter does not fit our existing schemas.

12. 2. Information Processing Model: Input → Processing → Output The information processing model likens the human mind to a computer. It explains cognition as a sequence: input (sensory information) → processing (interpretation, evaluation) → output (behavior or emotional response) . This model emphasizes how individuals perceive, interpret, and respond to information from their environment (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968).

13. 3. Cognitive Distortions: Faulty Thinking Patterns Cognitive distortions are irrational or exaggerated thought patterns that contribute to negative emotions and maladaptive behaviors (Beck, 1976; Burns, 1980). These distortions typically occur automatically and are linked to underlying dysfunctional beliefs or schemas.

14. 4. Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Problem-solving and decision-making are essential cognitive processes that allow individuals to navigate challenges and make informed choices. These processes involve several stages: identifying the problem, generating possible solutions, evaluating options, choosing a solution, and implementing it. Cognitive theory emphasizes that impaired problem-solving skills can contribute to psychological difficulties. For instance, individuals with depression may experience cognitive inertia, where they struggle to generate or act on solutions due to hopelessness or low motivation ( D'Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971). Cognitive-behavioral interventions often include structured problem-solving training , which helps clients enhance their cognitive flexibility and improve coping strategies.

15. Concept Definition Application in Therapy Schemas Cognitive frameworks for organizing knowledge Identify and restructure maladaptive schemas Information Processing Mental process from input to output Focus on how thoughts affect emotions and behaviors Cognitive Distortions Irrational thinking patterns Help clients recognize and reframe distorted thoughts Problem-Solving Steps to resolve challenges effectively Teach structured decision-making and coping

16. Applications of Cognitive Theory 1. Education Cognitive theory has profoundly influenced education by emphasizing the internal processes involved in learning. It supports instructional methods that enhance understanding, memory, and problem-solving skills. Key applications include: Instructional Design : Lessons are structured to align with how the brain processes and stores information, using techniques like chunking and concept mapping. Scaffolding : Teachers provide temporary support structures to help students move toward stronger understanding and independence. Cognitive Strategies : Students are taught techniques such as summarizing, self-questioning, and elaboration to improve learning outcomes.

17. 2. Therapy In psychology, Cognitive Theory underpins Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) , a widely used and evidence-based treatment. CBT is grounded in the idea that our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors are interconnected. CBT helps individuals identify and reframe negative or distorted thought patterns. It is highly effective in treating conditions like depression, anxiety, PTSD, and phobias. Therapy often includes cognitive restructuring, journaling, and behavioral experiments.

18. 3. Technology Cognitive Theory also plays a critical role in the design of human-computer interaction (HCI) and artificial intelligence (AI): Human-Computer Interaction : Interfaces are designed with an understanding of cognitive load, attention, and memory limitations. For example, intuitive layouts reduce mental strain. Artificial Intelligence : Cognitive models inspire AI systems that simulate human problem-solving and decision-making processes. Examples include natural language processing and machine learning systems. Educational Technology : Intelligent tutoring systems adapt content based on learners’ cognitive states.

19. HUMANISTIC THEORY Emerged in the 1950s as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism Emphasizes free will, self-awareness, and personal growth Focus on the whole person and subjective experience Belief in innate human goodness and potential Key figures: Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow

20. Carl Rogers – Person-Centered Theory Emphasized self-concept Unconditional Positive Regard Congruence vs. Incongruence Client-centered therapy

21. Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of needs

22. Core Concepts in Humanistic Theory Self-actualization : reaching one's full potential Self-concept : how we view ourselves Unconditional Positive Regard : acceptance without judgment Congruence : alignment between self-perception and experience

23. Applications of Humanistic Theory Therapy : Client-centered, humanistic counseling Education : Emphasis on self-directed learning Workplace : Motivation and employee engagement

24. Cognitive vs. Humanistic Feature Cognitive Theory Humanistic Theory Focus Mental processes, thought patterns Personal growth, emotions, meaning Methods Experiments, models, measurable data Interviews, case studies, introspection View of humans Rational processors of information Inherently good, capable of self-growth Strengths Scientific, practical applications Holistic, empowering approach Weaknesses Ignores emotion, overly mechanistic Lacks empirical rigor, too idealistic

25. Cognitive: May ignore emotions and context Reduces humans to machines Humanistic: Hard to test or measure Culturally biased (Western individualism)

26. Cognitive and Humanistic theories offer distinct, valuable insights Cognitive: how we think and process information Humanistic: who we are and what we can become Together, they enrich our understanding of human nature

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