Rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery

Disaster Management - Role of Engineers

1. UNIT 1 RECONSTRUCTION AND,
REWABILIT'ATION AS MEANS OF
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
1.0 Learning Outcome
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Importance of Disaster Mitigation
1.3 Cost
-benefit Analysis
1.4 Relationship between Disasters and Development
1.5 The Relief-Rehabilitation-Development Continuum
1.6 Operationalising Linking of Relief and Rehabilitation with Development
1.7 Rebuilding Civil Society
1.8 Rehabilitation as a
Bridge between Relief and Development
1.9 Conclusion
1.10 Key Concepts
1.11 References and Further Reading
1.12 Activities
1.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
0 Examine the relationship between disasters and development
Throw light on the importance
of disaster mitigation and cost -benefit analysis 0 Explain the Relief "Rehabilitation-Development Continuum
Discuss the role of civil society in disaster rehabilitation; and
Analyse the importance of rehabilitation process in bridging the gap between relief and
development.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is generally believed that a disaster is also a window of opportunity. A paradoxical statement,
it may be, but it is not far from reality.
In this spirit, the time of
reconstructioii and rehabilitation
after a disaster is also a time of ensuring appropriate development patterns for the futu?e, and
of using the process
to generate resources that will help the local populace in getting access
to economic rehabilitation alongside physical reconstruction. Rehabilitation and reconstruction
operations provide the link for effective coordination between relief (for example, humanitarian
aid) and development.
The
boncqt of Linking Relief and Rehabilitation with Development (LRRD or the 'Grey

2. 16 Rehabilitation, Reconstructioiz and Recovery
Zone') dates back to the 1980s and has changed considerably since then. As a starting point,
we have to look at the relationship between disaster mitigation and development. This Unit
",
discusses the different aspects of the developmental approach with regard to the post-disaster
rehabilitation process. It aims at understanding the relationship between the rehabilitation and
development aspects of disaster management. The role of civil society, which is so essential
for the relief and development work, is also examined in the Unit.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF DISASTER MITIGATION
The most effective approach toward reducing the long -term impact of natural hazards is to
incorporate natural hazard assessment and mitigation activities into the process of integrated
development planning. To be successful, disaster mitigation exercise needs to be built
into the
existing and ongoing development programmes at every stage namely project design, development
of options, feasibility analysis and implementation framework. Without adequate disaster pianning,
in the form of adoption and integration of effective mitigation strategies, the results could be
catastrophic. It is, therefore, essential to develop a 'mindset of long-term thinking' and include
new attitudes in all the actors involved in development programmes, be it government officials,
professionals (engineers, architects, and surve
yors), legislators, inspectors, builders and ultimately
the users.
According to the briefing notes developed on the subject by the Oxford Centre for Disaster
Studies, disaster management is often mistakenly taken as a discrete short
-term intervention.
A disaster management team or
a Non-governmental Organisation (NGO) or a consultant that
carries out a consultancy on disaster management or reviews a disaster-affected site is asked
to write a report or comment on just one of the many aspects of a disaster management
programme. Whereas, an effective disaster management requires just the opposite. It calls for
an inclusion of disaster management thinking at all the stages of development and execution
of mitigation programme to promote the continuance and long
-term sustenance of policies.
Ideally, awareness of disaster issues should be a second nature to all those involved at all the
stages of programme formulation and execution. However, personal knowledge must be
complemented by guidelines, regulations and checklists as well as delineation
of clear
responsibility. Decision-making powers must be assigned to different actors, with respective
accountability for actions. Articulating disaster planning into development programmes is not an
easy task. For many, the importance of disaster planning comes second to social, political,
economic and historical considerations. The 'connect' between socio
-economic planning and
disaster planning is generally overlooked. If disaster planning was of primary concern to policy
makers, Lima, Mexico, San Francisco and Tokyo (the cities subjected to devastating disasters
time and again) would have been shifted to different geographical locations a long time ago.
The actors and stakeholders in disaster management must therefore continue to articulate the
critical importance of disaster mitigation even when its importance is not
.realised by others.
They must also understand and appreciate the importance of taking a developmental approach
during post
-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction phases. Increased disaster occurrence is
indicative of flawed and unsustainable development patterns, as well as rapidly accumulating
disaster risks. The processes of land use and economic development, which characterise
development in many countries, lead to increasing physical, social and economic vulnerability.
We will read
more about this aspect in Unit 5 of this Course.
Environmental degradation and mismanagement may aggravate the frequency, severity and
predictability of socio
-natural hazards such as floods, fires, landslides and droughts. Agencies
like the
UNDP therefore observe that when countries fail to include hazard and vulnerability
considerations into their development policies, strategies and plans, economic growth and social

3. Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Development
welfare get eroded by large-scale losses due to ksasters. At the same time, increasing demands
are being made for national and international humanitarian assistance
(UNDP, 2001).
1-3 COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
The post-rehabilitation programme generally suffers from a real or a projected paucity of
finances or funds. Not surprisingly, a key hindrance to integrating disaster rehabilitation with
development planning is the inadequacy of balancing the costs of mitigation measures against
their benefits.The balancing of costs against benefits is called cost -benefit analysis. It has been
observed that relatively small and single investments in disaster preparedness or miti gation can
greatly reduce the recurrent losses of capital items caused by disasters.
However, it has also been put forth, that
in any
divelopment programme, there will be competition
for resources, and so -priorities will have to be set. This gets amplified during rehabilitatibn and
reconstruction phases due to the heavy stress on limited resources. With finite resources,
therefore, a calculation needs to be made of the expenditure. involved in rehabilitation- measures
against the benefits of these measures. Factors influencing the costshenefits decision could be:
i)
Economic
Developmental measures involve expenditure and costs. These relate to garnering required
information, hiring of specialist staff, implementing measures and ensuring that they are sincerely
carried out. However, these developmental costs should reduce higher costs (economic, social
and political) that are likely to be incurred in the event of a disaster. ii) Political
Investing in disaster reduction activities may be electorally advantageous in certain circumstances.
Politicians could cash in on disaster rehabilitation process in the elections that take place in the '
aftermath of a devastating disaster. On the other hand, high cost developmental approach with
low visibility could be disadvantageous. It is believed that it may lend to draining of resources
as they get used up for other more high profile initiatives.
iii) Frequency of Disasters
Frequent disasters heighten the need for greater mitigation measures. Therefore, a stronger
developmental approach monitoring the level of success of mitigation measures is the need of
the hour. On the other hand, prolonged time gap between disasters may have
a negative
eff'ecl
on utilising the rehabilitation process as means of development.
1.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISASTERS AND
DEVELOPMENT
The relationship between disasters and development is not that df straight cause and effect.
There are many complexities, factors and issues involved in it. Let us now reflect on four
specific queries:
i) Do Disasters Destroy Development Programmes?
When disaster mitigation has not been adequately considered in a project's design and
implementation, development programmes could be impaired, causing costly repair and disruption.
For instance,
a new housing project and related infrastructure sited on or near a steep hill slope,
'

4. 18 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
where the danger of landslide is high, is doomed from the very beginning. In such a case, as
shown in the Table
1.1, the potential losses to lives and livelihoods are obvious:
Table 1.1
@ Social disruption
e Possible death .
Lives
@ Possible relocation
Livelihoods ,
o Loss of investment
@ Cost of rebuilding
o Loss in unearned income
o Disruption of economic activity
Besides cost
-benefit analysis, there are many reasons why disaster planning is not adequately
incorporated into development programmes. The key factors are:
.-
r Lack of Adherence to Legislative Controls *L
Non-adherence to building byelaws and similar legislation can be counterproductive. Even
blindfolded adherence to regulations could have
an adverse impact on
developlnent planning.
For instance, it has been observed that in Turkey, the problems encountered arise out of
obeying certain archaic legislation. Although some form of the 'Natural Disaster Law' has
been in effect since
1944, a clear disregard of the ea
r
thquake-resistant code stipulations for
both rural and urban construction has widely been the norm. There is enough evidence after
each and every strong earthquake in Turkey to substantiate this kind of outlook.
For several reasons (including ignorance, indifference and
the 'nothing would happen' attitude),
the municipalities and/or the local governments have been negligent in the enforcemenl of
building design regulations and inspection of construction work. An effective control mechanism
for adherence to the earthquake
-resistant design rules has not been established.
o Perceived High Costs
Planners of projects may consider mitigation costs to be unaffordable, i.e., the cost-benefit
calculation is seen to be unacceptable. For example, costs of strengthening new buildings or
retrofitting existing constluction might sufficiently increase expenditure to ,make a project
unviable. However, as has been pointed out, successf~~l mitigation strategies need not involve
high costs.
e Social and Historical Precedents
The historical location and subsequent urbanisation of a city in a hazard-prone region such as
Mexico, which is located at the foot of an active volcano, in a seismic area and on the bed
of a drained lake, makes the land unstable and flood-prone. Poor 'trade
-offs', occur when
those responsible are aware of the risk but that risk is outweighed by other considerations. For
example,
[hose dwelling in informal urban settlements along a ravine edge in Lima and Peru
are aware of the risk, yet have chosen the proximity due to livelihood compulsions. Many
people in India live near the coasts in Mumbai, Kerala, Chennai, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Some of these areas are highly vulnerable to cyclones, but livelihood constraints make the
people stick to these high
-risk zones.
Lack of awareness of good mitigation measures could also be an important factor. Traditional
artisans and builders may
be unaware of better building methods for earthquake -resistant
structures. Site managers, architects and planners may also not be aware of any disaster
I

5. ?
Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means
of
Development
19
mitigation considerations. The situation
could improve if a combination of training
and
education,
as well as stricter and b~tter-enforced building codes is followed. Many
of
the solutions to
these problems lie in the comprehension and enforcement of disaster legislation, i~nproved
..
communication, training programmes for appropriate groups,
awareness- building, ad the provision
and management of adequate resources. Let us now look at the other queiies:
cs a
ii)
Can Disaster
Reconstructiort provide Opportunities to9 initiate Development%
programmes?
Disasters often precipitate major changes in both the economic and political spheres ip a - ' ,A
country. While disasters are by definition devastating events, lessons learnt gnd incorporated'
.
,
into systematic development planning may serve to reduce future vulnerability. The destruction
.
of unsafe infrastructure
and buildings can provide an opportunity for rebuildin
g
with better,
standards, or relocation to a better area if the site is found
to
be vulnerable. Particularly,
the
damages caked by disasters will also focus on relief aid and afterwards
on
investment
in
,
'
rehabilitation, thus providing opportunilies
lhat [nay have been previously unavailable. I
,
Damaged buildings may highlight structural
~e~aknesses, +which could be rectified, and mhy
'
serve to improve building and planning regulations in the future.
A
key
[okbcus b
this
area,is non-
structural mitigation measures, such as strengthening of disaster legikation to
L
mitigate fi~~ri. -
disaster impact. Most lessons learnt from disasters need to be implemented into develop
programmes at this stage through the adoption of safety building codes and land
-
use
pla*nning
requirements. ,. = .-,
.
L'
iii)
Do Development Programmes increase
Vz~l~zerability?
Development
programlnes are often considered to increase vulnerability. A
good exa
that of urbanisation. While city
growlh cap improve tl~e quality
of
living
formwl nl
contribute to industrialisation, the very process of denser cities increases the chanc
casualties in 'the event of an earthqurzke or any other disaster. For instance, there
large
-
scale damage due to greater threat of loss of lives and livelihoods through
building collapse in cities. After the Istanbul Earthquake in
1999,
masonry construction
was
prohibited in favour of lighter weight
tilnbcr ones
(ad it
has
found that
&any deaths had been:
.
caused by the collapse of heavy
str~ictures).
The
prohibition,
howcvpr;was later revoked after
several fire disasters, which ,were aided by the widespread use of timber, began to engulf the-
city.
I.
iv)
Do
Developnzent Programlnes successfully include Risk Mitigafion? - '
It has been pointed out that 'every decision about
disaster response "strategies
-
by
mean actions that acknowledge
aiidrespond to the likelihood
of
disztitars -. ha- sk~?
I.,&,
a country's potential development'.: The ideal thing
for
all dev~lopinent pragrainnies is '
to
include disaster mitigation as their integral component. Hence, throughout
The proc~~s,,of ff
development planning,
from
the
initial.pyoject idea to irnplelneatation, all aspects
of
risk,
* : "
vulnerability and hazard will have to be taken into account
and
planned for.
Tools for enhancing development
planning for effective disaster lnitigation include:
0
Building safety codes and laws
.
,
.
.
I.
6
Scientific
informati~n e.g., levels of stress design for 'civil engineering Gorks
e
Land regulation
e.g., prohibition of building in specifically ~~ln~rable~ar~s,
'
'
.
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.
-
-

6. Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
4 Prediction, monitoring and warning measures
B Measures to check unplanned urbanisation through laws, regulations, zoning
@ Enforcement of reg~ilations and laws by civil authorities' etc.
@ Training for builders and attainment of professional qualifications;
@ Raising public awareness amongst children and adults
B Evolving a system for information -monitoring, documentation and dissemination
e Education in planning and technical guidelines for building professionals, including architects,
planners and civil engineers
e Mock rehearsals and drills at the community level
Incorporation of basic disaster management principles in school/college cumcula
@ public-private partnership for disaster preparedness
Mitigation measures are usually not a priority in the development programmes, for precisely the
reasons outlined earlier in this Section. However, after a particularly severe disaster, a positive
political will, supported by necessary investment, could create the right conditions towards
prioritising mitigation measures.
THE RELIEF-REHABILITATION-DEVELOPMENT
It has been suggested that the term "continuum" would be more appropriate to describe the
development programmes of the European Union. It would reflect the fact that programmes
in relief, rehabilitation and development could go on simultaneously within any given country.
The scope of humanitarian aid is defined as follows:
"The community's humanitarian aid shall comprise assistance, relief and protection operations
on a non
-discriminatory basis to help people in the Third World countries, particularly the most
vulnerable among them, and as a priority, victims of natural disasters, man
-made crises, such
as wars and
outbretiks of fighting, or exceptional situations or circumstances comparable to
natural or man
-made disasters.
It shall do so for the time needed to meet the humanitarian
requirements resulting from these different situations. Such types of aid shall also comprise
operations to prepare for risks or prevent disasters or comparable exceptional circumstances',.
The role of relief assistance is to provide urgent short -term humanitarian assistance to save and
preserve the lives of people facing serious difficulties resulting from natural or man
-made
disasters. Rehabilitation
programmes are seen as progressively taking over from relief assistance
to stabilise the economic and social situation and facilitate the transition towards a medium and
long
-term development strategy.
The
basic justification for Linking of Relief and Rehabilitation with Development (LRRD) is
quite simple. Disasters are costly in terms of both human life and resources; they disrupt
economic and social development; they require long periods of rehabilitation; they lead to
separate bureaucratic structures and procedures, which duplicate development efforts by the
institutions involved. At the same time, however, development policy also often ignores the risks

7. Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Development 21
of drought and other shocks, and the need to protect vulnerable households by helping them
to develop 'coping strategies'. If relief and development were to be linked, these deficiencies
could be reduced. Better 'development' can reduce the need for emergency relief; better
'relief' catl contribute to development; and better 'rehabilitation' can ease the transition between
the two.
h his simple model, however, fails to deal with the realities of many emergency situations in the
present set
-up. Most are not due to natural disasters, but are the result of interaction of the
political, economic and social instability, frequently stemming from bad governance, failed
economic policies and inappropriate development programmes, which often exacerbate ethnic
or religious differences. The assumption inherent in this model is that the path of short
-term
relief via rehabilitation leading to long
-term development underestimates the chronic nature of
many disaster situations, Even when there is no overt conflict, the combined effects of failed
governance and economic, policies as well as abuses of human rights and the democratic
process may lead to the suspension of long
-term development aid, resulting in an acceleration
of economic and social disintegration. 'Complex emergencies' or chronic crises involving
armed
conflict represent the most difficult context for developing a coordinated approach to Relief-
Rehabilitation-Development (RRD) continuum. Disaster prevention and preparedness measures
are difficult to apply.
Thus, increased prominence needs to be given to conflict prevention, through early and
<
coordinated intervention at both political and developmental levels with the ultimate goal of
reaching a situation of 'structural stability' i.e., a situation involving sustainable economic
development, democracy and respect for human rights, ,viable political structures, healthy social
and environmental conditions, with the capacity to manage change without resorting to violent
conflict. It is also important to introduce gender analysis into the RRD response, so as to avoid
further marginalisation of women and the other disadvantaged groups.
A gender-sensitive
approach helps to identify differing vulnerabilities
of men and women to crises as well as their
different (and ever
-changing) capacities and coping strategies. Vulnerability is a key concept,
and may be determined by membership of a particular ethnic or social group.
Tbo other issues need to be considered. The Arst is the institutional separation of relief and
development, which exists within most donor organisations. Different criteria and procedures.
are applied to sustainability, funding and implementation arrangements, The international response
to chronic crises in particular may risk reflecting
the organisational and political priorities of
implementing agencies, rather than the needs of disaster -affected population, and the vulnerability
of those threatened by disasters. The
second issue is financial. Over time, the relief expenditure
of Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) member
stttes has
increased multifold at a time when overall aid programmes
are tending to stagnate or even
decline. For all the above reasons, it is high time that we
recoilsidered our approach to LRRD
and examined the ways in which its impact and effectiveness could be improvecl.
1.6 OPERATIONALISING LINKING OF RELIEF AND
REHABILITATION WITH DEVELOPMENT
The analysis of the LRRD problem makes it clear that the approach to economic, political and
social development in the developing countries should be more holistic thcan it has been until
now. This is especially important for countries, which are prone to the risksltensions relating . .,
to political, economic and socio-cultural consequences of natural and man-made disasters. At
all the.phases of their development, and not merely when a crisis is imminent, there is a need
for a strategic planning policy, which comprises political, devqlopmental, social and technical
aspects. This global policy framework should define:
,

8. 22
Rehabilitation, Reconstruction
and
Recovery
@
'Conflict Prevention' as a means of managing
the inevitable strains resulting from social, political
and economic change could be incorporated into development operations.. 'Peace Building'
must be an intrinsic element of cooperation for development strategies
e
,
Disaster prevention
ant:
vulnerability analyses should be taken into account in development planning
and operations
.
.
@
Once an emergency situation has
erupted (either natural or man
-
made), relief actions should
,take into account the long
-
term objectives of reconstruction and development besides the primary
objective of keeping
the number of casualities low; and
,
*.
7
.
'
.
a
Rehabilitation action for countries
in
a post
-
emergency phase should be undertaken so as to
fensure thk
most
effqctive transition from emergency assistance to long
-
term development.
T *
*.
The
"
backward
"
id
"
forward
"
linkages between political, developmental, relief and rehabilitation
.
j
operations constitute a complex network of relationships, which has to be examined within the
global policy framework or strategic planning policy, which is a dynamic function of the specific
-
situation of each country or region. In other words, the components of the RRD
-
linkage and
-. theiS design are highly situation specific and should be considered in the light of the 'contextual'
realities of the country or region concerned.
8<
This means that the structure of the document on
RRD
should also be seen in this light
i.e.,
'
.
in
a holistic way. The
fact that it starts with relief, followed by rehabilitation, and subsequently
'*
.
L.
.
by development, including a political approach towards the objective of structural stability, does
'
not mean that the so
-
called
RRD-continuum is to be considered in this linear manner. As
indicated before, reality is
-
more complicated and requires a multifaceted approach, based on
I
-,
the ground reality in each country or region under consideration.
I
4 ""
.
-
. .
~ehabilitation may be defined as an overall dynamic and intermediate strategy of institutional
reform and reinforcement, reconstruction 'and improvement of infrastructure and services;
aimed towards support to the initiatives and actions of the concerned population in the political, I
-( ,, 19 '
economic
*and social domains, as well as resumption of sustainable development. In other
F
,
-
words, the human dimension is an essential feature of rehabilitation. At this stage, it is most
I
IC
Y I -
:feasible to ensure
iniegration of the gender concerns into'disaster rehabilitation strategies.
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84 '
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.
L4 ->.
.
,
j ~tteition should be paid to
the
changed roles, circumstances and connotations of the gender
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A". '#%
,
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"b.
*issu&,
and
also to the"need to address such issues if social integration is to take place.
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Thk ree6dstruction pha$ m$t necessarily -include the reestablishment of the Rule of Law and
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~pperationalisatioqi~E civil ~~~iety organisations. One of the key'elements is the quick restoration
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:r ::ofpubli'c confi~enc6'and tru~tas.~~ll%s restofation pf economic activities, health and education I
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- %iysterng. ~he~ad&ist~atii~;s~t-*st
involve multiple. stakeholders in the disaster planning
- pimess -far Qe reha6iljtation and i-!6on.struction phase.
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The recondtruction ph&e mustbe-regarded by its citizens as serving all
groups
iri order to allay
.,
.
the'inevitable tensiow, which
may
cdntinue to exist during such a period. Right atzthe outset,
-
I
," - "
it is. therefore essential that these
aspbdts.are not underestimated, as they will have a determining
c- "
-
-
-- inDbeqce on the reconstruction of the disaster
-
affected
community itself.\On the basis of these
YL- - .L C --
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.* i : dr&onditio~s, reco~struction~~~~o~s~shoa1d he-bnilt+'afmd-ihefollo~~
two maxims:
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9. Recoizstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Developnzent 2 3
i) Reconstruction and Functioning of the Rule of Law
Particular attention should be given to certain guiding principles on which the Rule of Law
should be built, that is, respect for the rules of good management of public affairs with a view
to legality and transparency; establishment of institutional mechanisms accepted by the actors
and stakeholders, including the importance of clear laws and institutions, which are accessible
to the public; and respect for universally recognised human rights, including specifically the
recognition of the rights of minority groups. It could be that the laws, which were in force prior
to the occurrence of a disaster, are also utilised, provided they are reestablished within a
framework of consensus. On the basis of the particular situation in each society, priorities
concerning the specific actions that need to be put in place should be established. This aspect
is fundamental to reestablishing public confidence, and rebuildng their lives in an environment
where they do not feel under threat.
I
ii) Development of Political Dialogue and Public Participation
.As d prerequisite of democracy, the development of political dialogue should not await the
arrival of better times before being put in place. From the very beginning, specific attention
must be given to involve various groups-minorities, affected people, weaker sections, NGOs,
and political representatives etc. At the same time, it is necess~ary to carry out actions aimed
at effective people's participation in the exercise of decision -making powers, as well as econoinic
participation in the costs and benefits of development.
In this context, there is a need to promote freedom of expression and independence of
the
media for the sake of unbiased and informative reporting. This is important in order to allow
'
the forging of public opinion that may have a conducive impact on the implementation process;
thereby reducing ensuing tensions. In addition, it will be useful to undertake positive steps in
,
the areas of training, civic education, support to associations, decentralised cooperation etc.
The actions may also extend beyond the period of
reconstruction itself and be incorporated into
longer
-term
developmeilt plans. Such actions are essential if external assistance is to have a
sustainable impact in the long run. Community actions in these. areas could play a catalytic role
in assisting governments to set the ball rolling. It will, however, be
up to the latter to internalise
the process. These issues should therefore be the subject of dialogue process with each
government, especially when rehabilitation and development actions are being planned. It must
also form an
intkgral part of the global policy framework. PF.
REHABILITATION AS A BRIDGE BETWEEN RELIEF
AND DEVELOPMENT
In order to make sure that rehabilitation contributes towards the continuity of the transition
from the crisis situation to the resumption of development process, certain essential elements
of the
"continuum" must be in place at the time of the transition period. It has to be ensured
that
the transition process respects the existence of a minimum level of security, as well as
democratic values and Yundamental freedom. It is necessary, however, to insist on three principles
of rehabilitation:
e -Due weightage to the contexlual problems, developmental priorities, and gender issues at the
time. of implementation of a reconstruction process
Recognition of the transitional nature of developmental charges and respect far human values
therein, although specific situations may require interventions of longer
-term; and

10. 24 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
o Return of normalcy, not necessarily in a linear way, but the resumption of sustainable development
in a way that is better than
the pre-disaster stage; duly taking into account the lessons learned
from
the disaster.
Wherever possible, rehabilitation should build upon the achievements of humanitahan assistance
by: @ Avoiding a significant deterioration in services and infrastructure to which populatioris have had
access to during the crisis period; and
@ Conserving and improving local expertise created during the crisis period.
Rehabilitation should, however, aim at the same time to reduce any adverse effects of
humanitarian aid by:
e Progressively removing the economic substitution role of humanitarian aid
0 Removing as soon as possible the system of free distribution of goods and services in favour of
I
a system of paying at minimumcosts, particplarly for those which can be produced locally; and
@ Supporting actions in favour of vulnerable groups (orphans, female heads of family, handicapped
or differently-abled) with the
aim of reinstating them into economic and social life. In this regard,
. the rehabilitation process should also take into account the psychological effects of exposure to
violence, particularly on children.
In designing rehabilitation programmes, four factors should be borne in
mind to optiniise their
,;;contribution to the transition process:
1 '
I
' i) Leverage Effect
e Choose actions, -which are balanced geographically and sectorally, taking account of changes,
which have taken place during the calamity (displacement of population etc.)
8 Reorient, complete and accelerate, through rehabilitation actions, the implementation of
development programmes already underway in
the basic and productive sectors
@ Give priority to those areas, which lend themselves to the methods, which maxirnise the involvement
of the local'population (micro
-projects, food for work), and make use of small -scale credit for the
private sector
.
8 Put in place appropriate technical assistance both at the level of projects and programmes and at
the general level (priority sectors, overall management). This support is especially required for
the management of programmes by beneficiary government and
NGO structures ii) Critical Mass
8 Make available, in a timely way through donor coordination, the financial resources, taking into
account macro-economic forecasts
@ Implement accelerated and flexible procedureito limit the period of 'intensive' rehabilitation
during which certain benchmarks should be attained
e Decide, on the basis of the situation in each society, all the priority sectors. This should be done
bearing in mind that institutional strengthening, reconstruction and rehabilitation of infrastructure,

11. Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Development 25.
as well as the supply of essential goods and services for the rehabilitation period are those linked
to production, notably agriculture, healthlsanitation, primary education, access to land, demining
and dernobilisation
iii) Continuity of Partners
e Seek more support for the longer-term operations of international and local NGOs, which were
present at the time of the humanitarian crisis, by associating those, which are able to do so with
the programming of rehabilitation funds in the basic sectors, and during implementation, insist on
an approach emphasising viability of actions in the medium-term and long -term use of local
structures e Support basic community groups, which have survived the crisis i.e,, village associations, women's
groups, producer groups and local administration
e Strengthen the restructuring of administration in the priority sectors necessary for the planning
and management of rehabilitation as well as long
-term development programmes.
@ Concentrate on the restructuring of administration by those sectors that are able to assist the
process of return to normalcy. Also, support those that are able to give to the State the minimal
means of action, notably at the macro
-economic and public finance levels
iv)
A Phased Approach
@ Provide programme-based financial assistance to the developmental activities on the basis of
sectoral or geographic 'channels' e.g., from supply of medicines under emergency aid to the
reorganisation of essential medical supplies, redeployment of human resources, rehabilitation
of
health centres as well as integration and development of these centres within the health pyramid,
especially when the development aid
recommqnces
1.
e Give priority to social viability (assimilation) and seek, in the fmt instance, micro-economic viability
, .
@ Consider (during the various phases of aid programming), the rehabilitation actions as important
elements in the definition of the priority sectors for support
Integrate into the approach the policy elements related to the campaign against poverty,
and the
macro
-economic context to which the society should evolve by the end of the rehabilitation
period
Provide a favourable environment for the recovery of production and trade. Initial activities
under the macro
-economic framework should focus upon ensuring the functioning of basic
eichange, promoting trade and banking services, as well as rebuilding institutions for basic macro-
economic management
Determine the conditionality criteria, which
are necessary for the success of the rehabilitation
programme; with a view to recornrnencement of the development process (political, economic or
specific); and make it effective through dialogue on (sectoral) policies
1.9 CONCLUSION
,-...- -
While disasters are by definition catastrophic events, lessons learnt and incorporated into long-
term development planning may serve
to reduce future vulnerability. The destruction of unsafe
infrastructure and buildings can provide an opportunity for rebuilding with better standards, or

12. 26 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
relocation to a better place if the present site is found specifically vulnerable. Particularly
damaging disasters will also focus on relief aid and rehabilitation investment, thus providing
developmental opportunities that were previously unavailable. Damaged buildings may highlight
structural weaknesses, which could be rectified to improve building and planning regulations.
A key focus in this area pertains to enactment of non -structural mitigation measures, such as
extensive development of disaster legislation to mitigate future disaster affects. Most lessons
,
learnt from disasters get actualised into development programmes at this level through the
adoption of safety building codes and land use planning requirements. The basic disaster
management cycle gives the lead to a chain starting with development, moving to disaster relief
and response, and going on to rehabilitation and development again.
In this sense, there is a need for programme managers to follow an approach of Linking Relief
and Rehabilitation with Development
(LRRD) in the manner of a transitional programme
for
effective management of disasters. This Unit brought out the relevance of the LRRD continuum
that underlines the crucial relationship between disasters and development. It discussed some
of the critical factors that need to be kept~ in view for long -term disaster rehabilitation.
1.0 KEY CONCEPTS
Civil Society
A society consists of three distinct components - the State, market and civic sector. The
relationship among these three sectors has been a matter of debate all through their evolution.
. Civil society is generally defined as a particular group of society with a clearly demarcated
purpose, functions, organisation and
means in pursuit of its agenda. Its functions and goals
could either be pro
-state or anti -state. The contemporary civil society is considered to be more
in tandem with the State, It has been described as the locus of light side of collective action
of social movements.
It comprises the social realm in which
tlie creation of norms, identities,
institutions and social relations of domination and resistance are located.
The NGOs, public institutions, social movements, media, self -help groups, and community -based
organisations all fall under the civil society realm. The term civil society has,
in the past, been
interchangeably used with the State, but is regarded as sphere quite distinct from the State and
commercial sector in the present context. The concept has reemerged due to the collapse of
Soviet Union and East European States. The research work by scholars such as Robert
Putnam, Peter Evans and Anthony Giddens has rekindled the interest in civil society.
(Alka Dhameja,
-2003, "Emergence of Civil Society Organisations: The Globalisation Context"
in Alka
Dhameja (Ed.), Colttemporary Debates in Public Administration. Prentice-Hall of
India, New Delhi.)
Disaster Management Cycle
Disaster management is a comprehensive process. It begins with disaster prevention,
preparedness and mitigation. This is followed by disaster impact; it is the point in disaster
management cycle when
the disaster occurs. It is very important to gauge the disaster impact
before going to the disaster response stage. Disaster response is an important intermediate
stage of disaster management cycle, which includes search, rescue, evacuation and relief.
Another important constituent of the cycle is the disaster recovery stage.
Reconstructioll and
rehabilitation form an important
part of disaster recovery, which eventually need to be linked - to the broader development process in the affected area.

13. Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Developinent 27
Human Development Index
A measurement of human progress introduced by the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) in its Human Development Report 1990. By combining indicators of real purchasing
power, education and health, the Human Development Index
(HDI) provides a more
comprehensive measure of
developn~ent than does the Gross National Product (GNP) alone.
Land Use
The range of uses of Earth surface made by humans. Uses are classified as urban, rural,
agricultural, forested etc., with more specific sub
-classifications. It
meails the way the land is
developed and used in terms of the kind of activities allowed and the size of buildings and
structures permitted in agricultural, residential and industrial .areas.
www. wasd.
kI2.pa. ~is/district/curriculumn/geo~ra~vhv/aeog~-aphv-glossar~v.Iztm: and
www.abag.ca. gov/bayarea/.rfep/revorts/soe/soelploss. htm
Linking Relief and Rehabilitation with Development
It is essential to have a holistic perspective to the developmental process in disaster-affected
areas. Linking Relief and Rehabilitation in order to provide a means of development is the most
appropriate way of addressing the issue of disaster management, as well as treating disasters
as developmental opportunities.
1.11 REFERENCES AND
FURTHER'READING
Asian. Developme~zt Bank (ADB) Report, 1991, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and the Pacific "
ADB, Manila.
Carter, Nick
W, 1991, Disaster
Managenzent: A Disaster Manager's Handbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
Gupta, Harsh
K, 2003, Disaster Management, University
Press, Hyderabad.
Sahni, Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disaster Mitigation: Experiences
and Rej'lectiolzs, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi,Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Reduction i7z
South Asia, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Smith, Keith, 1996 (2nd Edition), Environnzental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing
Disastel; Routledge, London.
World Bank Report (1992-2003), Oxford University Press, Oxford.
...
,1) On the basis of newspaper clippings, magazines, jourilals, governmental reports, non -governmental
surveys etc.& to trace and note down the history of disasters in your hometown or the place
where you stay, in order to find out the time
-line of disasters that have occurred so far.
". -.
." 1
2) In context of any recent disaster that has occurred in your area or nearby place, assess the

14. 2 8 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
recovery process and examine whether the developmental approach has been taken into purview
or not. Make a note on your observations.
3) Collect the news coverage on the
Gujarat Earthquake of January 26, 2001 or Muzzafarabad
Earthquake of October 8,2005 from that year's magazines, journals and news clippings. Make a .
list of the factors that have made the reconstruction and rehabilitation process a means of
development
in the affected areas. Visualise the ways these factors could be
furth%r improved
and pen them
down.

15. UNIT 2 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
Structure
Learning Outcome
Introduction
Sample Surveys
2.2.1 Simple Random Sampling
2.2.2. Systematic Sampling
2.2.3 Cluster Sampling
2.2.4 Stratified Sampling
Epidemiological Surveillance
Nutrition Centred Health Assessment
Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography
Conclusion
Key Concepts
References and Further Reading
Activities
2.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
8 Explain the different types of sample surveys
o Discuss the need for Epidemiological Surveillance
o Examine the Nutrition Centred Health Assessment Process; and
e Throw light on the relevance of Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography to disaster management.
2.1 INTRQDUCTION
Damage assessment is a precondition for effective disaster management. Unless we are clear
about the nature, extent and intensity of damage in the aftermath of a disaster, we
can never
plan out, implement or evaluate the disaster management plans and strategies. Over the years,
many different methods and tools have been devised for collecting
information about disasters.
Many new techniques and equipment such as sample surveys, Epidemiological Surveillance,
Nutrition Centred Health Assessment and Remote Sensing axe also constantly being developed.
In this Unit, we will discuss these developments and examine the different methods and
techniques of damage assessment.
A sample survey is the primary tool for needs assessment and is relevant for evaluation

16. 30 Rekabilitatioiz, Reconstruction and Recovery
purposes in order to detect and monitor the disaster impact. A representative s;imple of a
population is surveyed, from which valid estimates of the status of an entire target group are
made. Even though it can never be a complete assessment, it could still provide a good
indication of the rehabilitation needs and requirements.
Sampling will provide information on the entire range of problems and/or conditions facing the
population. While it cannot be a complete assessment, it could still provide
a good indication
of the needs of the people. Sample surveys can be undertaken by administering questionnaires
for collecting
some of the required information like morbidity / mortality figures and statistical
analysis for assessing the data collected. These surveys are used by both governmental and
non
-governmental organisations.
The advantage of a sample survey is that it enables the surveyor to gain a good amount of
information about a population or situation without having to conduct a detailed survey of the
entire population. When conducting a sample survey, however, attention must be given (in
addition to appropriate assessment techniques) to developing a survey questionnaire appropriate
for the target population, selecting sites that are statistically representative of the affected area,
choosing the correct
time period in which to conduct the survey; and structuring the questionnaires
to get accurate information. It is also extremely important to determine as to how the persons
or families will be selected in order to get information that is truly representative of the entire
population. Several different methods can be used to conduct the sample survey. They include:
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling; and stratified sampling. Let us
discuss these methods now:
,
2.2.1 Simple Random Sampling
.,. -7
In cases where a colnplete list of all population elements already exists or can be readily
constructed, simple random sampling could be employed. The procedures for simple random
sampling are convenient and inexpensive; especially once a list on the basis of data collected
has been assembled.
A simple random sample is one in which every element in the population
has an
eq~lal probability of being included in the sample (hence each one of all possible samples
is also likely to be drawn equally).
Furthermore, sampling takes place at one stage, with elements of the sample selected
independently of one another.
A convenient and accurate procedure for obtaining a random
sample is to use a table
of random numbers. A table of random numbers contains a list of
numbers that have been generated by an unbiased inechanised process, each number having
an equal probability of being selected at any point in a sequence.
The
first step in the sampling procedure is to assign a serial number to each unit or element
in the population.
A table of random numbers is then used to identify which serial nunibers are
to be drawn from the desired sample. It is worth stressing that random sampling does not
guarantee that any single sample will be representative of the population. However, in the long
run, if random samples were drawn repeatedly from a population, on an average, all those
samples would provide rather accurate estimates of the population. Moreover, for
random
sampling, the extent of variability or error can be estimated, since statistical tests ask for the
probability of sampling errors. In practice, true simple random samples are almost never
encountered, mostly because complete and accurate listing of the population under study is rare.

17. Damage Assessment 3 1
2.2.2 Systematic Sampling
An alternative random sainpling method, which is particularly useful for sampling from a very
large listed population, is
a systematic sample method, in which cases are selected at given
intervals. For example, if
200 cases are to be selected
from a listed population of 10,000, one
can select every 50'" case. It needs to be noted that the entire list does not need to be
numbered. Along with a complete and accurate list, two additional things are required for systelnatic
sampling: the 'sampling fraction' (or its inverse, the sampling interval) and a 'random start'.
The sampling fraction is simply the ratio of the desired sample size to the total number of
elements in the population. The sampling interval is the ratio of the number of elements in the
population to the siinlple size:
Fraction
=
NIM
I = Sanlpling Interval = MIN
(N is the sample size and M is the populatio~l size).
To obtain a random start, a table of random numbers is used to select a n~unber between F
(sampling fraction) and I (sampling interval). This ensures that every element in the population
has an equal chance of selection. It avoids the small bias that could be introduced if the first
or the last element in the population were always selected as starting points. Systematic
sampling is con~~llonly used when choosing a sample from pre-existing but unnumbered lists.
The procedure might amount to taking evcry 4'I1page and the 10"' entry down. One has to, thus,
know how tnany pages the list contains and how many entries are there per page.
The most serious problem of systematic sampling occurs when Ihe list is arranged in an order
that coincides with the sampling interval. The result is a biased sample. For cxamplc, in some
cilies or towns, it is often thc case that corner houses are more expensive and thus stronger.
In selecting a systematic sample of houses from maps (e.g., every 10"' house), the sampling
interval might coincide with or oversample corner houses. An evaluation study of damages to
houses would thus underestilnate damages. Therefore, lists have to be caref~11ly inspected prior
to choosing systematic sainpling rather than simple random sampling.
2.2.3 Cluster Sampling
For most disaster assessment proble~ns, the target population is unlisted and usually widely
dispersed. In case the lists do not exist and cannot be readily constructed, the researchers
take
advantage of
the fact that most of the target population clusters in one -way or another. People,
for example, cluster
-in villages, towns or cities, blocks, neighbourhoods and so on; and while
it is very difficult to prepare
a list of all the people in
sm area, a complete and accurate listing
of the towns in which they live
is not so
hard to come by, In cluster sampling, then, one reduces
the listing problem to manageable proportions by first sampling a set
of clusters which contain
the population, and then listing the population elements in
those clusters, followed by drawing
sample set of elements from these lists.
Since lists of clusters can
be easily constructed, it is possible to employ the techniques of
simple random sampling or systematic sampling to such lists.
If clusters rather than individuals
are sampled, then data
-gathering costs are reduced. Individuals or units within clusters are
obviously much less desired than if they are sampled randomly
froin the entire population.
Therefore, travel time for interviewing is greatly reduced.

18. 3 2 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
In the simplest cluster design (single-stage), clusters are randomly selected, and then every
"
individual or unit within each cluster is studied. For example, to estimate the casualty rate after
an earthquake in a large city for which current maps are available and from which it is possible
to create sampling clusters such as blocks, we could draw a random sample of city blocks and
' then interview all the families in each block.
But, cluster sampling is more useful when multi
-stage sampling is used. For
example, to
determine malnutrition rates in a large community, a random sample of blocks can be drawn
and the housing units in each block listed. Then a random sample of housing units within blocks.
can be drawn. After this, within the households, a random sample of children under
5 age
group could
be screened.
Thus, cluster sampling essentially involves simple random
sawpiing in stages. Lists are constructed
at every sampling stage, but the costs of enumeration are reduced because the entire list of
elements in the population is not required, only lists of elements within sampled clusters are
needed. If the clusters are geographic, cluster sampling is also known as area sampling. It
could prove to be the most efficient method for obtaining national or regional samples of
households or families commonly used for sample surveys.
2.2.4 Stratified Sampling
In stratified sampling, the researcher divides the population into groups or categories called
'strata', and then independent random samples are drawn from each group or 'stratum'.
Stratification is appropriate when the sample is used to do more than one job: to make estimates
or comparisons for sub
-groups of the population as well as for the entire population. Depending
on the distribution of sub
-groups within the population, a simple random sample of the population
may not include a sufficient number of cases from the relevant categories, which need to be
compared, For example,
a single survey
miglzt be used to address two separate questions
related to disaster impact after
a cyclone: What percentage of the population lost their houses?
and how does the percentage of loss for upper income families compare with that of lower
income families?
A simple random
sample of families would be the ideal sample for the purposes of the first
question, but the simple random sample might not produce' enough cases to provide a reliable
estimate for the second query. In this case, the researcher might therefore want to over
-sample
one group to the proportion in which they are present in the population. When adjustments of
this sort
are undertaken, the result is called a stratified sample. In general, stratified sampling
is used whenever a simple random sample is unlikely to produce enough cases of a certain type
to support the intended analyses.
Stratification criteria commonly used in social research include geographic location or region,
city or community size, individual characteristics such as race, ethnicity, age and so on. For
disaster impact studies, it may be important to compare the impact of an intervention on
individuals who vary in some significant way such as employment status, education, family size
or age. Two types of stratified samples are possible: proportional or disproportional, depending
on the sampling fractions used within strata and the
purposes to be served by the sample. In
'proportional sampling', the sampling fractions for each status
in the population are equal.
Whereas in 'disproportional stratified sampling', the surveyor needs to select more units from
the smaller proportion of the population.
There are many instances in which stratified sampling is necessary or desirable,
Howevel; for
the stratified sampling to be feasible, considerable data about the population is required, an
which the stratification is to be based e.g., age, ethnicity, employment status or occupation.

19. Stratification by Inore than one variable is possible, although seldom is it done for more than
two or three variables ;it a time. Table 2.1 summarises the different types of sample surveys
that can be used for disast.er assessment, and describes the advantages and disadvantages of
each:
Table 2.1: Types of
San~ple Surveys
2.3 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SURVEILLANCE
Interviews are
Epide~niological Surveillance (ES) is the collection and interpretation of data on the risk or
actual occul~ence of commrlnicable diseases and other health problems. As an assessnlent tool,
epidelniological surveil1:lnce is most importailt in slow-onset and continuing disasters, especially
where changes in living patterns occur such as the relief camps of disaster victims. These
cl~anges rarely occur after rapid onset disasters. However, because fear of disease is always
prevalent after any nlajor disaster, health status assessment and disease surveillance should be
carried out as a guide for planning and management of health interventions, especially as a tool
for quality control, and as a means of controlling rumours and reassuring the victims.
Epidelniolugical Surveillance should be carried out by government health authorities after
cataclysmic disasters, but it may also involve volu~ltary agencies and i~lter-governnleiltal
organisations during famines, especially those involved in health and feeding programmes.
Cas~lalty Estimates
Needs Surveys
Health Surveys
Surveillance procedures are ai~ned at detecting changes in disease occurrence. To detect an
increase in the incidence of disease caused by a disaster (or by relief activitjes), pre-emergency
Satnpling List with
Sampling Interval
Cluster Srtnlplc Damage Assessnlent
Nutritional Assessment
Needs Surveys
Multi
-stage Cluster or
Area Sample Survey
Stratified
Sample Survey
Decreased costs
Useful when
little is
known
about the
target population
Increased
error in
single
-stage
snmplirlgs
Damage Assess~nent
Nutritional Assessment
Needs Assessment
I~npact Surveys
Needs Surveys
Health Assessment
Lower costs than
Sinlple Randoln Sample
Useful in cases of
large population
Lower error than
Cluster Sample
Useful when little is
known about target
population
Guarantees adequate
re:epresentntion of small
groups
Usually di~ninishes error
Higher error
than
Si~nple Random Sample
Higher costs
Soltietimes requires
weighing the responses
Requires extensive dara
about pupulntioti

20. 34 Rehabilitation, Recolzstr.ucrion artd Recovery
baseline data must be available. If it is not, an immediate baseline survey should be uadertaken.
While changes over the pre -disaster norm rnay not be easy to detect, changes in relation to
the baseline can be noted. In long
-term disasters, the assessment or surveillance team should
set up a
si~nple record- keeping system that can provide the necessary data to determine
changes,
In a rapid-onset disaster, such as an earthquake or cyclone, ES cannot be used as an initial
iissessment tool unless baseline information about the affected population and disease occurrence
can be obtained, It should be recognised that some data is always available. However, cataclysmic
disasters rarely produce abrupt changes in the incidence of an infectious disease. In fact, ES
carried out with the assistance of the U.S. Cenk-e for Disease Control following earthquakes
in Managua, Nicaragua
(1972) and Guatemala (1976) failed to demonstrate an increase in the
number of diagnosed cases of communicable diseases
in the wake of earthquakes.
Fear of diseases such as typhus, typhoid, hepatitis etc., is normally caused by people's ignorance
about certain basic facts. They feel that the water supply gets contaminated on account of
unattended corpses and sewage. People living outside the
damaged houses, it is feared, are
more susceptible to communicable diseases. l'lie vast majority of these fears are unfounded,
but in some situations an increase in endemic diseases and diseases such as tetanus, malaria,
leptospirosis and rabies has been observed. Should changes take place, they are not likely to
occur in the immediate aftermath, and will also be localised and progressive. Thus, any survey
data developed immediately after the impact could serve as a baseline.
Since the actual chances of the incidence
of increase in communicable diseases in the aftermath
of a rapid
-onset disaster are comparatively low, most ES activities serve to measure the
effectiveness
of health care activities, determine priorities of required actions, artd dispel public
fears and consequent inappropriate responses. For example, data may be useful for keeping
over
-zealous relief organisations from conducting costly and unneeded mass
immunisation
campaigns. We have focused on Epidemiological Surveillance in the Unit 17 of MPA-004 also.
Over here, the emphasis on ES is in context of disaster aftermath.
In slow-onset or continuing disasters, and in the case of floods, the threat of communicable
disease is much higher; here
ES is a major disaster management tool as well as a necessary long-term monitoring technique, and surveillance activities must be initiated following the initial
disaster impact assessment. Occurrence of diseases is of greater concern in long -term disasters
because food supplies are often disrupted and lack of sanitation becomes an uncontrollable
problem, increasing the incidence
of malnutrition.
This
maltes people (especially small children, pregnant and lactating women) more susceptible
to both acquiring the disease and succumbing to it. Moreover, the convergence of people in
search of food in urban areas and relizf camps increases the likelihood of the spread of
communicable diseases. Of special concern are 'childhood diseases' such as measles, chicken
pox, malaria, encephalitis and diarrhoea, whjch can sweep through a concentrated population
causing large numbers of deaths among srnall children. Other diseases of concern include
dysentery, cllolera, typhoid and specific nutritional deficiencies.
Traditional Epidemiological Surveillance or ES primarily focuses on mitior health problems and
infectious diseases. Data are collected by medical teams operating in the affected areas or by
health surveys among the target population.
The three principal surveillance techniques are:
@ Systenlatic reporting of confirmed cases of predominant diseases
s Systematic reporting of symptoms that could indicate major diseases of concern; and

21. Damage Ass~s.srt~eizt 35
s Rapid field investigation of ally reports or rumours of an abnormal increase in the incidence of
disease.
In slow
-onset and continuing disasters, the major health issues are diseases that are caused and
spread due to poor sanitation, environmental health hazards and malnutrition as well as related
health problems. For this reason, in recent years another method of surveillance that permits
broader assessment and monitoring has been develo
ped; this is called 'Nutrition Centred Health
Assessment.' Let
us now discuss its role in the aftermath of disaster.
2.4
NUTRITION CENTRlED HEALTH ASSESSNIENT
Nutrition Centred Health Assessment (NCHA) evaluates the health and nutritional status of
children under the age of five (i.e., 12 months to 5 years) as the 'point of contact' to detect
and assess a full range of health problems. The method is used for: initial assessment of health
and nutritional status, long-tenn surveillance of disease, malnutrition and death as well as long -
term monitoring of food supplies, logistics, water and food quality.
NCHA was first developed as a means of analysing the plight of refugees and displaced
persons; later it was adapted for use in context of drought and famine victims. Most recenlly,
it has come to be used in a situation where people live in cainps or concentrations and their
daily requirements are supplied wholly or in large part by relief agencies. The system works
well in both urban and rural environment or in virtually any type of climate. NCHA uses
ctiildren (1 to 5 years of age) as the focal point for assessment because their health and
nutritional status necessarily reflects what is happening to the whole population. Pregnant and
lactating women, and children under 5 years are known as 'vulnerable groups' because their
needs of food and proper nutrition are greater than other population groups. Also, for a variety
of health and social reasons, illness and death affect this vulnerable group first.
On the basis
of health and nutritional data about this group, the planners can determine
indicators of many problems. For example, if a large number of malnourished
children are
detected; several probleins such as food shortages or illness may be present. By cross -checking
food supplies, medical records and water supplies, the contributing factors can be traced. When
remedial measures are instituted, such as supplementary feeding for women and srnall children,
NCHA becomes a tool for monitoring the programme. Suppose even after several weeks of
feeding, children still show no improvement, problems in water supply or hygiene could be
suspected and traced by determining the number of children who have diarrhoea. If water is
not found to be a problem, illnesses symptomatic
of diarrhoea would then be assumed.
A skilled surveillance team, using NCHA methods, could conceivably detect:
a Food shortages due to problems of logistics
a Food distribution problems, such as unequal distsibutioa to certain areas or groups
o Intra-farnily food distribution problems (food being givedtaken by working males)
Q Problems in diet (in terms of nutritional content of relief foods)
9 Illnesses
e Water shortages
o Water containini~tion
8 , Problems of personal hygiene; and
e Psychological problems among vulnerable groups.

22. 3 6 Rehabilitation, Recorzstruction and Recovery
2.5 REPJOTE --- SENSING AND AERIAI, PHOTOGRAPI3Y
Remote Sensing is the acquisition of information on disaster related subjects. Weather radar,
weather satellite, seismographs and videotape are exanlples of Renlote Sensing systems. Remote
Sensing infor~l~ntion can be \~aluable in determining the extent of cataclysinic disasters and
n~onitoring slow-onset disasters such as enviro~imental degradation and droughts. These tools
also offer the possibility of acq~iri~ig data over remote regions or areas inade inaccessible by
disruption of normal transportation and communicsition systems. Elowever, both tools require
rllnt ground studies (known as ground -truth studies) be ciwried out to verify and adjust and/or
c llibl.iite the data obtained from air or space, and be made available in time for emergency
responses.
Aerial Photography is a form of Remote Sensing. In disaster management, however, it refers
to the use of satellite with imaging systems that produce computer generated images. Small
Forinat Aerial Pholography (SFAP) is being used to take the aerial photographs. Aerial
photogral~lly is a valuable tool for disaster managers. Possible uses of aerial photography
iriclude hazard analysis and mapping, vulnerability analysis, disaster assessment and reconstruction
planning. Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography by aircraft and satellites are valuable
information-gathering tools for dalilage assessment after earthquakes, cyclones and floods.
These are also used for monitoring droughts and desertification, as well as ascertaining progress
oi' counter disaster measures. Rernote Sensing and Aerial Pllotography can provide a
coinprehensive view of a large area over a short period of time.
liequisition and interpretation of Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography would require trained
specialists. The main Gsers of Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography are governments iind
inter-governmental organisalions. This is due to both the costs and the nature of the imagery
obtained. The things that can be observed (such as damage to public facilities, lifelines, forests,
agriculture etc.), however, are of immense concern to governmental and non-gover~~mental
agencies. We have read about Remote Sensing in Unit 12 of MPA-004 Course and will read
more about it in Unit 4 of this Course.
2,6 CONCLUSION
Sample surveys are the primary tools for needs assessment and are important in evaluation to
detect and monitor the impact of catastrophes. A representative sample of a population is
surveyed, from which valid estimates of the status of an entire target group can be made.
Sampiing can provide information on the entire range of problems and/or conditions lacing the
population. While not a complete assessment, it can still provide a good indication of the ,needs
of the target group. Sample surveys nlslke use of questionnaires for collecting some of the
required information like rnorbidity/mortality figures. Statistical analyses based on sample surveys
are useful for assessiilg the data collected.
Sample surveys are used by both governmental and non-governmental organisations. Besides
surveys that make available impact information, Epidemiological Surveillance for monitoring
, purposes is a very useful tool, primarily for health related impacts.. There are also Ke~note
Sensing and Aerial Photography that are inforination system inan:~gement tools and modern
methods for assessing and analysi~lg clisustcr impacl. In any given situation, it is a combination
of tools that may be most appropriately used, depending on the situational context. This Unit
explained
the different
lypes of sample surveys and other tools that could be used to ascertain
the impact of disasters in order to facilitate rehabilitation and recovery.
,

23. 2,7 KEY CONCEPTS
- ----...--
%ampling Fraction
The Sampling Fraction is simply the ratio of the desired sample size to the total t~~~mbor of
elements in the population. The Sampling Fraction (F) is derived by divicli~zg rhe Sampf~ Size.
(N) by the Population Size (M) i,e., F = N/M
Sampling Interval
The Sampling Interval is the ratio of the number of elements in tl~e populatioll to the sample
size.. Sampling Interval
(I) is derived by dividing Population Size (M) by the
Sample Size (N)
i.e., I = M/N
Target Group
For any type of programme e.g., clisaseer management programme or a poverty alleviatio~z
programme, a target group is identified. The target group is specially icleritiFied keeping in view
the poverty levels, vulnerability conditions, infrastructure availability and coping capacity of the
population
to which
the progralnmc attempts to cater. The progranlnle is desigized with the
target group in mind so that nlaximuln benefits could accrue to the targeted population.
23 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Carter, W. Nick, 199 1, Disctster Managenzerat: A Disaster Mun~ger'~~ ~&dbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
Cuny, F, 1983, Di.sa,sters and Developnzent, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Dabelstein, Neils,
1995, "Disasters: Threat to Social Development ",
Stop Disasters; Voltrtne
23, Winter.
Gupta, Harsh
K, 2003, Disaster Management, University Press, Hyderabad.
~
Rodrick, D, 1988, Where did all the Growtlz go? External Stocks, Social Curlflict unti
Ecorzamic Gro~lfll, Harvard University, Cambridge.
,
Sahni, Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disasret. Mitigution: E.~periences
and Reflections, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabnndu (Eds,), 2003, Disaster Risk Red~criori i~t
South Asia, Prentice-Hal1 of India, New "Delhi,
Website:
Drnc.en~r. wis~.edu/co~1rses/airnscopelAA02-05 .html.
1) Try to ca~y out a random sample survey of your neighbourhood to determine the impact of any
recent major problem faced by the residents (e.g., water shortage, epidemic, water logging etc.)
2)
On the basis of Activity One,
attempt to determine if the neighbourhood needs to prepare itself
I
for any kind of emergency in tlie future.Pen down your observations.
3) Go througlr the newspaper reports on the Gujarat Earthquake of 2001 or the Bhuj Earthquake of
2003 or the Muzuffarabad Earthquake of 2005. Study the reports thoroughly and suggest the
best form of sample survey that could be used to assess Ole iinpact of the esirthquake on houses
in the affected area. Try to develop a questionnailde needed to casry out your survey,

24. UNIT 3 ROLE OF VARIOUS AGENCIES IN
DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
3.0 Learning Outcome
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Framework for Coordination at the Governmental Level
3.3 Relevance of Community Participation
3.4 Role of Non -governmental Organisations
3.5 Role of Other Agencies in Disaster Management
3.6 Conclusion
3.7 Key Concepts
3.8 References and Further ~eadin~
3.9 Activities
3.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you ~il be able to:
e Highlight tbe framework for coordination of disaster management process a1 different
governmental levels
e Examine the relevance of community participation; and
Discuss the role of NGOs and other important agencies involved in disaster management.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster management needs a strong political commitment for erecting an effective planning
and coordination process at the governmental and societal levels.
A structure with a clearly
defined authority as well as an appropriate budget to maintain an effective disaster plan
is
needed, Preparedness plans should be comprehensive in scale and operation as disaster
management planning is
a sequential and continuous process. Effective planning requires
systematic diagnosis, resource evaluation, and continuous feedback towards fulfillment of the
goals of disaster reduction. Since the scope of disaster management is quite wide and
the
actors involved in the process are numerous, it is essential that a framework for coordination
is accepted and provided for.
Management is needed at all stages of a disaster: the disaster preparedness and mitigation
phase, the disaster event phase, the response phase, and the recovery phase comprising
rehabilitationand reconstruction processes. This is achieved through various actors
-governmental,
non
-governmental and private, engaged in the area of disaster management.. This Unit deals
with
Ule role of the different agencies in disaster management and developmental activities, It
will
try to explain the importance of the role of each of these sectors, and also their vital
interlinkages, so essential for a coordinated and comprehensive disaster management system.

25. Role of Various Agencies in Disaster Mrrizngenze~~t artd Devrloplttetzt 39
-
3.2 FRAMEWORK FOR CO(PIFtDlCNAT16ON AT THE
GOVERNMENTAL LEVEE
There is a systematic structural framework for coordination of disaster rr~anagement tasks at
the central, state and district levels. It is essential that there is some level of undersri~ding
between these levels in order to avoid delays and overlapping of time and efforts. L,ct us
discuss this structural framework now:
Central Level
At the central level, a National Crisis Management Committee, headed by the Cabinet
Secsetary,
has been constituted with the nodal rninistries in charge of various types of disasters and
supportjng ministries as members. The Central Relief Coinmissioner functions as the coordi~~ator
at the national level, under whom a Crisis Managenlent Group (CMG) has bee11 constituted.
The CMG meets as often as required in the walce of natural disasters to coordinate at the
central level and also liaise with the state governments as and when required. Tllere is n
National Contingency Ahkction Plan (CAP) that fdcilitates the launching of relief and rescue
operations witl~out delay. The CAY identifies initiatives to be taken by various central nlinistries
and public dcpartlnents in the wake of natural disasters. It sets down procedures and deter~nirlcs
focal points in the adlninistrative tnnchinery.
The Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) acts as the nodal agency for disaster management.
In the MHA, tlie Relief Com~llissioner f~~nctions as the nodal officer to coordinate I-elief
operations for all natural disasters. Besides, the MHA, some other lninistries arc assignect the
responsibility of disasters that fall in their purview of activity like Agriculture, Railways
or Civil
Aviation etc.
Thc Ministry of Agriculture is in charge of droughts. Lately, thcre has beeti a
change in focus on disaster management, from 'relief and response' to 'prevention and
preparedness'. The High Powered Committee of the Governlnellt of India (2001) on 'Building
a Culture of Prevention' has come up with
a
colnprehensive review of disaster situation in
India. Its recomlnendations though still remain on paper.
The Tsunami disaster of Decetnber 2004 has brought the debate on policy reforms back into
focus. It has thrown up new challenges in the area of disister mangement at the governmental
and non -governmental levels. It has forced those concerned to revise their attitudes towards
disaster management. A positive development has been the setting up of the National Disaster
Management Authority with a statutory status at the central and state levels. The Authority
will be chaired by the Prime Minister at the central level and the Chief Minister at the state
levels. The objective is to go into each and every aspect of disaster nlanagetnent in ordcr to
ensure disaster prepaedaess and come up with a 'National Policy on Disastcrs'. There will
be a separate allocation for disaster management for each concerned ministry,L)isaster
Management Authority will also facilitate the streamlining of the number of departrnenls and
ministries involved in disaster management in order to irnprove coorditiation and scientific
thinking, as well as remove red tapism and wastage.
State Level
In tune with the federal structure of the countty, disaster management falls under the State
List. Therefore, the responsibility to cope with natural disasters is essentially that of
the state
government. The role of the central government
is
suppot-tive. It supple~nents the physical and
financial resources of the state governments. Most of the states have Relief Commissioners1
Secretaries who are in charge of the relief and rehabilitation measures in the wake of natural
disasters in their states. The Chief Secretary is in overall charge of the relief operations in thc

26. 40 Relzubilitatiorz, I(econsti.uctioiz and Recovery
state and the Relief Commissioner and the Additional Relief Commissioners function under his
direction and control.
In many states, the Secretary, Department of Revenue is also in
-charge of relief. The state
governments usually have Relief Manuals and the districts have their Contingency Plans that
are updated from time to time. In case of a disaster,
the state government also invites the
NGOs and other national and international relief organisations, to join in the efforts to reach
out to the victims. Recent developments at the state level organisational sei-up include the
setting
up of a separate Department of Disaster Management under a Ministry of Disaster
Management and Wealth in
the new state of Uttaranchal. The state has also created the
position of a Principal Secretary of Disaster Management, The
creation of a Disaster Management
and Mitigation Centre under the Department of Disaster Management in the Uttaranchal State
is in the pipeline.
District Level
The district administration is the focal point for
the irnpleinentation of all governlnent plans and
activities. Considerab!.: ?)wers have been vested in the District Collector to carry out relief
operations in the shortest possible time.
In the event of shortage of funds, the Collector is also
empowered to draw money from the district treasury under his emergency powers. The district
administration is also required to prepare
a contingency plan in advance depending
or1 the type
of disaster likely to affect the district. The actual day-to-day f~inctiorrs of administering relief
are the responsibility of the CollectorlDistrict MagistratetDeputy Co~nn~issio~~er who exercises
coordinating and supervising powers over all departments
at the district level.
There is also a District Level Relief Committee consisting of officials and non
-officials including
the local legislators and Members of Parliament to review relief measures,
A district is divided
into sub
-divisions or 'tehsils' or
'talukas', While the head of the Sub -division is called the Sub-
divisional Officer, the head of the 'tehsil' is generally lcnown as Tehsildaar or Talukclar in some
states. At the block or circle level, there is the Block Development Officer or Circle Officer
who looks after relief works, At the village level, the Patwari or. the Village Level Worker
remains in contact with the villages under his charge.
The organisational set
-up, as we just discussed, at the central, state and district levels needs
to be in place and well
-geared up to face any eventuality. What we must not forget is that
any
type of administrative set-up is.enosmously dependent on the participation of all the stakeholders
involved in disaster management. The community is the most important srakeholder in the
process and, thus, we will now turn our attention to the relevance of community participation
in mitigating the disaster aftermath.
3.3 RELEVANCE OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
The community,
as an institution in itself, is emerging as the most powerful among all the
agencies involved in disaster management. In the event
of a disaster, the
conimunicy, if well
aware of the preventive actions it is required to take, can substantially reduce the damage
caused by the disaster. Education, awareness and training of the community ase particularly
useful in areas that are prone to fi-equent disasters.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines the community as a group in face -to-face
contact with each other, having harmony of interests and aspirations.
It is also bound by
common values and objectives. The efforts of the
corninunity in certain areas are laudable. At
some places, they have formed their own organisntions that take the initiative in disaster

27. Role of Vario~is Agetzcies iiz Disasrrt* Mclnagement and Developi~zetzt 4 1
situations. These Community -based Organisations or the CBOs are doing a lot of work in the
area of disaster management,
The CBOs, it has been pointed out, perform certain pertinent futictions. They:
o Offer nlut~ral suppoi? and solidarity
o Strengthen people's ability to face crisis
Generate consciousness, awareness and analysis on issues of coxnmon concern
Enable people to demand an access to services and info~mation offered by government agencies
(the new Right to Infor~nation Act has facilitated this role)
@ Orgiinise collective acquisition of skills and knowledge in various spheres
One itnportant community-based organisation is the Village Task Force. These Task Forces have
been formed in villages of Andhra Pradesh, followed by similar task forces in villages 01 Orissa
and Gujarrat. The volunteers of the Village Task Force are trained in crnergency evucuation and
relief within the village. Salient features of their training are:
s Orientation tkning in disaster prepwedness for villagers and staff ~nernbers
r Discussion on disaster preparedness in general meetings
e Sponsoring of staff f~r specialised training; and
o Reparation of a handbook for emergencies.
Each community should have
its own Disaster Task Force (DTF) comprising 10-12
members.
The following criteria should be followed while selecting the members:
e They must be young and healthy persons
o They must be members of the gram panchayat
They nust have acceptability and credibility in the community
a They should be persons who do not go to distant places for daily work
r They should have a strong inclination and commitment towards community service and
'
volunteerism
The people should elect the Task Force and during disasters, it must serve as the nodal body
for disaster management at the village level.
It has to
xnobilise resources for the comn~unity
and disseminate necessary information passed on by the outside agencies to the villagers.
While the communiky as an effective institution is yet to take shape in developing countries like
India with low literacy levels and widespread poverty, considerable efforts are being made to
form and strengthen community-based organisations at the grass roots levels.
The significance of community preparedness in handling disasters has been duly recognised
over time. If human interventions can be listed as the cause for increase in the scale of
destruction then it is through community preparedness that the scale can be reduced, The
Report of the ~i~h Powered Committee, set up in 1999, also emphasises the need to look into
community preparedness components and strategies such as nature
of hazard assessment, risk

28. 42 Rehabilitation, Reconstnrction and Recovery
analysis, disaster prevention, emergency planning, public information and awareness.
Any effort towards strengthening the capacity of CBOs should aim at:
s Enabling them to efficiently and effectively develop, nlanage and sustain disaster mitigation,
preparedness and response programmes
s Promoting effective coordination between the colnmunity organisations, NGOs and governmental
agencies in disaster response
a Developing a forum for exchange of knowledge
and experiences in managing disasters
a Creating a pool of trained disaster management personnel drawn from the community who can
act as key resource persons in disaster management
r, Ensuring training of women in order to assess and meet the health and safety needs of other
disadvantaged groups
3.4 ROLE OF
NON-C;QVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
The Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) are the most effective means of achieving an
efficient communication link betw~en the disaster management agencies and the affected
community. There are different types
of NGOs working at the advocacy as well as the
grass
roots levels. In typical disasler situations, they could be of help in preparedness, relief and
rescue, rehabilitation and reconstruction, and also in monitoring and feedback.
If the
p~tential
of NGOs is utilised in the right earnest, they could act as the key to a successf~ll and
participatory approach
to disaster management.
NGO participation forms a vital part of a disaster management strategy. This becomes clear
from the multifarious functions that the NGOs
are expected to perform before,
duting and after
the disasters. Characteristics unique to NGOs suc11 as their quick response time and the close
links that
they share with the community
make them the most suitable agencies for specific
activities related to disaster management.
In order to fully capitalise on the non
-governmental sector, there is a need to streamline its
structure and also document it. At the same time, the government's role
vis-i-vis the NGOs
also needs to be clearly identified and systcmatised so that an effective disaster management
mechanism could be made operatiolial within a short span of a disaster occurrence. In order
to be able to achieve
all these objectives, collective action of the entire
com~nunity is the need
of the hour, Tile NGOs are the key players in this regard.
The non-governmental sector and the vital CBOs that operate at grass roots level, have an
edge over governmental agencies as Pas as invoking community involvement is concerned. This
is due to their proximity with the comniunity, and the flexibility in their procedural matters.
NGOs are of different types, with specific areas of operation and varied fields of expertise.
Though organic in nature and informed in character, the non
-governmental sector covers
it
whole range of activities through its various networks. Some major types of NGOs are given
as under:
NGOs with Dedicated Field Operations and Resource Backup
These are large organisations, such as the International Red Cross Society. They have, specific
areas
in which they carry out field operations. They
have access to a large resource base, and

29. Role of Variocls Agencies in Disaster Managenzent and Developlnent 43
have the capability to extend material, financial as well as techxifcd support to disaster-affected
sites, In emergencies, their role is laudable as they garner support and resources from all over
the world and come to the rescue of the affected population almost immediately.
NGOs Related with Development Technology
These are NGOs involved in developing and propagating development technologies, such as
Sulabh International, which is renowned for its work in low cost sanitation. These NGOs are
active in times of peace. They carry out their developlnental projects all through the years and
could also be called in at the time of emergency arising out of disaster situations. They
facilitate the work of infrastructure provision to the affected communities. Even in non- disaster
or normal times, their services are important for retrofitting and using latest building technology,
in order to rninimise the incidents of death and destruction at the time of disasters such as
earthquakes and floods.
Interest Groups
These are also NGOs, which are multi
-purpose in nature having varied interests,
such as the
Rotary Club. However, such interest groups are very active, and have come forward to help
disaster victims in the times of need. They could play
a major role in resource mobilisation for
relief aid and rehabilitation purposes.
Associations
of Local Occupation Groups
Such associations are formed on the basis of common occupatio~~al backgrounds, and could
include groups such as doctors' associations, traders' associations and Army wives' associatio~ls
etc. Such groups, just like other interest groups, could play a major role in resource mobilisation,
and provision of specialised services to the victims in any emergency situation.
Local Residents' Associations
These Residents' Welfare Associations (RWAs) are formed by the local residents to look into
the interests of those living in their area. These associations are extremely concerned about
the welfare of the local com~nunity and need no external motivation or resource backup to take
active part in disaster reduction. Thus, they could act as a very useful tool for getting across
the message of co~nlnunity participation at the ground level.
Religious Bodies
Religious bodies are one of the most important
NGO groups that come lo the immediate rescue
and relief of the disaster victims, These bodies have a large and dedicated following in their
communities. They also have control over the local places of worship, which are usually built
on high
and safe ground, and can serve as ideal shelters for the disaster victims. Besides, they
often have infrastructure and resources lo feed mass gatherings, which facilitate disaster relief
work.
Educational Institutions
The educational institutions such as schools
and colleges play an important role in disaster
management. Their prime responsibility is to spread awareness on natural disasters, provide
preventive action needed to minimise damage due to disasters as well as ensure immediate
relief and rescue. Besides, these institutions have large buildings at Iocal levels, which could
be used as shelters for the victim9 in the
times of disaster.

30. 44 Relzabilitatio?z, Reconstruction and Kec:overy
Taking into account all these NGOs and their respective activity areas, it can be stated that
the NGOs can facilitate the process of disaster management
by contributing towards:
i) Cominunieation with Community
NGOs have a better link with the coinmunity and also have a presence in the field of action.
This puts them in a better position to assess, decide and implement relief operations at the time
of a disaster.
ii) Human Resources
The human help available with NGOs is unlimited, The human resources of NGOs are very
prompt and highly motivated, as they basically comprise volunteers who are involved at: their
own initiative. There are no pracedural problems such as those of maintaining rolls and handling
related legal issues.
iii) Finances and Materials
NGOs have very flexible means of mobilising resources and a number of them specialise in
just
and fair resource mobilisation to be able to fund the activities of other NGOs worlcing in the field of disasters.
iv)
Professional and Technical Services
A
number of specialised technical services can be made available to the community by the
NGOs, which would otherwise
be too expensive and inaccessible to the common folk, Based
on the identified types
of NGOs and their capabilities, organised action of NGOs can be very
useful in the following activities (given in the Table 3.1 below) that need to be attended to at
the different stages of disaster management:
Table 3.1
3.5 ROLE OF OTHER AGENCIES IN DISASTER
Training of local volunteers
I~nn~ediate rescue and first -aid including psycl~ological aid,
supply of food, watel; medicines, and other emergency material
' Ensuring sanitation and hygiene
MANAGEMENT
Post-disaster
Indian Red Cross Society
Technical and material aid in reconstructio~~
Assistance in seeking financial aid monitoring
In India, we have Red Cross Society
at the national,
state and district levels..This is not just
an agency, but
also a movement for providing relief to the people when they
are in dire rleect

31. Role of Vnriorrs Agencies i12 Disaster Mnnagenzerit and Devsloprizent 45
of it. Since this is an offshoot of an international movement, it is a co~npletely non-political
organisation. It 'is the image of the Red Cross that makes it one of the most acceptable
institutions in the area of providing relief to the peoplk in distress.
Till 1995,
the
Red Cross was working primarily as a relief organisation. Froin 1996 onwards,
the International Federation of Red Cross has shifted its focus from 'relief' to 'disaster
preparedness' and has started developing cornmunity-based disaster preparedness plans. There
are many training p30grammes being organised by the Reil Cross. The 5-day training programine
of the Reil Cross co~lsists of:
ta Field visits
o Making the trainees aware of the terminology related to various items as well as technology irr
use by various agencies
@ Funiliarising the trainees with the role of Red Cross in disaster management, which includes
rescue and relief to meet the challei~ges related to health hazards
The Red Cross is basically concerned with relief distributioil including first-aid and transporting/
shifting the victims of disnsters to hospitals or other safer places. The other agencies like
National Caclet Corps (NCC) and National Social Service (NSS) should also be made aware
of the role und potential of the Red Cross in order to ensure adequate coordination.
Media
The role of the electronic media has, during recent times, emerged as a major coinponeilt of
disaster innnagenrent. This role has been anlply de~nonstrated in the aftermath of disasters be
it the Gi~jarat earthquake of 2001 or the Muzzaftirabad Earthquake of 2005. At the same time,
the role of the print ~ncdia, especially regional press needs to be given due recognition, as this
continues to be the only medium accessible to
a large section of people in
many parts of
society, which still rcrnains unreachable by the electronic media. Besides, it is also true that
the print media llas a lnajor role to play in pre -disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness
activities through generatio11 of appropriate conlmunity awiiseness. We will discuss the role of
the media in more detail
in our next Unit.
Fire Services
In a
larger context uf mbanisalion and industrialisarion, calamities play a match box role of
igniting Inore dangerous and uncontrollable disasters like fires. During the Kobe Earthquake,
a large nirrnber of buildings that could resist seismic forces were largely damaged due to post-
disaster fires. As pelq the Constit~~tion of India, 'fire services' is a state subject under Section
243. The 'fire service" thus, provides coverage to only 30 per cent of the community, which
*
is grossly inadcqunte.
Managing fires is Inore technical than perceived. It needs comprehensive study in risk evaluation
of each and cvcry area, prep:trntion of risk n~apping plans for each zone, study of prcparediless
level in terms of special equipment, training of personnel in foolproor co~nrnunication system,
as well
as
l~olding of ~criodic mock drills. Unlike, what is generally understood, the role of fire
services is no1 just limited to being a fire-fighting service, but it also plays the role of a disaster
prevention agency, especially in urban areas. It can provide basic search and rescue service
ancl can also coordinalu in thc event of a disaster situation with other agencies like the police
and health services. 1

32. 46 Rehabilitation, Xeconstl.uction and Recovery
Recent recommendations with regard to 'fire services' focus on:
e~ Appointment of a National Fire Service Commission to suggest the reorganisation of 'fire services'
to cope with the challenges posed by the technological advancements during peace
-time and war
situations
o Formulation of a National Policy on Fire Preparedness for rural and urban areas
e Provision of a comprehensive legislative backup to.the 'fire services' to enforce fire regulations
Risk Mapping of cities and industrial towns and the norms for fire protection levels in such areas
e Examination of training standards and equipment requirements
e Formulation of fire safety programmes for the public
e Planning for fire prevention and protection in slums and shanty towns
e Review of provisions of the model Fire Service Bill
Police and Para-military Forces
Police is always immediately mobilised to reach the site of disaster with a view to carry out,
relief and rescue operations with the coordination agencies.
It is also the responsibility of the
police to provide security and maintain law and order at disaster locations where chances of
chaos or miscreants taking advantage of the situation are higher. Police personnel deployed for
such
relief operations could prevent commission of cognisable offences including all offences
against life, property and public tranquility.
The police communication system is made available for transmission and receipt of messages
in connection with disasters.
The police also regulate
movenient of victims, rescue and relief
work, medical assistance and supplies. The role of para
-military forces is
veiy important, as
they may be called upon for additional assistance to the police in situations requiring emergency
attention. The Central Industrial Security Force has an important role, particularly in disasters
involving industrial units or locations. The role of Border Security Force in the remote and
inaccessible areas also cannot be overlooked.
Civil Defence and Home Guards
The Civil Defence Organisation was established with a view to protect interests of the civilian
community in the times of war. The Civil Defence Act of
1968 formally established the
structure of the organisation. The Centre is only a guiding agency while the states are responsible
for raising, training and maintaining the corps. The Civil Defence
Organisation is primarily a
voluntary organisation, whose resources are mobilised at the time of need through an activation
procedure. Civil Defence Organisation requirements are based on the vulnerability analysis by
the states themselves and are equipped accordingly. Their primary work areas include:
communication, rescue and casualty management, transportation and supply service, sewage
and corpse disposal along with basic welfare services.
Civil Defence has been modeled to save lives, minilnise damage to property and maintain the
continuity of supply of basic services. Although the Civil Defence Act is applicable throughout
the country, tlie organisation is raised only in such areas and zones, which are tactically and
strategically considered vulnerable to enemy attack. This is the reason that
24 of the
states1
UTs in India have not raised Civil Defence in 102 out of 225 categorised towns/cities. Deputy

33. ' ole of Various Agencies iiz Disaster Marzagement and Development 4 7
:ollectors, who are iz~ainly responsible for organising the Civil Defence Services, show vacancies
3f 45 out of the 133 authorised positions. Civil Defence control rooms, which are the nerve
centres of all activities, show a deficiency of
127 out of an authorised 299. Causative factors
for this state of affairs have been recognised to be lack of immediate utility, inadequate
awareness levels, legal infirmities, financial crunch, improper training facilities and absence of
proper recognition.
Armed Forces
The catastrophic impact of disasters can be reduced only if there is coordination and cooperation
from varied sections of the society. The Indian
Arrned Forces are one of the most dedicated
and professional organisations with a rich tradition of being involved in the socio
-developmental
roles of nation
-building. Their services though should be utilised as a last resort and be called
upon to intervene and take on specific tasks only when the situation is beyond the coping
capability of civil administration, as it
illvolves high costs.
There is a need for a high degree of cooperation and coordination between the various
agencies involved in disaster management at the time of a disaster. Since many a time, the
Armed Forces are required to provide assistance in the relief operations, it is essential that they
are also involved in disaster planning and preparation. The resources and capabilities at the
disposal of the Armed Forces can be extremely useful in a crises siluation and therefore, the
district and state plans should incorporate the role expected of them so that the procedure for
deploying them is smooth and quick. Their role in providing the emergency support f~inctions
such as communications, search and rescue operations, health and medical facilitie.~,
transportation, power, food and civil supplies, public works and engineering, information ,
dissimination, and planning at the time of disasters is extremely beneficial.
Exaservice Personnel
Every year, nearly 60,000 defence personnel including approximately 3,000 officers join the
ranks of ex
-service personnel in our country. Majority of
them retire at a young age between
32 to 50 years in order to enable a youthful profile of the Armed Forces. Their total number
is estimated at about
5.5 million, out of which over 1.5
million are registered. They constitute
a national asset - a vast human reserve that is disciplined and trained to exacting standards,
This potential force needs to be brought into the national disaster management structure, and
assigned an appropriate role in the overall response mechanism.
Public Sector Undertakings and Private Sector
A valuable role is played by various public sector undertakings (PSUs) and corporate groups
in the
aftennath of the recent major disasters. It has been visible in the Orissa Super Cyclone
. and the Gujarat Earthquake. PSUs are in a position to extend specialised support in their area
of operation expeditiously, and this needs to be built into the disaster response plans, particularly
at the state level. The role of the private sector is still an emerging one, and though a major
role has been played
by a number of corporate organisations in recent disaster situations, not
much has been documented or is available in a consolidated form in this area.
Thus, efforts
could be
made to harness this humane side of the corporate sector.
International Agencies
A number of international agencies including those of the United Nations' family have been
playing an important role in disaster prevention, mitigation, response, recovery and rehabilitation.
In the past couple of decades, international NGOs like Oxfam and Red Cross, as well as
bilateral agencies like Department for International Development
(DFID), United States Agency

34. Rehubilitarion, Reconstruction and Recovery
for International Development (USAID), and many others have poured inillions of dollars in
disaster response and recovery. The I-Iumanitarian Agencies of the UN Family, namely United
Nations Develop~nent Programlne (UNDP), United Nations Childern's Fund (UNICEF), World
Food Programme (WFP), World Health Organisation (WHO), International Labour Orgallisation
(ILO), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) together form the UN Disaster Manageinent
Teams in each country. These teams are engaged in prevention, mitigation, response and
recovery activities. The role of
UN agencies has been dealt with in detail in our Course
(MPA-
004) of this Programme. The role of various agencies in disaster management will also be
discussed later
in Unit 17 ot this Course.
3.6 CONCLUSION
Disaster
manageinent needs n strong political commitment a1 the national and societal levels.
A structure with cleasly defined authority and appropriate budget to maintain an effective
disaster plan is needed. Preparedness plans should be operatiollal as well as comprehensive in
scale, ideally outlined through a nominated national body. Disaster management planning is a
sequential and continuous process. Good planning requires diagnosis, resource evaluation and
feedback towards fulfilling the goal of disaster reduction. Since disaster management is wide
in scope
and numerous actors are involved in it, the need for a framework for coordination
becomes essential.
There is a
need to manage the situation at all the stages of disaster management. The agencies
that play a role in disaster management include the government at the central, state and district
levels, the co~nmunity groups and community-based organisations, NGOs, and other agencies
such as the PSUs. The armed forces, police and pwa-military forces, ex -service personnel, fire
services, etc., also play a significant role in disaster management. Their services have to
therefore
be
utilised to the maximuin. This Unit highlighted these pertinent issues.
3.7 KEY CONCEPTS
Community Participation
The participation of community in disaster management is very significant, as it is not only the
affected paxty but is also in the know of the problems vis-h-vis the vulnerability conditions and
infrastructure facilities. The involvement and participation of the com~nunity in the disaster
management process makes all target
-oriented programmes change -specific and people -centred.
Comprehensive Disaster Management
I Disaster managelnent to be effective has to be a holistic exercise. It sllould start with disaster
I
preparedness and mitigation, and move on to rescue and relief. The final stage in disaster
management is rehabilitation and reconstruction, which should ultin~ately provide a framework
4
,
that leads to total recovery and development of the disaster -affected area.
Framework for Coordination
There is a systematic structural framework of coordination for disaster mnnagernent at the
central, state and district levels. The organisational structure at these levels facililates better
coordination
by removing
overhyping and wastage to enable better cooperation for management
$
, of disasters.
1

35. .Role of Various Agencies in Disaster. Management and Developnzent 49
3.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Carter, W. Nick, 199 1, Disaster M~znngetnent: A Disaster Manager's Haizdbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
Gupta, Harsh K, 2003, Disaster Mmagement, University Press, Hyderabad.
Sahni, Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Unla Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disaster Mitigation: Experiences
and Reflectiorzs, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Human Development Heport, 1999, World Bank, Oxford LTniversity Press, Oxford.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabarldu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Reduction in
Soutlz Asia, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Medury, Uma, 2001, "Coping wit11 Disasters: A Community-based Approach " in Pardeep Sahni
et nl. (Eds.), Disaster Mitigation: Experiences and Reflectioizs, 6p.cit.
Medury, Uma and Alka Dhameja, 2005, "Rehabilitation of Cyclone Affected People " in Amita
Singh (Ed.), Aclmirzi.stmtive Kgforrtzs: Towards S~tstairzable practice^, Sage, New Delhi.
1) Ily to interview any government official working in the field of disaster management in your
area and find out about
the government's disaster management plan for your
locality/colony/
townkity. Ascertain your own role as well as your neighbours' ]*ole within the broad plan and
prepare an outline of a disaster management strategy based on this information.
2) Prepare a list of contacts (names, addresses and role) of as many disaster management agencies
as you can in your neighbourhood / village / city.

36. UNIT 4 INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
STRUCTURE
Structure
Learning Outcome
Introduction
Role
of
Infoimation Dissemination in Disaster Management
Need for an Effective Electronic Media
Communication System for Information Management
4.4.1 HAM Technology
4.4.2 Remote Sensing
4.4.3 Earth Observation Programme
4.4.4 Geographical Information System
Conclusion
Key Concepts
References and Further Reading
4.8 Activities
4.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
a Discuss the importance of information dissemination in disaster management
.r Explain the role of electronic media; and
9 Highlight the crucial role played by the different means of communication in managing disasters.
For disaster management to
be effective, it is essential that information available on disaster -
affected areas is comprehensive, accessible and clear. Adequate and objective information
dissemination is
a complex exercise. Much depends on the efficiency of the communication
medium used for the dissemination of the crucial information. The task is complex, as
many
factors such as awareness levels of people, availability of information with the agencies involved,
use of local technology, access
to latest information technology, and training in handling the comm~mication equipment need to be taken note of.
This unit focuses on the role of information management in effective disaster prevention and
mitigation. It examines the pertinent aspects of media and information technology, and analyses
their importance.
It
ui~derlines the need to link disaster management activities at all the crucial
levels in order to achieve a well
-informed and efficient disaster management system, which
takes
due cognisance of HAM technology, Remote Sensing, Earth Observation Programme and
Geographical Information System.

37. Inforn~atian Motzagement Structure
4.2 ROLE OF INFORMATION DISSEMINATION IN DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Disasters are both natural and man -made. The root causes of some of the apparent natural
disasters may also be certain human activities being carried out in utter disregard of their
consequences for the environment. Such natural disasters are also therehe preventable.
Justice P.B. Sawant of the Press Council of India has pointed out that sincc all man-made
disasters and some of the natural disasters are preventable, the media could educate and
forewarn the people about the consequences of the human actions and operations that may
lead to disasters.
More in
-depth education on the subject becomes necessary so that the human activities and
the natural calamities that they lead to are separated by a certain span of
time. In such cases,
though the causal connection is direct (as the consequences occur at a distant point of time),
the people fail to appreciate the link between the tw9 and continue to indulge in environmental
degradation, digging, in turn, a huge grave for 'i;umanity. The connection between human
activities and disasters should noi be overlooked. This has also been the central point of Unit
1 of this Course. The floods, droughts and famine situations are, ~nany a time, directly traceable
to human activities, while drainage mismanagement, air and water
-pollution and global
warming
are all clearly an outcome of the human misdeeds.
Unthoughtful excavations and destruction of forests are responsible for landslides and mudflows,
while according to experts; periodicity of earthcluakes could also increase due to large -scale
construction of multi-storey buildings, large dams and also inlpounding large quantities of water
in the dams
in the seismic zones, The dam failures,
dam bursts, mine fires, epidemics, food
poisoning, chemical and industrial disasters, nuclear disasters and all accident-related disasters
are undoubtedly precipitated due to the handiwork of human beings. The impending occurrence
of some natural disasters, whether induced by the human actions or otherwise, can now be
known sufficiently in advance, thanks to the develop~nents in science and technology. The
media, by communicating the information on causes and impact of disasters to the people and
the concerned authorities, sufficiently before the disaster, can enable them to take the necessary
steps to prevent and lninimise the loss of life and property.
' 7
5.1,
While the process of disaster management is on, the media could also play the role of telecasting
the relief measures that are being talcen and also their monitoring process. The media could
hclp in cautioning the disaster-affected or to be affected people about the 'do s and don'ts'
in crisis rnanagelnent as well as the importance of preventing rumours, panic and confusion.
It could provide information on the pertinence of establishing communication, identifying the
most vulnerable spots and focusing attention on the susceptible or disaster -prone areas. It could
do this generally by assisting the government authorities, voltlntary organisations and international
agencies in reaching out, informing an8 assuring the victims of the assistance and the measures
taken for their relief.
During the onslaught of disaster, what is of utmost in~portance is to keep the morale of the
people high, create self-confidence in them, prevent panic and maintain order by assuring and
making available the necessary help readily and quickly. The media could, in many ways, help
in ensuring these conditions. The rescue, relief and rehnbilitation measures neecl an integrated
and coordinated approach and for that pulyose all agencies, governmental as well as non -
governtnental, have to pool in their resources for efficient, expedient and effective disaster
management work on all fronts. The collection of inaterial resources and the enlisting of
manpower are as much important as their efficient utilisation.

38. The depiction of devastation and of human misery through the media, many a time acts as an
appeal by itself to the people to come forward for rendering help in various ways. In addition,
the specific appeal made for relief through the colurnns and time-slots of the media, brings in
sizeable aid in the requisite form. At the same time, it beconles necessary for the media to
keep a vigilant
watch and
report on the anti -social ele~nents that try to take advantage of such
situatior~s,
Some disasters like floods, cyclones and droughts have become recurrent features of our lives.
The vulnerable spots and sections of the populace also stand identified over the years. Almost
always, the worst sufferers are the weaker sections of the society. They are unable to shift
from the vulnerable places, because here lie their sources of livelihood and all that they have
in life to preserve and protect. They constieutc a vast section of our society, and in nonnal
conditions they contribute a sizeable proportion lo our natiolzal wealth. Yet, except in rhe times
of disaster, they are rarely remembered and the measures for some kiijd of solution to their
plight arc: hardly ever discussed
by the media.
Tt is time that the media turned the focus of their
attention
on this aspect also.
The conscientio~zs sections of the national media could contribute significantly towards countering
the damaging, exaggerated and negative reporting and propaganda by the foreign media or at
times even by some channels of the national media in the event of a disaster. India has
witnessed
such
phenomena in the past. A prompt presentation of the real state of affairs by
the national media and the correction of the misrepresentations will go a long way in dispelling
the wrong impressions created by the motivated sections of the media, which may otherwise
have an adverse effect on the overall disaster management set
-up.
.-Qn some occasions in the past, the media have fulfilled their duties in full measure, while on
other accasions they have been found wanting. However, if the media have to discharge their
role properly in covering disaster events, it isdalso necessary that there is a complete cooperation
between the media and the governmental and non -governmental agencies. The extent of
coordination and cooperation between them determines the nature, degree and scale of
preparation to prevent as well as cope with the disaster situations.
4.3
NEED FOR AN EFFECTIVE ELIEGTRONIC MEDIA
Natural disasters- be il floods, cyclones, earthquakes or fires affect vast areas of our country
wid1 recurring frequency every year. While natmal disasters cannot be prevented, their ill-
effects can be somewhat reduced by timely action. Adequate and timely relief and rehabilitation
operations can also significantly reduce the hardships faced by the people in the aftermath of
a natural disaster. This, however, requires a large amount of resources, which can be mobilised
in a better and quick manner, if there is an adequate flow of fair and right information.
It is
a well-known fact that information is power. With
the help of current and accurate
info~mation that is also now available promptly, we can lessen the loss of hu~nan life and
property in any calamity. Under such circurnstdnces, it is imperative to explore ways to utilise
the ?ow of information advantageously. In the era of information teel~nology. where a kind of
battle
is on for achieving the
yuickcst means of dissemination of information, the electronic
rnedia have a pivotal role to play. Besides their value as an entertainer par excellence, this form
of media also have an important social responsibility. In instances of natural disasters, the
media could play the role of an edycator at every stage of the disaster and its aftermath. It
can thus guide public opinion dming the time of apy disaster.
I
When the need for disseminatiolt of warning is urgent, the rnedia rnanagers can present fre-sh
warning messages interrupting on -going current programmes. It is not possible to print newspapers

39. Information Management Struct~cre 5 3
on an hourly or half -hourly basis, but is definitely possible to provide an update on the Internet
or run graphic scrolls on a television channel. Similarly, announcements about imminent weather
can be broadcast on radio at frequent intervals. The warning system should be constantly
modified and transformed into more innovative forms.
Moreover, the print media suffer from the problem of making itself accessible. Not only '5 it
difficult to make newspapers reach remote areas, but also things become worse
as
irm nats:ral
disasters often cut off rail, road and air access to even areas that are well -connected in rrormal
times. In contrast, unless there is a massive dainage to the infrastructure, the people in thc
affected areas continue to have access to the electronic media even in the midst of the ~iatural
disaster, The electronic media could thus be beneficial in all the stages of disaster rnanngerucnt
cycle, namely pre-disaster, during-disaster and post-disaster.' Lct us now locli.; at the role of the
electronic media at these three different stages of
a disaster.
Pre-disaster Phase
In this phase, electronic media have a vital role to
play. As concerned govern~nent departments
remain alert with regard u, infori~lation related to forecasting calamities, it is the resyrtilsibility
of the media to make public the information that is available with these departments. After
getting information from the government departrrients like Meteorological Department, the
media (particularly the electronic media) have a prime role in conlmunjcating to the cornn~csn
people all the forecasting information through a very simple and communicable language.
Generally, the experts and the officials use phraseology that is not often camprehensible to tlnc
comlnon person, but the niedia have the potential to convert the technical jargon into easily
understandable language. The inedia are engaged in the business of con~municntion and c?ne
of their primne jobs is to communicate effectively. They should translate the tecllnical inforxn:ttion
into more understandable non -technical day-to-day parlance. It is important for the media to
communicate with the people not merely through regular news bulletins, hut also through
special features that aim at dispelling the myths and apprehensions pertaining to a disaster
situation.
The media should explain in detail the apprehensions expressed by the experts. The scientific
basis behind a disaster alarm should be explained
in
an in-depth manner. The nlctlia must also
highlight the precautionary measures and issue warnings to reduce the impact of the oncoming
disaster.
By raising these issues,
the media could make the goverlzment, NGOs and othcr
humanitarian organisations to galvanise their infrastructure and make necessary preparations.
In this phase of' disaster management, public broadcasters have the ~nnximurn responsibility,
though other media organisations also cannot avoid their social responsibility.
Once a particular area has been hit by a nat~lral disaster, the niedia should be i~tnong the first
outside groups that could try tlloving inside the affected area to gauge the i~npact of the
disaster. Thereafter, there are a large number of responsibilities that the media should pcsform.
The governmeilt alone cannot find out the intensity of damages instantly. Eve!> if it can
ascertain
the extent of damage in due course, the media could alone
convey to the people the
enormous impact of the disaster event tluough the images and reports from the affected area.
Quite often, the government, international co~nnlunity and general public majorly depend upor1
the reports of the media. The media should report about the disasters objectively to draw their
attention. On seeing the reports in the media, the common people
in the other
parts of the
country can prepare themselves to offer help and display solidarity with the affected people.

40. 54 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
- Besides reporting on the extent of the damage in the disaster aftermath, the media should also
keep a close vigil on the efficacy of disaster management strategies. Inadequacies and laxities
in the relief work, both in terms of
the area being tended and the manner in which the
programmes are being run need to be highlighted
Hy the media.
In this phase, the media must also attempt to.secure information on the vital details of the
extent of the disaster, which are not available with the official agencies. Recently, it has also
been observed that the media have been interacting with the scientific community for their
discussion. shows on technical matters, for example, interviewing notable seismologists and
geologists following a major earthquake. .This is a good trend, as it gives teeth to the analytical
role
of the media in disaster management.
Post-disaster
Phase
In the post-disaster phase, there are chances of an outbreak of epidemics after prolonged
floods, cyclones and other natural disasters. Media can broadcast programmes involving health
specialists to strengthen the preventive and curative measures in the diiaster aftermath. Various
preventive steps to avoia epidemics need to be publicised, while information on the steps to be
taken by the affected
people if they contract the disease need to also be disseminated
concurrently.
The electronic media can provide information on the ways to cope with such catastrophes by
telecasting discussions and documentaries. It is important to create a national sentiment with
regard to the rehabilitation palicies of the government that require massive resources. By giving
adequate coverage to the disaster, and also involving experts who can discuss the impact of
the disaster in comparative terms, it
is possible for the media to build public opinion and
generate resources.
.-
Rehabilitation becomes a challenge in the aftermath of a
devastating catastrophe. At this stage,
the media could help the goveri~ment by providing innovative ideas regarding the rehabilitation
: work. The media could also research and publicise innovative rehabilitation strategies uskd in
similar situations around the world. The people living in vulnerable areas need to be told to use
the $mary precautionary measures like packing the immediate essentials, in case it is possible,
and moving out
of their houses
011 getting cyclone warning. The media could take Ih8i lead in
' popularising innovative programmes like retrofitting, as well as publicising the pertinence of
disaster resistant buildings and the use of similar technology for construction and reconstruction.
In its Report, the High Powered Comnlittee on isa aster Prevention, set up by the Government
of India, has noted all the aforementioned factors. It has pointed out that there are no specific
devices that .can accurately inform people about natural disasters beforehand. As a result, in
most cases, people cannot take necessary preventive measures to face a disaster. But, by
generating awareness on the precautionary measures, do s and don'ts and common myths, the
electronic media could play a helpful and important role during disasters.
Media groups should not merely see their professional interests while covering the disasters,
but should try to project the relevant news in
an objective and sensitive manner. We have seen
that in a bid to draw the attention of
the people, the inedia often presents an exaggerated
picture. This tendency needs to be curbed and the inedia must instead educate the public and
highlight nothing but the facts. An adequate balance needs be maintained between images of
grief and suffering and tl~ose that highlight the rescue and relief operations.
li
The media should try to inculcate a feeling of trust in the minds of the affected people. The
Tsunami that struck South Asia in
2004 saw all the major media groups gearing towards relief

41. Irformation Muncrgement Structure 5 5
management and rehabilitation, Media coverage did witness an overall transfolmation towards
the essential functions of objective information dissemination, sensitive intervention, and updi~ted
news coverage during that time. These important features that were a part of the transformation
are collectively known as Information Management. Another term that has become very
important in the context of information management is 'knowledge engineering or marnagemnrr.rrt'.
It is emerging as a significant area of information management in many different ways ,such
as storing, documenting, cataloguing and retrieving itlfor~nation. It could be of help to all types
of organisations, even to the media related organisations.
Knowledge management is all about turning experience ~ind inforniation into results. The
primary 'tools' applied in the practice of knowledge management are organisational dynamics,
process engineering and technology. 'These tools have to be used in tandem to streamline and
enhance the 'capture' and 'flow' of an organisation's data, information and knowledge, and to
deliver it to individuals and groups engaged in accoinplishing specific tasks. Knowledge
management
is concerned with embracing a diversity of knowledge sources from the database,
websites, publications, news groups, employees etc., and cultivating that knowledge where
it
resides, This is
done while capturing the context of knowledge and giving it a more comprehensive
meaning through its relatirin to other information in the organisa.tion. Building a knowlzcige basc,
thus, could go a long way in analysing disasters and looking for solutions.
4.4 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM FOR INFORMATION
,MANAGEMENT
Technological advance~ments in the field of communication have made the concept of global
village a reality.
A proper communication
system can be of enormous use in effective disaster
management. It can be instnlmental in generation of awareness and dissemination of i~~formation
during disaster preparedness and response. The use of modern comn~unication is of relevance:
not only to disaster managers, but also to the community workers at grass roots levels. Modern
communication also comes in the form of low
-cost options such as HAM radios. Let us now
discuss some of the effective advances in
cornrnunication technology:
4.4.1 WAM Technology
Whether it is the Cyclone hit Orissa or Bhopal after the Gas Tragedy or South Asia after
Tsunami, the
HAM Radios have been the lifeline for
millions of disaster stricken people. The
first to set up emergency communication iystems in Cyclone ravaged Orissa; HAM Radios
have'been of immense functional use in national calamities. From the Bhopal Gas Tragedy 511
1984 to the Latur Earthquake in 1993, or the landslide in Malpa that hit thc An~aritnlh Y:llt.a
in 1996, they have proved to be a great help.
It is a fact that within hours
of being
illformed about the Cyclone in 1999, thc teams of HAM
operators rushed from Hyderabad, Bangalore and Calcutta to the affected districts of Orissa,
In fact, many HAM operators actually trekked several kilometers just to track down people.
Apart from helping people to connect with each other, the
HAM operators averted two
major
air disasters at the Bhubaneshwar airport. With the Air Traffic Corltrols (ATCs) down, it
became the responsibility of the HAM operators lo ensure that the planes landed safely and
they did their job well.
The Government of India has been funding the National Institute of Amateur Radio (NEAII)
for developing the necessary infrastructure. Considering the important role played by NIAR in
the recent disasters, it is suggested that HAM systems may be made a part of regular disaster
management exercise. It should also be made an important communication requirement. Alongsick
i

42. 56 . Rehnbilitation, Recorzstrucrion and Recove>y
1
HAM equipment, even a basic activated wireless system could be of great help in disaster
warning dissemination.
A small coastal village in Pondicherry could save its people with the
help of simple
loudspeak8rs when the Tsunami struck their land in 2004.
4.4.2 Remote Sensing
Space technology plays a crucial role in efficient mitigation of disasters. It helps to:
es Minimise the potential ~isks by developing early warning strategies
cs Prepare and implement developmental plans
@ Mobilise resources' inclurling communication and tele-medical services; and
Assist in rehabilitation and post -disaster reconstruction.
The Remote Sensing applications, as we have read in Unit 2 of this Course, help in evolving
a suitable strategy for disastqr preparedness and ail operatiotlal framework for disaster monitoring,
assessinent and mitigation. It is also of help in identifying gaps and recommending appropriate
strategies for disaster mitigation vis-his the new devslop~nents in space and ground segments.
In more ways than one, Remote Sensing is ideally suited for disaster managenrent. First of ,211,
, it provides a database from which the evidence left behind by past disasters could be interpreted.
This combined with other information could be used to derive at hazard maps, indicating
the
areas that are potentially dangerous,
The Indian Institute of
Reinote Sensing (IIRS) has more than three decades of experience in
resource identification, analysis and operationalisation of Remote Sensing. Its basic mandate to
train scientific workers has effectively resulted in trained manpower in satellite data utilisation.
The Institute 'possesses the needed technological background and organisational maturity to
dedicate itself to the cause of disaster management. .
b
The use of Remote Sensing in disaster managemellt is increasing. Pre-disaster uses include
risk analysis and
mapping, disaster
warning, cyclone tracking, flood monitoring and assessment,
estimation
of crop and forestry
dannages, and monitoring of land -use changes in the aftennatll
of a disaster. MeteorologicaI satellites monitor weather patterns, detect and track storm systems,
and keep
a track of frosts
and floods. Remote Sensing and GIS technologies hold the potential
of effective support in the events of cyclones, floods, droughts, forest fires etc. Research work
is on to enhance the capabilities of these technologies in order to cope with the earthcluake and
la~rdslide situations in the future.
The disasters may affect
large
areas and no other tool than Remote Sensing would provide a
matching spatial coverage. Remote Sensing also allows for the monitoiing of the event during
the time of occurrence while the disaster forces
are in full swing. The impact
and departure
of the disaster event leaves behind a trail of mass devastation. Remote Sensing could assist
in damage assessment and aftermath monitoring, providing a quantitative base for relief
operations.
Frequent 6loud cover is the primary hindrance to visibility over the affected areas. The Aerial
Photography,
as we mentioned in Unit 3, provides an ideal solution to acquire data at a short
notice and use of sensors
such as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) that has a capability for
cloud penetration. The aerial data so collected also needs to
be processed urgently to support
the relief operations through an lntegrated
GIs Database. Diagram 4.1 gives a broad view of
the way the data are collected, processed and disseminated.

43. .. Iv.j5rmation Managentenr Structure
Satellite Digital Tabular
Maps Data Data
-
-..1IpIc
=sEs
/
4 4 Y b
?
Digitising Scanning Data Transfer Key Coding
4
A
a Data Capture
v
Generalisation
V
Edge-matching
B
Layering
Integrated GIs Database
Source: Mano,j K. Arora, 2003, "Role of Remote Sensing in Disaster Risk Reduction" in
Pardeep Sahni and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), Disnster Risk Reductiorz in Soutlz
Asiu, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
4.4.3 Earth Observation Programme
India has its own Eath Observatioll Programme and expertise is built -up in a wide variety of
Remote Sensing applications. The deveioptnent of a Remore Sensing-based disaster management
programme is especially important for India for several reasons. India has the second largest
population in the world, which
is a cause of a dramatic increase
in the country's vulnerability
to natural disasters. In order to effectively utilise Remote Sensing for natural disaster reduction
in India, it
is equally important to set up a network of
organisalions deaIing with this problem,
in order to develop techniques specifically adapted to the regional situation. The stakeholders
in disaster management are now utilising these techniques at various institutional levels.
t -
Satellite communication capabilities, fixed and mobile, we vital for effective communication,
especially in
data collection, distress alerting, position location and coordination of relief operations
in the field. Satellite data could
be used to map the new situation and update the existing data
used for reconstruction in an area. In addition, search and rescue satellites provide capabilities
such as position
determination facilities onboard, which could be useful in a variety of land, sea

44. 5 8 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
and air distress situations. Space borne platforms have demonstrated their capability in efficient
disaster management. While communication satellites help in disaster warning, relief mobilisation
and tele
-medicine support.
Earth observation satellites have established their unique capability to continuously monitor land
and water environment, forest fires, floods, atmospheric disturbances etc., in order to provide
advance warning of major hazards. Thus, earth observation satellites provide basic support in
pre-disaster preparedness programmes, disaster response and monitoring activities as well as
post
-disaster reconstruction. Indian satellites, the Indian Remote Satellite (IHS) series and
Indian National Satellite
(INSAT) series are currently being used for obtaining information
necessary for disaster management, communication, disaster warning, and search and,rescue
activities. The WiFS sensor on -board the IRS-1C and IRS -ID is of special significance to '
disaster monitoring due to its wide swath and revisit period of 5 days,
INSAT data collection systems could be made use of for monitoring disaster related parameters
in critical locations. Data related to meteorological, hydrological and environmental factors, as
well as events such as earthquakes, floods, forest fires etc., could be monitored to provide alert
signals. Beginning from INSAT-2A, there is also a search and rescue transponder in the
INSAT series, which provides real time relay of distress signals from within the footprint of
the antenna. With a constellation of both INSAT and IRS series of satellites, India has been
able to develop operational ~nechanisms for disaster warning, monitoring and mitigation, especially
in case of cyclones and droughts. The vast capabilities of communication satellites are available
for timely dissemination of early warning and real time coordination of relief operations. The
advent of Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) and Ultra Small Aperture Terminals
(USAT)
have enhanced the capability further by offering low cost and viable technological solutions
towards management and mitigation of disasters.
Satellite images
give a synoptic overview and provide very useful geomorphologic inforination,
for a wide range of scales,
from an entire overview of continents to details of a few meters.
Secondly, many types of disasters, such as floods, droughts, cyclones, volcanic eruptions etc.,
will have certain precursors. Satellites can be used to detect the early stages of these events
as anomalies in time series, Images are available at regufar short time intervals, and can be
used for the prediction of both rapid and slow onset disasters. When a disaster occurs, the
speed of information collection from satellites and the possibility of information dissemination
with a matching swiftness, thus, inake it possible to lnonitor the occurrence of the disaster.
While geo-stationary satellites provide continuous, synoptic observations over large areas (like
continuous weather watch, including cyclone monitoring capabilities), low earth orbiting satellites
. -
have the advantage of providing much higher resolution imageries, even though at a low
temporal frequency. Satellite communication capabilities
- fixed, mobile, personalised are vital
in a large number of disaster
inanagement situations, especially in data collection, distress
alerts, position location and coordinating actual relief operations in the field.
In addition, search
and rescue satellites provide capabiliries such as position determination facilities on
-board,
which could be useful in a variety of land, sea and air distress situations.
, Satellites are particularly suited to delivering locale specific disaster
wanling communicatiooc
to those entities/groups/persons located in remote, rural and underdeveloped areas, and providing
communication support for administrative actions towards emergency preparedness. For instance, ,
the existence of satellite -based surveillance system to track the evolution of cyclonic storn~ in j
the 1990 Andhra Cyclone enabled the authorities to evacuate 60,000 people to safe shelters. :
The death toll during this period was limited to 1000, as coxnpared to 20,000 killed in an earlier
Cyclone in 1977. This positive development has been made possible through satellite-based :
weather forecasts and advance warnings of severe weather. Guch forecasts help in minimising

45. Inforrmatio Management Structure 59
the loss of life and other damages, therby facilitating emergency operations, relief and
rehabilitation. This example of hazard,reduction effort clearly demonstrates how a focused
application of available technologies can significantly reduce the disaster proportion of natural
hazards.
Thus, a combination of Remote Sensing, lneteorological satellites, search and rescue satellites,
as well as communication and weather satellites at geo
-stationary orbits provide appropriate
information for effective disaster management. Disaster management system, which involves
both short
- and long-term strategies, must integrate the functions related to disaster mitigation
prior to the onset of disasters and implement the relief operations once the unavoidable extreme
disasters occur. Efficient delivery
and coordination of disaster relief measures is equally important
to ensure amelioration of the affected population and areas.
In recent years, considerable information has been gathered on the evolution and characteristics
of various disasters including floods, earthquakes, cyclones, droughts, landslides etc., through
satellite Rernote Sensing. data have been collected on India's varied geograpl~ical, geological
and climatic conditions. The country has faced major disasters
like
cyclorles in the coastal
regions of the South, floods in the river valleys of Ganges, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Godavnri,
Krishna etc., earthquakes in the Himalayas, Kutch, North -Eastern regions, Bhuj and Latur,
landslides
in the Sub-Himalayan regions, and droughts in the
major arid and semi -arid tracts of
CentralISouthern regions.
Information has also been garnered on the major diseases like Malaria/Encephalitis in Delhi,
Plague in Surat, catastrophes like the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, Building Collapse in Mumbai, Floods
,
in
Hyderabad and Chennai etc, The most important application of satellites in disaster management
lies in detecting, providing and delivering early warnings using earth observation and
communication capabilities offered
by various on-board sensors of the satellites.
~oth earth
observation and commuriication satellites play an important role in providing:
e Disaster alerts
r, Location of the disaster -stricken area
e Continued, accurate and timely monitoring as well as assessment of the cm-rent status of damage
in post
-disaster situation
r, Efficient delivery of aid; and
B Aid coordination with the Central Relief Management Agency.
4.4.4 Geographical Illformation System
Geographical Information System (GIs) software uses geographical and computer -generated
maps as an interface for integrating and accessing massive amounts of location-based information.
This unique chasactcristic of GIS makes it an effective tool in the field of disaster response
and preparedness. It can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, disaster
and development planning. For example, a GIS might allow emergency planners to easily
!
calculate emergency response times in the event of a natural disaster, or a GIs might be used
for locating wetlands that need protection from pollution.
GIs application offers nulnerous advantages for disaster managenlent system in various areas
such as:
.
Q Disaster Response

46. Rehabilitation, Heconutructio~t aitd Recover~l
Emergency Declaration
@ Quick Response
@ Continued Response
@ Continued Surveillance /Monitoring
GIS allows public safety personnel to effectively plan for emergency response, determine
mitigation priorities, analyse historical events, and predict future events. GIS could also be used
to get critical information to emergency responders upon dispatch or while en route to an
incident lo assist in tactical planning. It also enables international agency staff to integrate data
for planning and implementation purposes. Analysis of geographic features with a GI§ allows
the analyst to view new patterns, trends and relationships that were not clearly evident in the
absence of visualisation of the data, especially in the case of a disaster.
GIS can also be used to get critical information about a humanitarian crisis to appropl<ate
response agencies in a coordinated and efficient manner. Once in the field. the coordinatio~~ can
continue as new data
can be added and disseminated via wireless applications and
Internet!
Intranet connectivity. GIS applications are appropriate tools for endeavours such as geo-spatial
data, infrastructure creation, geo-infsnnatics capacity building, geo-chemical mapping of the
country,
and mapping of priority sectors.
We may conclude
by stating that since all the man -made disasters and sorne of the natural
disasters such as floods and droughts are preventable, the media can educate and forewarn
the people about the consequences of not living in harmony with the natural environment. Print
media have played an important role in this regard for a long time, and now electronic media
have found easier and quicker means of reaching out to the public at large for
a wider
coverage. Similarly, on the communication front, the electronic revolution has made available
modern
technologjl to aid the disaster management sector.
HAM Radios have played a crucial role in the management of recent disasters and should
continue to do so in future. Emerging information technologies in the area of Remote Sensing,
Earth Observation Programme and Geographical Infornlation System offer immense pote~miiill
for efficient disaster management that needs to be urgently harnessed. The concept of knoa/lciigi:
management is an emerging field, which is soon catching up as an importa~lt tool of information
management for disaster mitigation. This Unit discussed these aspects in some detail.
. .
4.6 KEY CONCEPTS --
Mass Media
It is a comprehensive concept involving print, visual, audio -visual and electronic techniques. a(;
well as all the other tools and processes for dissemination of information. Mass Media could
play an effective role
in disaster situations if it is
transparent, effective, unbiased, sensitive 'tnd
quick.
Emergency Communication
.There is nornlally an elaborate 'arrangement of info~mation dissemination in the event of a
disaster. ?is the systematic communication channels fail in the event of disasters, eInergency

47. Inforination Mnrtngement Structure 61
techniques for dissemination of information are resorted to. These include HAM radio - the
Amateur Radio Emergency Communications. HAMS provide a high quality voluntary Radio
comn~unication service resource for emergency. Other means of emergency communicalion
include the wireless system and various local nleasures such as beating of drums and loudspeaker
announcenlents to meet emergency situations if other conventional means of communication
such as radio, television and telephone fail.
Information
Tecltlraology
The growth of information technology has revolutionised the concepts of information dissemination.
All information is now available at the click of the button. Various portals and websites
containing loads uf infolamation on different areas have flooded the Internet. Many government
departments now have their area specific websites that can be accessed by the citizens.
Electronic governance or e
-governance
has become the new buzzword. New trends in
information technology are striving to bring the governors and the governed closer to each
other in order to bring in efficiency, transparency and effectiveness in the management of
resources
in
normal as well as crisis situations.
4.4 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Carter, W. Nick, 199 1, Disaster Marzage~nrnt: A Disaster Mar~ager'~~ Hartdbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
Gupta, Harsh
K, 2003, Disuster
Manugement, University Press, Hyderabad.
Kurian, John and Reeba Mary Abraham, 3999,"Information Management and. Knowledge
Engineering in Disaster Management
", Paper Presented at the
Internotional Corzference on
Disaster Managernent: Cooperutivt! Networkilig in South Asia, New Delhi, Nov 28-304
Prakash, Indu, 1994, Llisuster Mnnugemertt, Rashtriya Pmhari Prakashan, New DeMi.
Sahni, Pardeep, Alka Dhamejn and Ulna Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disaster Mitigation: Experiences
and Rq~Ze~rtiolis, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Parcleep and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Aedtrctioll in
South Asiu, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
World Barlk Repurt, 2003, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Websites:
www.gis.com
www.esa,int/esaEO
www.terraserver.con1
www.~lrsa.gov.in
www.asors.org
www.remotesensina.org -

48. 62 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
I) Visit the newspaper stands in your nearby market or try to go through the recent newspapers in
your local library. Prepare a list of the newspapers, magazines and other publications that inform
you about disaster related issues.
2) On the basis of Activity One, go through the newspapers1 magazines of a single day and list the
number of news items that you find related to natural and man
-made disasters. From this list,
identify the number and kinds of disasters covered
by the newspapers or magazines for that day.
3) Find out about the nature of the disaster to which your area is
most vulnerable. Trace the chain
of disaster forecast, warning
and dissemination of information related to that disaster in your
area.
4) On the basis of Activity Three, prepare a plan outline on how the information related to that
disaster could be made available to the maximum number of people in the
minimum possible
time.

49. UNIT 5 PARAMETERS OF VULNERABILITY
Structure
5.0 Learning Outcome
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Concept of Vulnerability
5.3 Parameters of Vulnerability
5.4 vulnerability Reduction Strategies
5.5 Sustainable Livelil-lood Framework
5.6 Conclusion
5.7 .Key Concepts
5.8 References and Further Reading
5.9 Activities
5.0 LEARNING OUTCOME .
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
e Understand the concept of vulnerability in the context of disasters
@ Examine the various parameters of vulnerability
a Discuss the practical applications of vulnerability reduction strategies; and
a Throw light on the role of the State and cominunity in vulnerability reduction.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This Unit is a part of a set 05 Units on the socio-economic dimensions of rehabilitation that play
a crucial role in the process of rehabilitation and reconstruction in lhe face of disasters. The
significant issue in this respect is to acknowledge the role of socio
-economic, cultural and what - may be called, man -made factors in the event of disasters. Similarly, these factors may also
contribute towards clefining a particular community as being more vulnerable than the other.
'
Clarifying the concept of vulnerability and bringing out its parameters are usually the first few
steps towards management of disasters, Vulnerability reduction strategies have to be exanlined
within the broad framework of sustainable livelihood. This Unit throws light on the different
aspects of vulnerability with a view to disaster mitigation.
5.2 CONCEPT OF VULNERABILITY
According to World Disasters Report 2005, over the past decade,
the number of 'natural' and
'technological' disasters has gone up considerably. ~etween 1994-1998, reported disasters,
including the man
-made, averaged 428 cases per year. In 1999-2003, this figure shot up by
2/3"',
to an average of 707 ,disasters each year. The biggest rise was in countries of low, human
development index,
as they suffered an increase of 142 per cent,

50. 6 6 Rehabilitation, Reconstr~icrion and Recovery
India is highly prone to natural disasters. The devastation caused by the Latur Earthquake of
1993, the Orissa Super Cyclone of 1999, the Bhuj Earthquake of 2001, the Drought of 2002 -
03, the South Asian Peninsular Tsunami of 2004 and the Muzzafarabad Earthquake of 2005 still
stirs up the wounds of those affected. Natural disasters, affect approximately
60 million Indians
annually and about
85 per cent of the area in the country is vulnerable to one or multiple natural
disasters. About
68 per cent of the total sown area in the country is drought -prone; roughly
57 per cent of the country's area lies in high seismic zone; and floods and high winds account
for
60 per cent of all natural disasters in the country.
The year
2005 has been
particu~asly harsh on India with almost every corner of the country
being affected by floods, exposing the inadequacies of urbanlcity planning, e.g., the Chennai
Floods. The worst affected by disasters are generally the poor and the lnarginalised sections
of the society. The most vulnerable to losses are the least privileged sections, as their ability
to recover from the shock of the disaster aftermath is the lowest. Most of the natural disasters,
though specific to one region, apart from affecting the people, also cause loss of livestock,
damage to property and resources of vasious kinds.
Before understanding the concept of vulnerability, it is essential to bring out the meaning of
hazards.
A hazard is viewed as naturally occurring or human -induced process or event with
the potential to create losses. It is
an extreme event or a physical condition that has a potential
to cause damage to life, property or enviroament. A hazard adversely affects human life and
property to the extent 0% causing a disaster. The concept of a hazard involves an element of
risk, which is an expected loss of life and property due to a particular hazard. Risk is the actual
exposure of something of human value to ,a hazard. Thus, risk is the product of hazard and
vulnerability. When we talk of vulnerability, it would mean the susceptibility of people, settlements,
physical assets, resources and the environment to the impact of hazards. Vulnerability depends
upon the exposure of some or all of these factors to a hazard and their level of resilience to
the impact of hazard.
The term vulnerability literally means a disadvantaged position or a position marked by an -
encumbrance. The condition of vulnerability may occur naturally or may be created due to
human practices. This is true in the context of environmental disasters about which you will
read in the course of this Unit. While vulnerability may lead to specific incidents that are
destructive, it may also cause a weakening of position or suffering on a regular basis. For
instance, there are cataclysinic disasters such as earthquakes and floods, which cause grave
destruction in a short span. There are also slow onset types such as droughts, which gradually
lead to conditions of impoverishment and squalor that cause vulnerability.
As per the High Powered Committee Report
2001, the concept of vulnerability implies a
measure
of risk combined with the level of social and
econonlic ability to cope with the
resulting event in order to resist inajor disruption or loss. In order to further understand the
concept of vulnerability, it is important to first deliberate upon its relationship with disasters,
In
fact, only a clear understanding of disasters could help in explaining
Ihe nature of vulnerability.
The adverse impact of disasters on human beings worldwide is'increasing at an alarming rate
and India is no exception. In the last decade,
it has experienced several disasters ranging from
natural disasters like floods, droughts and earthquakes, to man
-induced events like industrial
disasters and forest fires.
a The Tsunami disaster of December 2004 has brought out the stark vulnerable conditions
existing in the developing countries of South Asian region. The Muzzafarabad Earthquake that
hit the Pakistan Occupied Kashrnir (POK) regions besides affecting other areas of Pakistan
and Jammu and Kashmir (J & K) has also brought to limelight the vulnerable conditions of the
people living there. Moreover, all these areas are normally inaccessible due to lack of roads

51. Parameters of Vulrzerability 67

and communication channels. The winter chill and the non -availability of immediate relief after
the Earthquake only compounded the problem of the poor and vulnerable, who as it is have
to struggle to make both ends meet.
Thus, disaster management appears to be more complex, especially when insufficient
administrative and socio
-economic conditions worsen the management of crises in the affected
areas. Such situations are complicated because the breakdown of the political as well as socio
-
economic structures
mikes assistance or intervention very difficult. This sort of emergency is
usually associated with the problems of displaced people during the limes of civil conflict or
with people who are caught in the areas of conflict just as it was obvious in the Uri region
during Muzzafarabad Earthquake.
It is important to understand the issue of vulnerability to disasters particularly in the context
of the developing countries, such as those in South Asia, for two reasons:
0 Irresponsible practices in this region are leading to increased vulnerability
r The countries in this region have fewer resources to deal with the consequences of disasters
The increasing population and lack of equitable resource distribution/consumption in some of
these countries is a case in point. The Unit will later take up some instances from these places
to illustrate this viewpoint.
5.3 PARAMETERS OF VULNERABILITY
In order to understand vulnerability, let us look at solne of the lnain reasons behind it. These
have come to light through research experiences and empirical evidence from different parts
of the world. Some of the key reasons for ever
-increasing levels of
vulnerabilily are:
0 Rapid population growth where disaster events can claim more lives
e El~vironmenlal degradation due to poor land use, deforestation, overcultivation and overgrazing.
These render the land more prone to floods and landslides
0 Increased rate of industrialisation and rapid urbanisation without the necessary safety rheasures
0 Impoverished conditions
0 Blind adherence to cultural practices
r Gender inequalities
r War and civil strife
0 Lack of public awareness and infonnation
a Absence of preventive and preparedness measures for disasters in developn~ent planning; and
0 Neglect of developlnental issues and concerns.
Disaster mitigation strategies that aim at reducing the scale of destruction need to focus on
thbse sections of the population that are vulnerable, and at a greater risk of being exposed to
the adverse impact of disasters. Rigid adherence to the socio -economic and cultural practices
.

52. 6 8 Rehabilitation, Reconstructiotz and Recovery
have made them weak and relegated them to a disadvantaged position. The women, children,
aged and disabled are termed
as
no st dependent and vulnerable of the affected population.
Some factors influencing the vulnerability of people and social structures, as we have also
mentioned in Unit 6 of our Course MPA-004 of this Programme, are:
@ Inadequate access to resources (MateriaYEconomic Vulnerability)
t~ Disintegration of social institutions and structures (Social Vulnerability)
io Degradation of the environment and inability to protect it (Ecological Vulnerability)
e Lack of strong central, state and grass roots institutional structures (Organisationd Vulnerability)
e Insufficient access to inforrnation and knowledge (Educational Vulnerability)
o Low levels of public awareness (Attitudinal and Motivational V~~lnerability)
s Limited access to political power and representation (Political Vulnerability)
e Blind faith in beliefs and,customs (Cultural Vulnerability)
r Weak buildings or weak individuals (Physical Vulnerability)
The amount oi' inforrnation available on natural disasters and their effects is extensive and
easily available
to specialists working in the field, be it planning,
architecture, engineering or
sciences. Yet, the mitigation measures often ignore the actual needs and requirements of the
people. The planners who are responsible for setting priorities, determining i~nple~nentation
mechanism and deciding on monitoring and evaluation often treat the affected people as a
homogeneous group with the same needs, abilities and aspirations. Certain groups of people
and certain types of physical assets and economic activities could
be particularly vulnerable or
susceptible to damage.
Let
us now discuss some of the parameters of vulnerability in detail:
'
i) PopuIation and Poverty
I
Some facts on population and poverty indicate:
0 India is the world's sixth largest and second fastest growing producer of greenhouse gases
r Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai are 3 of the world's 10 most polluted cities
I
s 2/3rd of city dwellers lack adequate sewerage and 1/3r* lack potable water
b India grows equivalent of a New York every year in its urban population

e Over 350 million people now live in cities
r In 15 years, more than half of Indians would be urban dwellers, 1/3rd of them would be slum
dwellers living in squatters
Rapid population growth is one of the most significant challenges facing mankind today. Many
factors have contributed to the growth of population. High fertility rates along with decreasing
morbidity and mortality are some of the key factors. The direct impact of population on the

53. Parameters of Vulnerability 6 9
environinent puts an enormous amount of burden on the resources, thereby increasing the
levels of vulnerability. This may be possible in two types of scenarios.
Firstly, where population
growth is huge and rapid, and
secondly, where even the prevailing number of consumption
patterns is a drain on scarce resources.
While we often emphasise how each person can make a difference by reducing cpnsumption.
rarely do we consider that most of our problems get multiplied, as we continue to add more
people to the already suffocating population figures. The multiplying effect is the reason why
population today is
an environmental problem. This also intensifies vulnerability to disasters, as
resources
caunot match the increasing number of affected people. It is easy to think that
population is only a problem of the Third World or developing countries, but population growth
is not just about feeding people. In the cities, suburban sprawl, traffic congestion, paved
-over
farmland, and destruction of natural ecosystems are driven by population growth. In the developed
countries, more people imply more schools, more power plants, more hospitals and
more
sewage treatment plants etc. All this creates inore filth, disease and pollution.
The 'connect' between population growth, poverty and development is strong and compJex.
When assessed in terms of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growt.11, the countries in the
South Asian region are far behind the other countries of
the world. Conditions of poverty, as
we have mentioned, often contribute to greater vulnerability of
some sections of a population
to an environmental disaster. Food insecurity, lack of means of livelihood and capacity to
access resources characterise their lives even in normal times. While the challenge is equally
present in rural and urban areas, it is worse in the case of latter.
By
2020, the number of people in the developing world will grow from 5 to 7 billion, with 90
per cent of this growth falling in cities and towns. The sheer volume of people compromises
1
the ability of the cities to meet the basic needs, resulting in an increase of urban poverty, 1
hunger and malnutrition. National governments, international organisations and researchers
have substantial experience with the tools
and programmes
aimed at promoting social and
economic development in rural areas, where agriculture is the key activity.
However, the urban environment is more complex and diverse,. and urban livelihoods aie not
well
-characterised. Without any systematic understanding of how urban dwellers organise their
livelihoods and how they cope with
vulnerabiIity and risk to protect their household food
security, little progress on improving their conditions
can be made. Let us now turn our attention
on some other parameters of vulnerability.
* , + '"
ii) Fragile Eeo-system
The fragility of an 6co-system is created primarily through two aspects. One is its natural
fragility, for instance, areas that are naturally prone to floods or landslides, and
second is the
fragility caused by environmental degradation. There are many dimensions to
eilvirontnental .
degradation. Deforestation, pollution, depletion of natural resources, forest cover, wildlife, water,
agricultural land, livestock and eco
-system conversion are some of -the most
'crucial ofies. "
Creation of an adequate environmental framework is essential. for reducing vulnerability. This
aspect is .discussed at length in our next Unit.
iii) Gender
Gender inequalities one of the most serious challenges to equitable resource allocation
both in normal and post
-disaster times. Woinen and girls tend to bear the brunt of difficult
time5
'such as disaster situations by denying themselves food and other basic essentials. As mentioned
in the beginning,
an important question related to
development'is the balanced spread of its

54. 7 0 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
impact. The issue of gender sensitive development assumes importance in this context. The
existing diversity in our society and economy unfortunately accrue the benefits of development
only to the privileged, which include the more prosperous sections, regions :and people.
Women in communities
- urban, rural or tribal - across the country benefit less from the fruits
of development. The burden of
ivork and environmental degradation continues to fall on them
and subsequently on children, particularly the girl child. In the long run, this has an impact on
their status reflecting poorly in terms of Human Development Index (HDI). It also raises
doubts about the value and quality of development. Gender issues must, thus, form an integral
part of vulnerability assessment.
iv)
Power Imbalances between Nations
It
may be useful to pose the question whether all nations are equally vulnerable. The answer
is in the negative.
Firstly, .because of the fact that some are naturally more prone to disasters
and
secondly, because the developing nations are affected more by prevailing environmental
trends. Let us
take the issue of population. Since the issue of environmental
impact is related
to consumption habits as well as number of mouths to be fed, high growth rate of population
takes its toll on resource depletion and pollution in the developing world.
However, the developed countries also have to face the consequences. In terms of impact, the
UN Population Division reports that the United States is the most overpopulated country in the
world. For example, the average American uses as much energy as 18 Chinese people,
34
Indians, or 526 Ethiopians. This kind of a pattern is unsustainable, as we cannot continue
consuming resources at this rate; Thus, measures need to be taken in both developed and
developing countries so that the burden of one country is not passed on to the others.
Many other practices also contribute to the vulnerability of the developing nations. Some of
these have become the 'dumping' grounds for poor quality goods that do
not have a market
in the home country. What is more, since the developing countries are often dependent on the
developed world for financial aid, it becomes difficult to raise
a voice against all this. Things
are, however, changing, as civil society organisations
from less developed countries are finding
an echo of their demands for sustainable living 'in environmental agreements such as Kyoto
Protocol and trade forums such as World Trade Organisation (WTO).
, v) Excessive Reliance oh Traditional Social Structure, Culture and -Lifestyles
There are certain traditional practices and lifestyles, which can increase the vulnerability of the
people living in disaster
-prone areas. These practices include felling of trees for fuel requirements,
and polluting
lakes and rivers for ritual practices. Though rural lifestyles are more in harmony
with theenvirons,
the urban development pattern is generally out of sync with nature. Such
trends are
-a cause for concern and could lead to increased vulnerability.
vi) Neglect of Development 1&ues and Concerns
Increasingly, it is being realised by international organisations that neglected developlnent problems
have higher chances of culminating into disasters some day. The unmindful cutting
of trees in
'
the coastal areas, and cleaning off the vegetation to give way for urban development and
construction activities certainly leave a negative impact on the local capacities of
the communities
1
to cope with the nature's fury in the form of cyclone or tsunami, whereby natural barriers, e.g., '
mangroves, to wind and wave forces are removed leaving the coastal communities directly
exposed to disasters.
I

55. Parameters of V~il~zernbility 7 1
In order to cope with vulnerability to disasters, let us first understand the significance of the
disaster management cycle.
A disaster can be viewed as a series of phases on a time continuum.
We have read about disaster management cycle in our earlier Units, but to recapitulate, we can
say
that disaster management cycle is made up of stages such as: Alert, Preparedness, Prevention,
'~iti~ation, Response and Rehabilitation. Let us see whit they stand for:
Alert: It is a notice or a warning issued, indicating that specific precautions should be taken
because of the probability of occurrence of a disaster event.
Preparedness: It involves certain precautionary measures taken to bring down the loss of
human lives and other damage to the minimum through the organisation of prompt and efficient
actions to response and rehabilitation. Effective p
r
eparedness
measures enable communities
and institutions to provide a quick and organised response to disasters. Disaster preparedness
is designed to rninirnise loss of life and damage in order to arrange for temporary removal of
people and property from a threatened location, and to facilitate timely and effective rescue,
relief and rehabilitation. Public information and ongoing training activities are necessary to
create a 'culture' of disaster preparedness.
Prevention: It means the sleps taken for the purpose 01 preventing natural or man -made
phenomena fro111 causing or giving rise to disasters or other emergency situations. It is an
essential colnponent of disaster preparedness.
Mitigation: It is again a disaster prevention strategy. It involves measures taken to reduce the
loss of life, livelihood and property caused by disasters, either by reducing vulnerability or by
modifying the risks emanating from a hazard, where possible.
Response: It includes actions carried out in a disaster situation with the objective to save
lives, alleviate suffering and reduce economic losses. Such actions are search, rescue and
relief. The relief ineasures includes the provision of shelter, water, food and nledical care.
Rehabilitation: It is a long
-drawn process
that starts in the post-response phase and culminates
into disaster recovery. It includes all measures at reconstruction and social, economic,
environmental and psychological aspects of rehabilitating the disaster
-affected,
The phases in the disaster management cycle should be seriously followed for effective disaster
management and reduction of vulnerability. An
example reflecting the adoption and enforcement
of building codes further highlights the preparedness and prevention steps in
a disaster
management cycle. Under adequate building codes,
utilisation of design and construction
techniques that will make critical facilities adequately resistant to damage by hazards is essential.
Prevention measures include passing of legislation that affects urban planning, citing of public
works and key facilities; and institutionalising policies leading toward disaster reduction.
Lack of premedness leading to increase in vulnerability to disasters could be understood by
the following example of landslides. Downslope transport of soil and rock resulting from
naturally occurring vibrations, changes in direct water content, removal of lateral support,
loading with weight and weathering, or human manipulation of water courses and slope
composition can cause landslides. We have to understand how vulnerable conditions, whether
man
-made or natural, can precipitate landslides: e Settlements built on steep slopes, softer soils and cliff tops
0 Settlements built at the base of steep slopes, or mouth of streams from mountain valleys
Roads, comnunication lines built in mountain areas

56. Buildings with we& foundations
e Buried pipelines and brittle pipes
0 Lack of understanding of landslide hazard
Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
-
.
@ Absence of comm~lnity awareness
a hadequate monitoring, warning and ev-aluation systems
There are many measures that could be taken to reduce vulnerability. The vulnerability conditions
could be mitigated through:
0 Capture and drainage of water before it rea~hes potential slope area
e Underground drainage by using sub -surface pipes
I
e Land reform by terracinglreshaping !
r, Agronomic - reforestation, planting of deep rooting trees to prevent surface slips
r, Ground cover with grass or agricultural crops
r, 'Use of Gabion construction to protect water course valleys and control the flow of water down
the slope
r, Hazard mapping, land use regulations and insurance I
I
e Use of earth removal equipment
4
.-
In most of'the disaster situations, the vulnerable groups include:
4 Inhabitan& of areas that are geographicallyltopographically vulnerable
e Women, especially pregnant ariii'lactating '
e ~obr sections of society
r, Children and infants
.-
r, Aged and infirm
5.4 VULNERABILITY REDUCTION STRATEGIES
The vulnerability reduction strategies vary with every type of disaster. As we just read, there ,
are many factors that could precipitate vulnerability to landslides. Likewise, factors contributing "
to increased vulnerability to droughts, earthquakes,, and floods would be speqific to each
disastei depending on the topography of the region, nature of populace, levels of education and '
infrastructure. Over here, we will discuss vulnerability reduction strategies with specific reference
to Tsunami that struck the Indian Peninsular Region in
2004.
, The Tsunami devastated the, major coasts of South Asia
(Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
I India and the Coasts in ~aldives and Sri Lanka) recording the largest ever till in human lives
l
and property. Many organisations came up with vulnerability reduction programmes for coastal I

57. PaJhrneters of Vulnerability 7 3
regions in order to withstand the aftermath of Tsunami. Even though ~sunami's cannot be
prevented, an educated public can bring down the vulnerability levels to these disasters to a
great extent. Broadly, a Tsunami Vulnerability Reduction Programme should comprise:
e Encouraging a participatory mangrove forest management programme
e Promoting community nurseries of mangroves and other species under the coastal bio -shield and
agro
-forestry programme
e Regenerating fisheries and fostering a sustainable fisheries programme
e Raising artificial coral reefs
e Managing marine biosphere reserves
e pro;iding for landward housing sites for fisher families
0 Constructing sea walls and dykes
e Reclaiming of salinised soils
8 Developing a code of conduct for coastal ecological security
e Systematising vulnerability mapping; and
e Promoting sustainable management of coastal land and water resources (Swarninathan, 2005).
5.5 SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD FRAMEWORK
Vulnerability reduction must form a priority with the government bodies, the non-governmental
agencies and the community. A security umbrella covering food, water, shelter and health
security is a precondition for vulnerability reduction. The International Food Policy Research
Institute (IFPRI) has launched the
"Urban Challenges to Food and Nutrition Security " Programme
to provide information to policy makers, programme administrators, development practitioners
and other vested audiences to make sound policy and programme decisions to seduce food
insecurity and malnutrition in urban areas. City
governnlents.must pay attention to the potential
of urban agriculture. Even in crowded areas, people can often find space to grow vegetables
or raise animals to supplement the food they buy.
Policy makers must examine the interlinkages between urban and rural areas. In many cities,
people depend on agricultural production for their livelihoods, indirectly as vendors, processors,
transporters, ,wholesellers and retailers. Many city dwellers still own land in rural areas, and
may fall back on relatives over there in times of need. Policies must take into account the fact
that the livelihoods of urban poor do not exist in
geographical isolation, and should try to bridge
the urban-rural divide.
Many non
-governmental and international donor organisations are beginning to
make urban
food and nutrition a priority
by implementing programmes that focus on these issues in the
developing countries. Addressing hunger and
rnalnukition will require a clear and comprehensive
strategy that includes governmental, non-governmental and community organisations, and the
urban poor themselves. Food and nutritional security must not be thought of as an after
-effect
of general anti
-poverty
programmes. Policy makers cannot afford to miss the opportunity to ,
utilise and build on currently available knowledge and resources to dramatically reduce hunger,

58. 74 Rehabilitation, Reconstrlrction and Recovery
malnutrition and poverty. Urban population will continue to grow, and the abject conditions will
only grow with them, unless we take action now.
In the year 2500, the states of
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and
Orissa suffered from what some experts report the worst ever drought to impact the region
in the last 100 years. As per the Contingency Plan
-Drought 2000 and United Nations Press
Releases, the statistics of the losses have been quite revealing. The affected population exceeded
90 million and cattle livestock losses surpassed 54 million head. More specifically, 26 of 32
districts were affected in Rajasthan, impacting 26.2 million people in 23,456 villages;
17 of 25
districts were affected in
Gujarat, taking the toll to 25 million people in 9,421 villages; and 18
of 32 districts were affected in Andhra Pradesh, with 41.3 million people losing their lives or
livelihood in 17,43 1 villages.
The drought had a devastating impact on the rural poor, as previous monsoons and ensuing crop
failure had left many farmers cash strapped and disabled to meet their basic needs,' and repay
loans taken out for the previous year's planting season. The Government of India
(GOI)
instituted a large-scale Food for Work Programme to help families cope with the catastrophe,
but it was short
-term in nature and was not able to address the needs of vulnerable families.
Unable to purchase basic necessities, many farmers migrated into the cities in search of
employment and attempted to sell their cattle for cash, but found few jobs available.
To make matters worse, the livestock market remained non
-existent. The principal needs of the
affected population included potable water, animal fodder and food. Although adequate supplies
of these basic commodities were available
in India, difficulties in the distribution system prohibited
sufficient quantities from reaching the targeted communities. Although
the GO1 provided
subsidised food to the rural poor during the drought, the market price of food remained beyond
the purchasing power of most of the marginalised sections.
In order to create long-texnl vulnerability reduction conditions, a 'sustainable livelihood framework'
is the need of the hour. It seeks to understand the many factors influencing people's choices
of livelihood strategies in order to reinforce the constraints. Creation of livelihood options is a crucial
component
of
commullity vulnerability reduction. It is an important step towards capacity building.
A sustainable livelihood programme needs to analyse the existing socio -economic conditions
prevailing in the area before the occurrence of a disaster, examine the occupational pattern in
the area, survey the prevailing infrastructure facilities, adjudge the awareness levels of the people;
and gauge the mind
-set of the people, their culture, attitudes, traditional
beIiefs and practices.
Sustainable development involves more than growth. It requires a change in the content of
growth to make it more equitable in its impact. The main objective of sustainable development
is to prevent the acts of nature from becoming disasters. The main focus of sustainable
development is to mitigate the conflict between development and environment. While at first
glance, this may seem unrelated to disaster prevention, the truth is that they are intricately
entwined (Dhamej a, 2001).
There is
a need to recognise the
fa~t that the community is a basic unit for all planning and
implementation activities. Self
-reliance should be promoted and administrative
iilterventions
should follow a 'rights-based' approach, so that people are not treated as mere beneficiaries,
but are integrated in the mainstream development process. This kind of approach could be
really beneficial in creating sustainable livelihood conditions.
A collection of individuals in the
I
form of a group ultimately makes a community, which has certain common goals, ideas, ideals,
aspirations and resources. There is
no
denying the fact that the community, which is affected
by the disaster, needs outside help and intervention, may that be of the government, NGOs or
s other international agencies for relief, rescue, response and rehabilitation.
. ,
L

59. Parameters of Vubterability 75
It is also, however, imperative for the community to !ake its own remedial steps to reduce
vulnerability and combat the challenges posed by the disaster. Sensitising Panchayati Raj
members, building a database for each village, encouraging public -private partnerships, setting
up Disaster Task Force and forinulating Disaster Coordination Councils would go a long way
in ensuring community participation and reducing vulnerability.
5.6 CONCLUSION
Disasters, as we are well -aware, play havoc with the lives of people and the existing vulnerable
conditions only
"intensify the disaster aftermath. Vulnerable people find it more difficult to face.
disasters, as they are totally unprepared for such catastrophes. These people are also short of
basic resources. Disasters inflict irrepairable losses on them. The consequences of uncontrolled
population growth, environmental degradation and ill
-planned developmental policies take their
toll, especially on the developing countries.
Understanding the concept of vulnerability is a precondition to effective disaster management.
This Unit discussed some of the important parameters and factors leading to vulnerability vis
-
h-vis disasters. A sustainable livelihood framework with an accent on food, water and shelter
security is crucial to vulnerability reduction. The government, NGOs and community
organisations- should all collectively work towards the creation of such a livelihood framework
that bring down the levels of vulnerability. This Unit highlighted some
of these issues.
5.7 KEY CONCEPTS
Eco-villages focus their efforts on
building a sustainable community. This means: using alternative
energy sources such as solar and/or wind power; utilising alternative building methods and
materials like cob, strawbale construction, earthen plasters and recycled materials from demolition
projects; using permaculture and organic farming methods; reducing waste by composting;
recycling and buying In bulk; growing your own food; and employing alternative transportation
like biking, walking, bio
-diesel fuelled cars and car cooperatives or car poals.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
It is the total value of goods and services produced by a nation during a specific period of time.
Vulnerability
The extent to which an individual, community, sub -group, structure, service or geographical
area is likely to be damaged or disrupted
by the impact af a particular hazard or disaster.
Vulnerability Analysis
The process of estimating the vulnerability to potential disaster hazards of specified elements
at risk. Disaster mitigation and emergency plans are based on the systematic knowledge
of the
system's vulnerability 'in terms of deficiencies in its capacity to provide services, physical
weaknesses of the components to external forces and organisational shortcomings
in responding
to emergencies. Vulnerability analysis identifies and quantifies these
weahesses, thereby defining
the expected performance of the system and its organisation.

60. 76
I Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
5.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Allaby, Michael, 1996, Basics of Environmental Sciences, Routledge, Londo~b
Asian Development Bank Report, 1991, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and the Pacific ", ADB,
Manila.
Aysan, Y.F, 1993, "Vulnerability Assessment " (Key Note Paper) in P.A. Merriman and C.W.A.
Browitt (Eds.),
National Disasters: Protecting Vulnerable Communities, Thomos Telford,
London.
Dhameja, ~lk; 2001, "Droughts and Foods: A Case for 'Dying Wisdom' " in Pardeep Sahni
et al. (Eds.), Disaster Mitigation: Experiences and Reflections, Prentice-Hall of India,
New Delhi.
Dwivedi, 0. P, 1997, India's Environmental Policies, ~rogrammes and Stewardship, Macmillan
Press Ltd., USA.
f
Hooja, Rakesh and R. Joshi, 1999, Desert, Drought and ~evklopment: Studies in Resource
Management and Sustainability, Rawat Publications, Jaipur.
Parsai, Gargi, 2005, "When Nature Strikes Back" in The Hindu, December.
Report of High Powered Committee on Disaster Management, 2001, "Building a Culture of
-
Prevention", Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government
of India. --
Riitta, Tiia (Ed.), 1999, Managing the Globalised Environment: Local Strategies to Secure
Livelihoods,
IT Publications, London.
Swamhathan, M.S, 2005, "Beyond Tsunami; An Agenda for Actiony' in The Hindu, January 17.
World Development Report, 1992, "Development and the Environment", Oxford University
, Press, New York.
Human Developmeizt Report, 1999, Oxford University Press, New York.
5.9 ACTMTIES
1) Enumerate the parameters that define vulnerable conditions.
r >
2) Prepare a list of natural disasters that have hit India in the last decade.

61. UNIT 6 DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL AND
ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE
Structure
Learning Outcome
Introduction
Developing Physical and Economic Infrastructure
Environmental Infrastructure Development
Sustainable Comm~~nity Development
Disaster Preparedness in Asia
Conclusion
Key Concepts
References and Further Reading
Activities
6.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading
this Unit, you will be able to:
r Discuss the 'nature of physical and economic infrastructure
e Exarnine the significance of sustainable community development; and
(II Throw light on disaster preparedness measures for strengthening environmental infrastructure.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In our previous Unit, we examined how increased vulnerability conditions can intensify the
aftermath of disasters. One way of reducing vulnerability is to build adequate socio
-economic
and physical infrastructure. Disaster preparedness in the form of infrastructure development
is
essential to withstand the wrath of man -made and natural disasters. The community -based
organisations have a significant role to play in building the infrastructure resources of a vulnerable
community. This Unit focuses on the development of adequate physical and economic
infrastructure that is responsive to the' needs of the people
in the aftermath of disaster. The
Unit also looks at the development of different types of primary physical and social infrastructure,
and the role of the
cornlnunity towards strengthening the infrastructure.
6.2 DEVELOPING PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC
INFRASTRUCTURE
The term 'infrastructure' literally means the basic or internal structure or foundation. In
administrative parlance, it means the structure for communication and services within an
institution. Presently, in the context of development, infrastructure has come to connote buildings,
means of transportation and communication as well as other necessary basic utilities and
facilities e.g., schools, hospitals etc. Let us now throw light on different types of infrastructure
and their development:

62. 78
I
I
i) Different Types of Infrastructure
Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
Infrastructure can be broadly classified into the following:
@ physical - This may include roads, water, drainage, electricity and so on
e Services - Transportation, health and education
e Social - Social sector services, especially primary health care, old age homes, community centres
and so on
e Environmental - Creation of necessary environmental conditions to reduce the risk of disaster
It becomes important to understand the peculiar context of the developing nations in any
discussion on infrastructure. Limited resources in these nations often imply that infrastructure
is undeveloped or underdeveloped. Lack of basic public utilities like water, all weather (puccn)
roads and electricity is a common problem in a developing country like India. It is even more
so in case of health care facilities, secondary level schools and other services in the social
sector. In times of disaster, even these limited infrastructural facilities are destroyed and are
unable to cater to the needs of the people.
ii) Development of Infrastructure
When we talk of adequate physical infrastructure particularly in relation to disasters, the nature
of housing, has to form the core of discussion. Housing infrastructure needs to be planned for
the peculiar environmental conditions of the aredregion. There may be an area that is flood -
prone or a mountainous region prone to landslides and so on. Housing has to be as per the
requirements
of that area. Similarly, there are particular requirements of the urban areas that
need to be kept in mind. Earthquake safety measures in high
-rise buildings in urban areas are
a case in point. Nodoubt, the first question is whether or not every one has a shelter. The shelterless that are
vulnerable even in normal times aye affected the most at the time of any disaster. Studies
reveal that
a homeless child is twice. as likely to have learning disabilities and six
times more
likely to have stunted growth than a child in a stable environment. The example of post
-
earthquake rehabilitation in Gujarat is useful at this point. The agenda
in the reconstruction
programme, propagated by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), has not been
just to build houses but also to construct them in
a demonstrative manner to transfer the
technologies to the villagers. These houses have served as model houses, incorporating disaster
resistant technologies (corner vertical bars, header stones, reinforced cement concrete
(RCC)
bands at different sections of the structure etc.). This has created a multiplier effect in the
surrounding areas.
The major objectives of
UNDP's Shelter Programme are to:
@ Build local capacities (training of semi -skilled construction workers and masons in hazard resistant
construction)
Support the environment (use of alternative technologies for reconstruction e.g., coinpressed
stabilised earth blocks, rammed earth technology etc.) " -
e Involve local communities (owner-drjven and participatory construction); and

63. Development of Physical and Economic 1~7fmstructztre 7 9
e Help rebuild lost livelihoods (customised designs to suit individual housing and livelihood
requirements).
In the post-Bh~lj Earthquake phase, these reconstruction programmes have been concentrated
in the severely affected areas of Kutch, Patan and Surendranagar Districts, with aid froin
countries like Italy and Norway. The aim of these programmes has been to reconstruct
approximately
1,400 dwelling units. These projects have been in motion and the reach of the
reconstruction programme has been extended to the Districts of Rajkot and
Jainnagar, with the
assistance of other organisations.
Apart from reconslruction of houses, other conlplementary prograInmes that have been
undertaken by the LTNDP aim at overall development in the vi1Iages of Rajkot and Jamnagar
Districts. These include generating awareness anlong the villagers on health, education, mason
training programmes for earthquake and cyclone resistant technology through posters/audio/
video cainpaigns, eco-restoration of water bodies and so on. The UNDP has also i~nplernented
a Reconstruction Programme in the Patan and Surendranagar Districts, which were also
severely affected by the Earthquake. The damaged houses of women
-hcaded households have
been given highest priority. Women's groups have been instrumental in carrying out the reconstr~iction programme in these areas.
As far
as the
infrastructural facilities are concerned, attention has been given to the provision
of adequate water supply. Watershed development for vulnerability reduction has been undertaken
extensively in the states of Gi~jarat and Rajasthan and also other parts of India. Many national
and international agencies have together implemented an Integrated Programme of Watershed
Development in the Districts of Patan, Surendranagar, Bharucli, Jamnagar, Rajkot, Bhavnagar,
and Banaskantha in Gujarat.
The Progralnme aims at making the livelihoods less vulnerable to disasters by strengthening
existing natural resource
-based livelihoods through reconstructing water harvesting structures
and strengthening the natural resource base.
This would thereby nullify the disturbing factors
like decreased soil moisture, low rainfall, decreased availability of nutrition, lack
of natural seed
bank, high salinity levels and increased overgrazitlg. The repairs of water l~arvesting structure
would include ~naintenance in terms of repairing, erosion protection measures, and de -silting of
the tanks and wells. These drought
-proofing activities would also enhance
thC livelihood security
of the people and address the ecological degradation in the area by reviving traditional sources
of water.
The Programme has also proposed to improve food security through a series of soil and water
conservationlgrassland developlnent activities, which woulcl enhance tlie vegetative cover of
the land. With improved food security and natural resources, it is expected that migration will
be arrested and people will have better capacity to cope with droughts. These aclivities include:
lake repair, well repair, plantation, levelling and fodder development. Laws, policies and institutions
drive the inhastri~cture related decisions that determine a region's economic and environmental
future.
Decisions about constiucting or rehabilitating facilities to handle sewage coulcl support the
sustainable use of land and watersheds, efficient patterns of growth and economic development,
and continued vitality and economic health of existing urban communities. These decisions
could also contribute to sprawling costs and loss of urban vitality. Sewage infrastructure
is a
very important area but it is neglected in cornparison to development issues such as transportation,
education, taxes, water supply and land use regulation. Such
issues are being confro~ited across
the country as states, regions and localities pursue vital economic development, while battling
urban decay at the saine time.

64. 80 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
In the United States, the Environmental Law Institute has studied the relationship between
sewage infrastructure decisions in Southwestern Pennsylvania and its effects on the urban,
suburban and rural landscape of the region. Edamining the challenge of sustainable land use
in the context of complex metropolitan regions is essential if the lessons of'smart growth are
to be meaningful and the implications of alternative choices are to be understood. Ageing
infrastructure in Southwestern Pennsylvanian region's older communities causes substantial
water quality impairments for many days per year during rainfall or snowfall leading to landslides.
These are the very areas that have lost much of their population or at best remained static in
population and economic development. At the same time, other public and private funds are
being expended to support infrastructure and development
in the new (formerly rural) areas.
Without careful targeting of these investments and sufficient attention on preserving existing
investments in infrastructure, the region could incur unnecessary expenses that, in turn, may
undermine its competitive position with regard of its social institutions and
econolnic vitality.
This kind
of situation is not very different from the present day conditions in many cities of
India. Sustainable approaches towards sewage infrastructure investments should serve four
objectives. The process should:
e Result in an environmentally sound system for handling and treating sanitary sewage
e Promote informed local decision -making
e Reward responsible behaviour
Achieve cost
-efficiency and resource-efficiency; and r Support economic development and redevelopment that maintains the vitality of the region's
existing communities and infrastructure investments.
The need for adequate power supply for development cannot be disputed. However, studies by
the
US
Department of Energy show that world energy consumption is currently projected to
rise by nearly
60 per cent in the next 20 years, with
most of that energy coining from oil or
natural gas. World electricity generation is projected to nearly double in the next
20 years,
according to the International Energy Agency, causing huge depletions in fossil fuels.
Even if there is an unlimited supply
of coal and oil, use of fossil fuel contributes to a wide range
of environmental problems. Among them are acid rain, (through emissions of
mercury and
other toxic chemicals) as well as sprawl and smog (through increased vehicular pollution), and
solid waste
(in the form of combustion ash and oil refining waste). Thus, alternatives have to
be researched and put to use before the scenario becomes worse. Some initiatives have been
taken to build the infrastructure around the globe. Let
US discuss two such endeavours now:
Pathakota Primary Education Project
I
This Primary Education Project has been started to improve the quality of education in Pathakota
village in the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh
(AP) by supporting teachers of mathematics
and science in the Sompalli Zilla
Parishad High School. This village is located in the drought-
prone region of Rayalaseema, and most of its population comprises small and marginal farmers.
The weather in the region is such that for every year with good rainfall, on an average, there
are three bad years, adding to the challenges of these subsistence farmers.
The village school currently has
700 odd students enrolled, but just 3 teachers. As a result,
students often
go to board exams without having had a mathematics or science teacher for the

65. Development of Physical and Economic Infrustrz~cture 8 1
entire year. This has seriously affected the quality of education and consequently the chances
of a better life for the children in this village. This Project aims to improve the quality of
education in this village and surrounding areas. Since the school is in Pathakota in Chittoor
District of Andhra Pradesh, the surrounding villages in AP and Karnataka are also bound to .
benefit from it. VIDE (Volunteers in Development and Empowerment), a. U.S-based organisation :
is supposed to support teachers for 3 years at a total cost of 4500 dollars.
Development Cooperation in Kosovo
Kosovo was formally a part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), but since the truce
in June
1999 between FRY and North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), it is being governed
by the UN Mission, UNMIK. Sweden contributes personnel to its administration and surveillance,
maintains a peacekeeping battalion as well as provides financial aid to reconstruction and
development. Since the end of the war, the work done by, the Swedish Development Cooperation
with Kosovo has been substantial and far-reaching. Rebuilding the infrastructure has been a
high priority with specific programmes that
target the railway district heating, electricity supply
and telecommunications. It is one of the biggest donors in the area of house rehabilitation.
It
also takes part in programmes that safeguard food supplies and improve the environment.
House reconstruction is an area of considerable importance to Kosovo. Only a few months
after the war in Kosovo had ended, several Swedish Development Funding Organisations
initiated work on rehabilitation of schools and houses in the region. The work was done through
so-called Integrated Area Programmes, a
method that rests on Ihe principle of self-help. These
Programmes include the restoration of local infrastructure like wells, roads and bridges. To be
able to support themselves, the villagers are supplied with various means such 4s seeds for
farms, hens for poultry, tools for artisans, and fruit trees etc.
After the war, the Swedish Development Cooperation focused on rebuilding what had been
damaged during the protracted period of fighting. Later, the focus shifted to the building
up of
the administrative set-up. Efforts are now on to allocate a great deal of resources to the area
of human rights and democracy, as well as to institutional capacity building. The Mission of the
World Bank is to fight poverty. An important
part of this Mission is to provide assistance to
the people for
prepcaring themselves to cope with natural or man -made disasters that can result
in great human and economic losses.
Indeed, developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits; more than
95 per
cent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in the developing countries; and losses due to
natural disasters are
20 times greater in developing countries than in the developed ones. In
this connection, the World Bank's Disaster Management Facility (DMF) has been established
'
since July 13, 1998, to provide proactive leadership in introducing disaster prevention and
mitigation practices into the World Bank's development efforts.
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
Any discussion on physical and economic infrastructural development is incomplete without
adequate emphasis on building environmental support system. There is a direct connection
between environmental preservation and disaster mitigation. Unfortunately, human
-induced
activities are playing havoc with the
natuial environment. There are thousands of lakes, ponds,
marshes, lagoons, estuaries, backwaters and inangrove swamps that are rhe lifeline of a
, country's wetlands, fresh water needs and biodiversity. In the.absence of a National Wetlands
Act in India, environmental infrastructure development has been tardy.
A few success stories
may nevertheless be mentioned.

66. 82 Rehnbilitation, Recurzstruction und Recovery
In India, instances such as revival of Sukhna Lake in Chandigarh and greening of Alwar
District show that traditional water harvesting wisdom needs to be adequately lapped to build
infrastructure, especialIy environmental infrastructure. An example of Community Supported
Agriculture (CSA) from the state of Minnesota in the U.S. also reiterates the significance of
sustainable agricultural practices to protect the environment. The farms and woodlands
are
more than just sources of food and timber; they are also producers of environmental and social
benefits. Resolving this conflict
l~ecessitates changing the connotation of the term 'maximising
productivity'. Some of the methods that promote environmental and social benefits include
increased consumer knowledge, cost sharing and watershed partnerships, as well as provision
of choice for consumers to select production methods.
At their most fundamental level, the CSA farms provide a weekly delivery of organically grown
produce to consumers during the growing season (approximately June to October). Those
consumers, in turn, pay a subscription fee. Being involved with
CSA operations always means
sharing the rewards as well as the risks
of farming. By
linking together through CSA operations,
fahers md consumers alike can benefit from an agriculture that provides bountiful nutiitious
food while preserving the ecological and social base necessary for the future generations.
Efforts to
build sustainable environmental infrastructure are being made by national as well as
international agencies all over the world. The
aim is to reduce emissions of green house gases
and preserve the global commons (i.e., the oceans, seas, rivers, mountains and atmosphere) for
the future generations.
Let us now take a look at some of the major environmental agreements:
Major Environmental Agreements
e Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
CITES establishes worldwide controls on - the intel-national trade in threatened species of animals
and plants. In the case of species threatened with extinction, CITES prohibits all commercial
trade in wild specimens. The Convention was signed in 1975 and more than 125 countries are
its members.
r Basel Convention on Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes
The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans -boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and
their Disposal was adopted in 1989. It came into force in May
1992. This global
etivironmental
treaty strictly regulates the trans -boundary movement of hazardous wastes and obliges its
members to ensure that such wastes are managed and disposed off in an environrnenlally
sound manner.
Convention
on Biological Diversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed
by over 150 governments at the Rio
"Ea1t1-1
Summit" in 1992. It has become the centrepiece of international efforts to conserve the
planet's biological diversity, ensure
the sustainable use of its components, and
proillote fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of
the utilisation of genetic resources.
Convention on
Climate Change
Over 150 States signed the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change in June
1992 at the Rio "Earth Summit", thereby recognising climate change as "a common concern
of humankind
". The Convention provides a
"framework" within which governments can work
together to
carry out new policies and programmes for which people live and work for.
I

67. Development of Physical and Econonzic Znfi-astructure 8 3
a Kyoto Protocol to the united. Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The Document consists of the final authentic text of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations
Ramework Convention on Climate Change. he Protocol has come into force with an objective
of protecting the environment of the world from further deterioration. Around 180 countries
have signed the Kyoto ~rotocol.
e Convention to Combat Desertification
The Convention to Combat Desertification promotes a new approach to lnanaging both dryland
ecosystems and the flow of aid for development in d
r
ought-affected countries particularly in
Africa. Their Website contains Official Documents for the International Negotiating Comn~ittee
(INCD), as well as public information material.
e Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS)
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea codifies the rules by which nations use
the oceans of the world. The links between the nations are maintained by the independent
Council on Ocean Law, which offers an extensive collection of documents about the LOS,
including links to the text of the Convention.
e Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
The Montreal Protocol is the primary international agreement providing for control on the
production and consun~ption of ozone-depleting substances such as chloro-fluoro-carbons (CFCs),
halons and methyl bromide. As of November 2003, 183 States have become parties' to the
Protocol, including virtually all major industrialised countries and most developing countries.
6.4 SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Every physical space, which can be designated as a community, needs to develop sufficient
resources within it for fulfilling certain functions. In
the context of India, creating and strengthening
of anganwadis (centres for mothers and children) and balwadis (day care homes for children
and infants), and other similar institutions will go a long way in building sustainable communities.
Both rural and urban communities in India should have community centres, fe~fiale children
homes, old age homes and day care homes.
These institutions fulfil. the functions of takigg care of the needs of special groups in the
community such as the children, women, old and disabled. The social networks created through
the functioning of health care centres and community centres (used for various activities of the
community or its residents) are strong points for any community.
In cases where these
~retworks
function well, they prove particularly useful in post-disaster situations.
A sustainable community ineets its present needs without sacrificing the needs of future
generations. It is engaged in developing attitudes and actions that strengthen its economic,
environmental and social infrastructure. Sustai.nable community development is easily achieved
when it comes from within an existing community. The benefits of this type of developrne~~t
include more liveable communities, lower costs of living and a safer environment for future
generations. Some of the prominent ways of developing a sustainable community are to:
Promote and support sustainable agriculture
' a Support local businesses

68. 84 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
@ Protect water resources
e Conserve energy and support renewable energy initiatives
e Preserve green space
e Recycle building materials
e Promote alternatives to rapid consumption of fuel (such as in the use of vehicles); and
e Generate awareness and education, on sustainability.
The term 'community' cannot be described in definitive terms, but a feeling of shared interests
and consensus on goals to be achieved between cross
-sections of people makes an effective
community.
A Community must have: 9 Enough population to support a full cross-section of community services i.e., schools (including a
high school) a major shopping centre etc.
6 Large population so that it would be iinpractical for any portion to patronise reasonably located
community facilities within it
Easily identified boundaries
e Strong identifying feature or characteristic, wherever possible
9 Adequate linkages with outside communities and systems to fulfil all its needs
The term 'neighbourhood' is used to describe
the basic sub -division of the community, especially
in countries like the
U.S. The term is meant to apply to predominantly residential areas. Though
service institutions, schools and businesses serving day
-to-day needs are included within
neighbourhood boundaries, the term may also
be applied to intensive and special use areas such
as industrial, commercial and institutional districts. The infrastructure required for any community
would include:
Roads and other Civic Amenities
9 Adequate drainage and sewerage system
e Well-developed system of connecting roads
. .
@ Transportation facilities including roadways and railways
o Communication system such as postal service
Health
Countries as vast and populous as India require health care services that can reach to the
bottom most grass roots levels. This is both in terms of
primary care and specialised care. For
this, the health system needs to include: ,
e Phnary health care centres designed to meet all basic needs for healthcare

69. Development of Physical and Ecorzornic Infmstructzrre 8 5
@ Well-equipped hospitals as well as secondary and tertiary care units with trained personnel
A strong system of referrals for healthcare
Education and Work Opportunities
Education continues to be one of the primary needs for any nation after. the basic needs of
food, clothing, shelter and healthcare. Good educational infrastructure would include facilities
for schooling at different levels (primary, seconday, senior secondary), and opportunities for
higher education and vocational training. Both in rural and urban areas, vocational and livelihood
skills need to be designed to respond to the needs of the young people and the demands of
the market. In rural areas, development of pasturelands and livestock are some of the priorities.
Similarly, provision of minor equipment for artisans and craft persons is required. Skills training
to encourage these trades could also be of relevance. This aspect is further discussed in our
next Unit.
6.5 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
IN ASIA
The mogt effective way of managing disasters is to bring down the vulnerability levels of the
r
community and build sustainable livelihood practices. It, thus, becomes imporlailt to assess the
preparedness levels to cope with disasters. This Section gives an overview of disaster
preparedness measures in Asia that are crucial to the development of an adequate physical and
other infrastructure, The Section also discusses some significant initiatives in planning and
preparedness for disasters in the Asian region. Disaster management, as we all know, is a
collective term encompassing all aspects of planning for and responding to disasters, including
both pre
- and post-disaster activities. It may refer to the management of both the risks as well
as consequences of a disaster.
Nearly half of the world's major disasters occur in the Asia and Pacific region.
Earlhquakes,
floods, volcanic eruptions, landslides, famines, epidemics, hurricanes, tsunamis and technological
accidents occur in this region with considerable frequency. Significant population growth rates,
increased urbanisation and environmental degradation compound the impact of each of these
phenomena. Every year, disasters in the Asia and Pacific region claim thousands of lives,
render hundreds of thousands of people homeless, and destroy millions of dollars worth of
infrastructure and personal property.
As its main conduit for mitigating the effects of disasters in the Asia and Pacific region, U.S.
Agency for International Development 1 Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster, Assistance (USAID/
OFDA) provides funding to the Asian Disaster Prepiiredness Centre (ADPC) located in
Bangkok, Thailand. ADPC is the leading centre in this region dedicated to protecting communities
and environment from the devastation caused by disasters. ADPC works with national and
. local governments to develop the capabilities of countries in responding to disasters and instituting
appropriate policies to mitigate their effects.
ADPC achieves these goals through programmes that focus on training, technical assistance
and information sharing. The four
key programmes
at ADPC are the Asian Urban Disaster
Mitigation Programme (AUDMP), Programme for Enhancement of Emergency Response
(PEER), Programme for Understanding Extreme Climate Events (PUECE), and the Damage
Assessment and Needs Analysis Programme (DANA).
USAID/OFDA provides funding for
each of these initiatives.
j
The AUDMP, launched in 1995, is ADPCYs largest Regional Programme. It has been designed
i to make cities safer from disasters, with a goal of reducing the disaster vulnerability of urban
1

70. 86. Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovely
I
population, infrastructure, critical facilities, and shelter in the targeted.secondary cities. It also
aims to promote replication and adaptation of successful mitigation measures throughout the
region, Towards this end, the Programme conducts national demonstration projects, information
dissemination and networking activities, policy seminars and professional training in the target
countries of Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka,
and Vietnam.
.
I
The PEER Programme, which is a collaborative initiative between ADPC, USAID/OFDA and
the Miami Fire Rescue Department, commenced in October 1998, with an objective to develop
and strengthen search and rescue training capabilities in Asia at the national, regional, and sub
-
regional levels. This is the first initiative of its kind in Asia to impart skills and enhance the
expertise of local responders to provide effective and coordinated on
-scene management of
rescue and
~nedical response needs, following a disaster. The four target countries are India,
Indonesia, Nepal and the Philippines.
I
The PUECE Programme is a follow-on initiative to the February 1998 Asian Regional Meeting
on El Niiio
-related crises held by ADPC in collaboration with National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), the
US National Weather Service and partially funded by
USAIDJ ;
OFDA in February 1998. The goal of the Programme is to significantly improve the understanding
of the impact of extreme climate events such as
El
NiZo and La Niiia on the environment in 1
selected Asian countries. It also aims to reduce the disaster impact of such events through
effective application of climate forecast information. The Programme is currently operational 1
in Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam, and may expand to include Bangladesh and 'Thailand.
The
DANA programme, which started in the year
2000, aims to develop a standard methodology
\$nd protocol to assist disaster managers in the Asia and Pacific region with a view to assessing
and reporting on post
-disaster damages and needs. In doing so, disaster response will be
facilitated and coordinated through
the
opti~nisation of local and international resources. In time,
the DANA Programme is expected to expand to encompass the development of a standard.
methodology for the assessment of rehabilitation and reconstruction needs and the damaged
infrastructure. It will also look into the training programmes for rapid response teams, and planning
for post
-disaster needs.
Through the implementation of such
lnitigation programmes, disasters will have a far less
devastating impact throughout the Asia and pacific kgion. Ultimately, by strengthening regional,
national and local capabilities to respond to disasters, and by instituting appropriate diqaster
mitigation policies, .the region is likely to witness a reduction in loss of life and property. Iri
'addition, the international relief community would experience a drastic reduction in the cost it .'
bears to provide towards continual post -disaster assistance.
On the regional front, the United Nations Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(UNOCHA) has recently set
up a Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific in Bangkok,
Thailand.
UNDP's Regional Centre serving Asia and the Pacific is also located in Bangkok
along with the Regional Desk of International Secretariat for Disaster Reduction (ISDR -a UN
Secretariat). These countries in the region are pushing forward the agenda of the Hyogo
Framework of Action (2005
-2015) for integration of disaster risk reduction'considerations with
sustainable development policy, as well as planning and programming at all levels in order to
build resilient and strong communities. During the coming few years, Earth Observation and
Early Warning for Environment Team will continue to build on the existing strategic partnerships
as well as the new ones in Europe, the
U.S. and Southern Africa. It will concentrate on
developing:

71. Development of Physical and Ecorzomic Ir~fmstr-ucture 87
i) Novel methods for delivering rainfall estimation, soil moisture and crop infomation.to acadenlic,,
governmental and commercial end -users worldwide
ii) Improved and near -real time easly warning systems for better disaster management and recovery,
as
part of a systematic emphasis on disaster management within sustainable development
These objectives are to be achieved by deriving at soil and crop parameters, and mapping
vulnerability to fires, cyclones and floods etc. These could be realised by providing decision
support information systems based on synergistic use of 'high-resolution optical imagery',
'super-spectral very high
-resolution imagery', and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) system.
Ultimate goal is to develop local and field
-scale products that could be delivered where and
when
most needed. The research led by the Earth Observation and Early Warning team is a
significant component of the wide range
of activities that broadly call for better management
of environmental vulnerability through
a combination of enhanced management of resource
systems and better ~nanagenlent of livelihood assets.
The Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre
(IGCMC) was established by the World
Wild Life Fund
(WWF) India in 1994 as a major national facility, with a view of providing
information support to the governmental and non
-governmental programmes for environment
conservation in the country. The IGCMC provides relevant information to concerned governmental
agencies and
NGOs to assist in the iml~lementation of the Biodiversity Conventioil. This is
being achieved by developing and maintaining database on India's environment, especially
indigenous species 02 flora and fauna, habitats having conservation value including national
parks / other protected areas.
The Main Objectives of IGCMC are to:
Q Maintain information in the form of database on India's natural resources, especially its biological
diversity
e Gather, stol-e, retrieve and disseminate such information through a modern information management
system, and
Q Provide a link to other relevant organisations dealing with natural resources.
IGCMC endeavours to:
@ Build database on indicators of conservation status of species, ecosyste~ns and biodiversity
Support international conventions an wildlife conservation through data management and analysis
*
0 Ensure the application of remote sensing and GIs Techniques; and
Provide reliable, up
-to-date
itlformation for natural resources decision. - r
The IGCMC is extensively using remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems, about
which we have already read
in our earlier Units, for providing data
on habitats and ecosystems
in the country so that the requisite spatial information becomes available to resource managers
and planners. Similar work is being planned for wetlands, degraded forests and other important
ecosystems. State-of
-the art hardware and software facilities including image processing software
have been set
up at the Centre to take up the above mentioned activities.

72. 8 8 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
6.6 CONCLUSION
We can face disasters more resiliently if we have the infrastructure required for disaster
management in place. Infrastructural development is an integral part of disaster mitigation.
This Unit discussed the significance of developing adequate physical, economic and environmental
infrastructure for effective disaster mitigation. Some of the considerations in developing
infrastructure were also addressed. While discussing the need for infrastructure development
vis
-a-vis disaster management, the significance of disaster preparedness was brought out. The
role of community in the development and sustenance of infrastructure was also illustrated.
The Unit
made an attempt to hi ghlight the interconnection between disaster management,
infrastructure development as well as sustainable environment protection.
6.7 KEY CONCEPTS
Community-based Institutions (CBIs)
These could be considered as emerging third -sector institutions that have a potential to provide
a mechanism for self
-reliant approach to development. These are generally grass roots
organisations managed by members. They command confidence quite easily because people
feel that they belong to them and these institutions are responsive to their priorities. Indigenous
identity based on caste, ethnicity, clan, gender and age lays the foundation for many of these
organisations. Management of the common natural resources that are used by community
members is one of the key areas for which
CBIS are most concerned frequently. Now many
non-governmental organisations involved in rural development activities are also largely operating
through the CBIs.
El Nino
It is the disruption of the ocean -atmospheric system in the tropical -pacific having important
consequences for the weather and climate on the globe.
www.elnino.noaa.gov
Wyogo Framework for Action
The World Conference on Disaster Reduction was held from 18 to 22 January 2005 in Kobe,
Hyogo, Japan and adopted the present Framework for Action (2005
-2015) on Building the
Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters: The Conference provided
a unique
opportunity to promote a strategic and systematic approach to reducing risks and vulnerabilities
to hazards.
r
Kyoto Protocol
At the Earth Summit in 1992, the World agreed to prevent 'dangerous' climate change. The
first step was the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which has come into force in
2005. Kyoto Protocol
is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC),
an International Treaty on Global Warming. Countries, which ratify this Protocol, commit to
reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and other green houses gases such as
chloro-fluoro-
carbons. Around 180 countries are the signatories of Kyoto Protocol, which imposes cuts on
I
emissions in 2008 -2012.
I 1

73. Development of Physical and Economic Infrastrzicture 89
La Nina
It is characterised by unusually cold ocean temperatures, cooler than normal, in Equatorial
Pacific Ocean, as compared to El Nino.
Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone is a
form of oxygen, but unlike oxygen, it is a poisonous gas. The action of sunlight on
oxygen constantly produces small amounts of ozone in the stratosphere. At the same time,
ozone is being broken down by natural processes. Till now, the total amount of ozone has
usually stayed constant because its formation and destruction has occurred at about the same
rate. Human activity has recently changed that natural balance.
We are producing certain substances such as chloro -fluoro- carbons and hydro chloro-fluoro-
carbons at a rate, which is destroying the stratospheric ozone much faster than it is formed.
These ozone
-depleting substances are long -lived because it takes them several years to drift
up into the stratosphere. When they arrive, they are broken apart by exposure to ultraviolet
radiation and that releases the chlorine atoms.
The chlorine
atoms react with ozone to form
chlorine monoxide. These chlorine and bromine containing compounds are real ozone
-killers,
Sustainable Development
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) defines "sustainable
development as the Right to Development which must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet
development and environment needs of the present and future generations
"
UNCED's objectives
underline that in order to achieve sustainable development, environment protection shall constitute
an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
6.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Ananthakrishnan, G, 2005, "Alas! Our shrinking Wetlands?'in The Hindu, December 4.
Asian Development Bank Report, 1991, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and the Pacific ", ADB,
Manila.
~rown, Lester R et al., 1997, Vital Signs: The Environlnental Trends that are Shaping our
Future, Worldwatch Institute, USA.
Singh, Shekhar and P. Banerji (Eds.), 2002, Large Dams in India: Environmental, Social and
Economic Impacts,
Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi.
Sinha, U.P, 1985, Planned Development of Resocirces in a Developing Region: An
Economical and Geographical Analysis, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi.
World Development Report, 1992, "Development and the Environtnent ", Oxford University
Press, New York.
Websites:
www.ire.uni-Ereibur~.de/intro/about4 2005 .html

74. 90 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction a'nd Recovery
1) If possible, you along with other learners who are studying this Post Graduate Diploma Programme,
divide yourselves into two groups. (If you
do not know the other learners, then you may form two
groups with your friends
and colleagues). Allow each group to think of the infrastructure needs
of a community vulnerable to disasters.
2) On the basis of Activity One, prepare two separate lists and then make a comparative analysis of
the different infrastructure requirements mentioned in the two lists.
a
3) Take the case -of any recent disaster and try to pen down as many infrastructure needs as
possible, which if fulfilled,
have the potential of mitigating the adverse consequences of a disaster.

75. UNIT 7 CREATION OF LONG-TEM JOB
OPPORTUNITIES AND LIVELIHOOD
OPTIONS
Structure .
Learning Outcome
Introduction
Concept of Livelihood
Case Studies on Livelihood Opportunities
Livelihood Approach to Reconstruction
Livelihood Options: Challenges and Limitations
Conclusion
Key Concepts
References and Further Reading
Activities
7.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
e Understand the concept of livelihood
e Diqcuss the livelihood approach to reconstructi~ln
e Bring out the significance of livelihood perspective; and
e Examine the challenges and limitations underlying livelihood options.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
' The disaster-affected areas take a very long time to return to normalcy. There is a lot that
needs to be done beyond rescue, relief and reh,abilitation. A disaster management policy must
entail a long
-term livelihood generation and support strategy for effective employment creation.
New structures and processes that could generate
Ihelihood have to be created as well as
sustained. Creation of long-term opportunities of livelihood is a crucial step in building disaster
coping strategies.
This Unit discusses the concept of livelihood and its relevance to the approach of reconstruction.
It takes up a few Case Studies on livelihood opportunities
to examine the challenges and
limitations of livelihood options in the aftermath of disasters. There are some significant differences
in
the means of livelihood commonly seen between rural and urban areas, and also between
the men and
women in these areas. These factors are examined in context of their implications
for knvironment and disasters in this Unit. The brogd livelihood approach to reconstruction is
also highlighted.

76. 92 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
7.2 CONCEPT OF LIVELIHOOD
Livelihood and the available means of employment opportunities are significant issues even in
normal times. But these turn into more compelling needs in the face of natural or man -made
disasters. The literal meaning of livelihood is existence of employment, work opportunities or
occupation as a means
of support. This type of support refers to physical sustenance of
individuals' families and households. The livelihood approach is particularly linked with the
creation of sustainable environment;
In its emphasis on multi -sectoral coordination, the livelihood
approach advocates an increase in economic opportunities of work without degrading the
natural environment.
The varying nature of economies and the new trends in globalisation present some distinctive
features in the case of livelihood opportunities in the developing countries. Some of the contributing
factors such as uneven process of industrialisation, non
-availability of fertile land for cultivation
and process of environmental degradation create a complex scenario with regard to the linkages
between rural and urban economies, as well as amongst
the available livelihoods.
International Approaches to Livelihood
The operationalisation of sustainable livelihood is broadly manifested in two ways. The first is
as an analytical tool, applying a sustainable livelihood lens as a part of policy formulation and1
or programme planning process. This ensures that efforts, say to reduce poverty or promote
environmental conservation, recognise the linkages between development and environment; and
the effects of such linkages on the livelihoods of the poor. The
second is the manner in which
the approach of sustainable livelihood is used for the design and implementation of sustainable
livelihood programmes.
In this context, sustainable livelihood initiatives aim to strengthen one
or more aspects of a household's livelihood through distinct programme interventions
(e.g.,
provision of micro -finance), but does so in a consistent manner within an overall sustainable
livelihood framework. In essence,
a sustainable livelihood programme acts merely as a
demonstration of the approach. It is imperative to understand that this approach is adopted,
modified and tailored to the individual country's context.
The United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) has been at the forefront of employing
the sustainable livelihood approach. Different governmental ministries have come together to
discuss the pros and cons of using a sustainable livelihood lens for poverty reduction. Substantive
interaction among ministries has meant that actions at the local levels
(e.g., district, community)
are better coordinated and implemented. Moreover, by using a sustainable livelihood approach,
UNDP has managed to bring together a diverse set of actors (e.g., government, civil socikty,
donors and community-based organisations) that have traditionally operated in isolation from
each other.
Many other premier agencies are also striving to have a well
-rounded approach to development.
For instance, the Environment Strategy Document of the World Bank is a step in this direction.
The goal of the World
Bank's Environment Strategy is to promote environmental protection as
a fundamental element of development and poverty reduction strategies and actions. The World
Bank's Board of Executive Directors has endorsed an Environment Strategy on July 17, 2001.
I
The Strategy has three interrelated objectives:
i
e Improving the quality of life 1
j
e Enhancing the prospects of quality of social and economic growth; and 1
I 1
e Protecting the quality of the regional and global environmental commons.
I
i
i
F,

77. Creation of Long-term Job Opportunities nrzd Livelihood Optioizs
The Significance of the Livelihood Perspective
Some important approaches and steps underlying the livelihood perspective are:
s Rational and planned growth of agricultural, industrial and tertia~y or services sectors of the
economy
e Creation of employment opportunities
e Programmes for the youth, women and physically handicapped
o Alternative cropping patterns, irrigation and water harvesting techniques
a Social forestry
e Promotion of skilled labour b
Issues such as protection of the environment, pron~otion of developmental programmes, and
creation of employment opportunities are integral to any long -ten11 livelihood strategy. Sustainable
livelihoods are best created through planned use of locally available resources. If this is
ignored, plans ostensibly meant for economic development do not succeed. Livelihood initiatives
are required both in 'normal' times as well as at the time of disasters. Livelihood Options
Research
(LOR) Project in South Asia aims at creation of alternative livelihood generation. It:
e Applies participatory research tools and methodologies to the study of livelihood options
e Identifies gaps in institutional arrangements that largely neglect the livelihood options
o Criticises the existing disaster management approaches that do not include 'at -risk' communities
e Confirms the notion that there is a wide gap in our knowledge on risk and vulnerability in South,
Asia
e Maintains that there are lack of analytical concepts in addressing risks and vulnerability in South
Asia
e Appreciates indigenous coping systems and tracks down differential impact of disasters on different
vulnerable groups in different social settings
a Suggests ways of enhCmcing the knowledge base of various social determinants that multiply the
effects of natural hazards
e Concludes that natural hazards are not disasters. They become disasters only when 'at -risk'
communities are not able to fight the menace through their physical and social resilience (Bllatti,
2003).
The Cases given in the next Section of this Unit illustrate planning for sustainable livelihood
in normal times as in Himachal Pradesh, and the livelihood approach as it has been employed
in post
-earthquake Gujarat.
7.3 CASE STUDIES ON LIVELIHOOD OPPORTUNITIES
'
Governmental, non-governmental and people's initiatives in creation of livelihood options could
go a long way in developing sustainable development strategies for long
-term disaster mitigation.

78. 94 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
Let us now look at some Case Studies to further understand the crucial interlinkages in
development of livelihoods:
The Development of Economic Zone in Kullu District in
Hirnachal Pradcsh
The government's daily wages are important to people of this economic -zone, especially in the
absence of other employment opportunities. Though there is an extensive opportunity for daily
wage work
in this region, it is somehow only being selectively provided. The poor thus had
been finding it difficult to obtain work for any meaningful stretches of time until now. Women
had been largely engaged in nursery work while the bulk of other daily
wages work had been
going to the men.
After the eco
-zone initiative was taken up, it was agreed as a policy that in the eco-zone area
of great Himalayan National Park in Kullu, the first preference in daily wages work would be
given to the members of the Women Savings and Credit Groups. Over the last one year, this
decision has
helped'to provide several hundred man -days of work to group members in a
number of panchayats. Some
groups have agreed to save one third of their daily wages on a
regular basis. Such a step could greatly increase their collective and individual savings.
The success of vermin
-composting as an income generation activity
can be largely attributed
to the assurance given
by the National Park authorities to purchase the compost produced by
the groups. The local Forest Department too is a major buyer of vermin -compost
fro111 the
groups. The Forest Department uses vast quantities of manure in its nurseries every year.
A
policy decision to purchase vermin -compost produced by women's groups in the area could
give a big boost to this important livelihood opportunity in the years to come.
Livelihood Initiatives in Gujarat
After the earthquake, it was
,easy to measure the loss of life and property, but what emerged
as the most difficult task was rebuilding the livelihoods of the affected people. Most of the
waFer resources such as ponds, wells, check dams etc., were completely damaged. Storage
areas were lost and thus food grains became scarce. People lost their sources of income and
there seemed hardly any scope for retrieving the livelihood means. In addition, since most parts
of Gujarat have been prone to droughts, inappropriate models of agricultural development and
water management have already led to recession in ground water levels; salinity has increased
and desertification is on the rise.
Realising the need to rebuild capacities of the people in a manner that it reduces their vulnerability
to multihazard situations, the UNDP dovetailed rehabilitation programmes towards an integrated
livelihood approach. Immediately after the relief phase was over,
UNDP partnered with 'Abhiyan'
network
of
NGOs to repair the small water harvesting structures in Kutch District, which were
posing a threat to the village habitats in
the ensuing monsoon. Using assistance from the
Government of Italy,
34 water bodies (check dams, minor irrigation dams etc.) were repaired
or partly reconstructed in
Anjar, Bhachau, Rapar, Mundra, Bhuj, Abdasa and Mandvi Talukas
of Kutch District in the initial phase.
UNDP has also been supporting a Drought Proofing (through watershed development and eco
-
regeneration for vulnerability reduction) Project for the District of Kutch, with assistance from
the Government
of Netherlands. As a part of the Project, UNDP in association with the
Government of
Gujarat, Environmental Planning Collaborative (EPC) and Kutch 'Nav Nirrnan
Abhiyan' have set up a Kutch Ecological Fund (KEF). The Project aims at supporting and
facilitating the planning and implementation of initiatives towards long
-term recovery and drought
proofing of the region.
A Core Planning Team (CPT) has been set up to
operationalise the
KEF, which is headed by the Chief Relief Coordinator, Kutch Rehabilitation Programme.

79. Creation of Long -term Job Opportuizities and Livelihood Oprionv 9 5
A few research studies and village level consultations were conducted to arrive at income
equivalents of various entitlements and their coresponding occupations, which are specific to
the conditions in Kutch. These income equivalents were used against the household entitlements
to calculate annual household incomes. The incomes were compared with the vulnerability
categories developed again for specific drought conditions
in Kutch.
As a result, it
became possibIe to develop certain benchmarks. The advantage of this kind of
analysis, is that it helps in targeting interventions for drought proofing to the vulnerable households.
It furlher helps in designing the interventions to increase income-generating capacities of the
households (reflected by their portfolio of entitlements) to cope with drought conditions. Besides
formulating long-term strategies towards drought proofing, UNDP has been supporting 'Abhiyan'
in constructing and repairing dams and other water harvesting structures. A total of 30 rainwater-
harvesting structures have been planned for repair/ construction / renovation under this section
of the programme. These have been spread over the talukas of Abdasa, Anjar, Bhuj, Mandvi,
Mundra and Nakhatrana in the District of Kutch.
7.4 LIVELIHOOD APPROACH TO RECONSTRUCTION
The livelihood approach is significant even at the time of reconstruction and thus mention of
some of the instances from different countries are in place here. Let
us first take the case from
North Korea. After a series of meetings between World Vision and Floods
Darnage Rehabilitation
Committee, North Korea, it was agreed that World Vision should provide raw material to
produce noodles. As an experiment, a fjrst noodle factory was built in Pyong Won and the first
production of
1 ton of noodles started in
Decelnb,er 1996. It was followed by 50 -ton production
every month to feed 10,000 people
(4,500 children and 5,500 elderly) in the Pyong Won area.
Following the success
of the noodle factory
in Pyong Won, World Vision and Floods Damage
Rehabilitation Comn~ittee, North Korea, agreed to build 5 additional factories in other parts of
the country in October 1997. With the co~lstruction of G noodle factories during 1998, World
Vision's North Korea Programme has now developed into one of the most effective ueas of
their Relief Ministry. The distribution
of noodles is designated to nurseries, orphanages,
kindergartens, elderly care facilities, and
hospitals in the neighbouring areas of the factories and
distribution is made on daily basis to these recipients.
Another instance could be cited from the pastoralists around the world who, in general, are
quite vulnerable to disasters. These pastoralists (nomads and trans
-humants), as per the Food
and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO, 1987) constitute the majority of the inhabitants of arid,
semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas and their shelter needs have rareIy been considered by the
national policies. Predominantly smallholders, they are the first to suffer from severe winters
or reculrenl droughts. The small herders often lose all their reproductive stock during severe
drought. In order to understand the plight of the destitute pastoralists, one should observe the
following generalilies.
First, in spite of the noticeable increase in the number of livestock in the
dryland areas during
the last 30 years, the overall holding capacity of the grazing resources has remained unchanged.
The increase in livestock population has rarely been associated with improved range and
pasture productivity, but has mostly been induced by supplemental feeding using both local
(food crops and crop residues) and external resources (grain imported From high potential
areas). The use of suppleinental feeding, particularly subsidised food grains (e.g., in West Asia
and North Africa), has modified the traditional fluctuation in animal numbers during drought and
normal years and kept more animals on the range, thereby disturbing the natural balance and
intensifying the degradation process.

80. 9 6 Rehabilitation, Rrconstruction and Recovery
Second, it has been established that the range of productivity in the dry land areas is primarily
influenced by rainfall fluctuations and that severe multi
-year droughts are predominant causes
of the high rate of periodic losses in
animal numbers. There is much evidence that the people
most adversely affected by climatic changes are the smallholders. Thus, a systematic livelihood
approach should target the affected people
-shelterless, disadvantaged, tribals, poor as well as
livestock and physical infrastructure.
7.5 LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS: CHALLENGES AND
A fundamental issue before a livelihood approach is to ensure a means of employment and a
source of work. This has emerged as one of the most significant challenges to providing
livelihoods. There
is a rapid migration of large number of people from rural to urban areas,
which creates an imbalance in terms of the supply of and the demand for opportunities in the
urban areas, particularly where sufficient planning has not been undertaken. Similarly, the rural
econoiny is geared towards the changing demands in the context of large
-scale migration and
fragmented households where one or more members have emigrated. There are several
challenges to ensuring the livelihood of people in diverse geographical and socio
-cultural settings
in the face of emerging environmental trends as well as disaster situations. This Section looks
at some of these challenges.
The impact of disasters on life and property is increasing
by the day. During the
1990s, three
times
as many natural disasters have affected the communities. As a result, economic losses
due to natural disasters have increased tenfold. Much of this increase is due to a dangerous
combination of increasingly degraded natural environment and more and more populations
moving
into disaster-prone areas. Environmental degradation can be witnessed in the form of
acute climate changes, deforestation, desertification, salanisation of soil, as
well as polluted air
and water bodies.
USAID/OFDA and other members of the disaster relief community continue to face miijjor
challenges posed by the significant increase in worldwide disasters, These challenges demand
stsonger links between relief and development in an effort to prevent and reduce the impact
of natural disasters on land and communities. USAIDIOFDA has been working toward a
greater capacity and resourcef~~lness in responding to and mitigating these impacts by combining
disaster reduction and prevention programmes. Efforts have also been made to establish linkages
with other
US agencies and international institutions for strengthening its internal capacity
for response.
An important factor precipitating environmental degradation is global population growth in the
context of
dire poverty. Much of the world's population growth is concentrated in urban areas,
where half of the world's six billion people now live. According to
a recent Population Institute
Reporl, this proportion is continuously growing at a rapid pace. Much of this urban growth is
neither planned nor regulated.
In some of the world's largest cities, according to United Nations
Environment Programme
(UNEP), around 30 per cent to 60 per cent
of the urban population
lives in unauthorised settlements and shanty colonies.
The lack of socio
-economic opportunities in rural areas is one of the factors that has pushed
populations into cities. These migrants settle in vulnerable but affordable sites. These are
generally precarious urban locations on the least desirable land. This land
is often most prone
to hazards, such as landslides, floods or fires. The population
cramped in these areas can
destroy the land's natural resilience, thereby rn'king it even more irulnerable. Unauthorised
settlements
are characterised by inadequate construction, poor or non -existent sanitation and
high concentration of people, all of which greatly increase vulnerability to disasters, as

81. Creation of Long-term Job Opportunities and Livelihood Options 97
I
demonstrated vividly during 1998 Hurricane Mitch and the 1999 Venezuela Floods. The vulnerable
conditions of New Orleans that became obvious in the aftermath 'of Hurricanes Katrina and
Rita are also too stark to ignore.
Deforestation is one of the most visible signs of environmental degradation. According to the
UNEP, half of the world's forests are located in the developing countries; and during the 20th
century, forested areas in these countries have been halved. Deforestation on hillsides often
leads to soil erosion, landslides and increased
iisk of flooding as water runs off slopes rather
than being absorbed. A reduction in the absorptive capacity of soil contributes to ground water
resource depletion. If groundwater reserves are depleted, it can take hundreds of years for
them to be replenished; if groundwater is used beyond the replenishment rate, it becomes, in
effect, a non
-renewable resource.
In arid regions, which cover some
40 per cent of the Earth's land surface, a wanner Earth
and increased pressure due to human activities could only accelerate desertification. Salinisation
also is a common problem that affects soil quality in arid regions, as salts accumulate in the
upper soil layers over time, often exacerbated
by irrigation with poor
y uality water and inadequate
drainage. Both desertification and salinisation can render soil useless for grazing or agl-icultural
production, leading to the displacement of populations away from the region. When drought
strikes, traditional agricultural coping methods to meet poor rainfall may no longer be adequate
to deal with these new challenges. a
There is a growing evidence that the Earth's climate is getting warmer at a faster pace. The
UN Report on Climate Change concluded that the Earth's average temperature may rise by
as much as 10 degrees Fahrenheit during the next
100 years. Effects that may flow from this
type of global warming include the weather that is increasingly volatile,
storms that are more
frequent and intense, and changing rainfall distribution patterns that inundate some areas while
leaving out others to suffer drought conditions of unprecedented intensity. And these are only
the short
-term effects. Global warming
.may be expected to have longer-terii effects as well.
The glaciers may melt and areas covered by permafrost may shrink, sea levels ~riay rise, ocean
currents may change, and warm climate diseases such as malaria and cholera may spread to
new areas. Millions and millions of people could be displaced, as low
-lying coastal areas get
inundated by rising sea levels.
When environmental degradation leads to a scarcity of basic resources, such
as food and
potable water, social tensions and conflict may
arise either between or within the states.
Territorial rights to bodies of water shared across boundaries are an increasingly contentious
issue. Furthermore, environmental degradation has
the potential to
prol~el large-scale population
displacement, as land becomes unusable or climate
-related disasters drive people out of their
homes, just as drought conditions have precipitated an exodus from Afghanistan. Migrations
may lead to tensions between migrants and host
commnunities, particularly if resources are also
scarce in the host area. Since there are a complex variety of factors that drive these conflicts,
it is difficult to determine the role that the environmental factors usually play in these conflicts.
Solutions to such complex problems is not easy. Balanced rural development is a way, out.
Everyone agrees with the concept of thriving rural comlnunities that maintain healthy landscapes
and clean water. However, in many communities this kind of vision is not being created,
Sometimes, it is due to lack of knowledge or callous actions on the part of the administration,
but more frequently it is due to economic forces that are
much
larger than the confines of the
community.
Watershed partnerships are developing across the country that may bring the decision-making '
power back to the local level. Such initiatives have been successful and have got beyond finger

82. 9 8 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
pbinting. They have created working relationships between diverse stakeholders. Only with this
: network of support can farmers and other landowners produce benefits that could be recognised
in the global economic system.
I
Environmental problems have to be solved cautiously. Take for instance, the case of Minnesota,
USA. It is now widely recognised that fires play an important role in forest ecosystems.
Minnesota's jack pine has fire resistant bark and cones that are closed tightly by a thick resin.
During a fire the resin melts, releasing the seeds. Without fire, jack pine cannot regenerate
naturally. Although the importance of fire to forests is being acknowledged, its reintroduction
is a complicated process due to the risks involved for the humans and the forests themselves.
After so much fire suppression, a great deal
of fuel (dead branches, logs, leaves) has built up
on the forest floor. This amount of fuel allows fires to burn hotter and more intensely than
forests are adapted to. This can lead to the death of all trees and plants in
the area - not the
normal result of a wildfire. In other words, fires can be good for forests, but not the kind of
fires created by years of fire suppression.
Determining
how to reincorporate uses of fire safely into forest ecosystems is just one of the
many challenges facing sustainable forest management. Thus, environment management is the
most crucial challenge before an effective livelihood programme. Creation
of livelihood options
is interlinked with environmental preservation. It is thus clear that long
-term livelihood opportunities
cannot be created in degraded environmental conditions.
7.6 CONCLUSION
,J . B * ' .
:
- -
Creation of livelihood options as a significant vulnerability reduction approach could be used ik.:
the context of development in general and disaster prevention and management in particular.
The coordination of different sectors and agencies is crucial to this approach. UNDP has been
.
playing an important role in creation of livelihood options. This Unit discussed some of the
issues involved in the creation of livelihood options in dealing with the challenges underlying the
livelihood approaches,
It brought out the interlinkages between environmental conservation 'and
creation of livelihood options through some
Case Studies from Himachal Pradesh and
Gujarat
in India and Minnesota in the US. These Cases focused on the manner in which the livelihood
means and economic oppoltunities need to be planned keeping in the &nd the natural environment
and prevailing socio
-cultural practices.
7.7
KEY CONCEPTS
Deforestation
The process of continuous felling of trees and other plantation in the forests due to man -made
and natural seasons is called deforestation. It is usually defined as the loss of forestry. Food
and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO) defines deforestation as converting forests to another land
use.
It results in many negative consequences. Forest conversation for permanent pasture,
shifting cultivation, urban area expansion, overgrazing etc., all cause deforestation.
The process of deforestation could cause the climate to become more extreme in nature, and
the occurrence and strength of floods and droughts could also increase. I1 is projected that
deforestation and the burning
of biomass will be responsible for 15 per cent of the green house
effect between
1990 and 2025. Deforestation permanently destroys the biodiversity that a
forest contains, and a degraded forest may not be able to support species adapted to the
specialised conditions.
<
- - -- - . ---
*- - --

83. Creation of Long-term Job Opportunities and Livelihood Optioizs
Desertification
Desertification is becoming a major problem as more and more of the world's land surface is
turning lnto a daesert. The new deserts, which are being created, are not necessarily hot, dry,
sandy places, but are those areas where humans have mistreated the soil and rendered the land
useless for agricultural purposes. Soils, in any case are ruined easily in areas where seasonal
rainfall is unreliable. Cutting down of forests and trees, over-cultivation of soil and overgrazing
leads to desertification.
Global
Warming
-.
The earth is getting warmer by the day. Human activities as well as natural processes have
precipitated the rate of global warning by producing certain green house gases such as carbon
dioxide, methane and chloro-fluoro- carbons into the atmosphere. It is the people also who are
causing the change in
the climate by burning nature's vast stores of coal, oil and natural gas. Soine studies suggest that ultraviolet rays may also be causing global warming. Mountain
glaciers the world over are receding, the Arctic Ice Pack has lost a large percentage of
thickness, and global sea level has risen about three times faster over the past 100 years. The
plants and animals are also changing behaviour in response to the shifts in the climate. Clearly,
global warming is a problem. It will take the government, industry, communities and individuals
to come together in order to make a real difference to alter this process.
Social
Forestry
The National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India, first used the term 'Social
,
Forestry"in 1976. It was the time when India decided to go in for a Social Forestry Project
to take the pressure off the forests and make use of all the unused and fallow land. The Project
aims at raising plantations by the coinlnon man so as to meet the growing demand for timber,
fuel wood, fodder etc., thereby reducing the pressure on the traditional forest area. It involves
community participation as a part of a drive towards afforestation and rehabilitation of the
degraded forest and common lands in order to meet the fuel wood demands. Social Forestry
scheme comprises various sub-schemes such as farm forestry, community forestry, extension
forestry and agro-forestry.
Watershed
We all live in a vast
w%tershed, as we all contribute to the health of the lakes, rivers and
groundwater in our watershed and beyond.
A watershed is the area across or under which
water flows on its way to lakes, rivers, streams and ground. Any area of land is
made up of
overlapping basins. Water flows to the lowest point in each of these basins
- usually a lake,
stream, pond or river.
his basin is a watershed, and can come in many different shapes and
sizes. The Mississippi River Watershed, for example, is composed of hundreds of smaller watersheds.
7.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Allaby, Michael, 1996, Basics of En.vironmenta1 Science, Routledge, London.
Bhatti, Amjad, 2003, "Disaster Risk Reduction and Disaster Policy" in Pardeep Sahni and
Madhavi Malalgoda Aryabandu (Eds.), Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia, Prentice-Hall
of India, New Delhi.
Blunden, John et al., (Ed.), 1978, Fundamentals of Huinan Geography: A Render, Harper
I and Row Publishers, London.

84. 100 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
Brown, Lester R et nl., Vital Signs, Tlze Enviroiznzental Trends that are Slzapirzg our
Future, Worldwatch Institute, USA.
Doo~nbos, Martin et al. (Eds.), 2000, Forests, Nature, People, Powel; Blaclwell Publishers, London.
Khatum, Hafiza, 2003, "Livelihood Strategies in Disaster Risk Reduction in Bangladesh " in
Pardeep ~ahni and Madhavi Malalgoda Aryabandu (Eds.), ap.cit.
Riitta, Tiia (Ed.), 1999, Managiizg tlze Globalised Environment: Local Strategies to Secure
Liveliizood, IT Publications, London.
Sinha, U.P, 1985, Planned Developnzent of Resources in a Developing Region: Alz Economic
and Geographical Analysis, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi.
1) Enumerate different ways in which the community could be involved in planning for livelihood
options that
are relevant and sustainable.
2) Prepare a list of the
major challenges underlying the provision of livelihoods and economic
oppoitunities in the present times.
2) On the basis of Activity Two, compile your points and then write a note on the ways to overconle
these challenges.

85. UNIT 8 FUNDING ARRANGEMENTS FOR
RECONSTRUCTION
Structure
8.0 Learning Outcome
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Reconstruction Requirements
8.3 Funding Arrangements
8.3.1 Calamity Relief Fund
8.3.2 Natural Calamity Contingency Fund
8.3.3 MPLADS
8.3.4 Prime Minister's National Relief
Fund 8.3.5 Insurance Schemes
8.3.6 District Level Funds
8.4 Fiscal Discipline
8.5 Role of International Donor Agencies
8.5.1 International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank
. 8.5.2 United Nations
8.5.3 Asian Developlnent Bank
8.5.4 Bilateral and Multilateral Donor Agencies
8.6 Mobilisation of Community for Resource Generation
8.8 Key Concepts
8.9 References and Further Reading
8.10 Activities
8.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
i
5
li
.
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
0 Understand the requirements of recoi~struction and its significance in post-disaster phase
@ Discuss the nature of funding for reconstruction
m Get an overview of issues and challenges associated with funding by intelnational agencies; and
8 Tlirow light on the role of com~nunity in reconstruction and resource rnobilisation.
8.1. INTRODUCTION
Reconstruction is the core concern in the disaster aftermath. A systematic and well -designed
reconstruction package requires enormous financial support and resources from the governmental,

86. 102 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
non-governmental and international agencies. This Unit focuses on reconstruction, particularly
from the point of view of funding arrangements. It throws light on the limited extent of
resources available for reconstruction, and the different ways of resource generation. The Unit
exanlines the major processes and considerations involved in funding for reconstruction. It also
looks at the funding and resource arrangements at the national and international levels. In this
context, it highlights the way disaster management projects are funded at'different levels, and
discusses the role of the community, which is of great significance in ensuring accountability
of the agencies involved in funding.
8.2 RECONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
The common characteristics of the disaster -affected site are: a sudden and violent disruption
of the social system caused by the disaster aftermath, large number of distressed people in
need for
basi~ life support components such as food, clothes, shelter, medicine, etc., severe
shortages of relie5 material and medical aid; and medium and long-term repair of physical,
social and economic damage. The reconstruction efforts aim at restoriiig the affected structures
to a condition equal to or better than what existed before the disaster. They also aim at
construction of permanent housing and full restoration of basic services. The concern with
reconstruction is central to developing nations where disasters are common occurrences and
resources available to withstand them are alwa'ys limited. Some important questions in this
regard relate to:
e Conditions wherein development in general is rather neglected, disasters only aggravate the
woes.
The
rqconstt-uction process needs to take into account the generation of resources and
address some tHe fundamental development concerns
--
a Mobilisation of resources; and
o Equitable utilisation of resources for reconstruction,
In countries wherein a balanced and just pattern
of development is generally neglected, disasters
only worsen the situation.
In these cases, the reconstruction process needs to address some
of the development concerns.
A
national/local disaster could have political, economic or natural
causes. Such a disaster has immediate effects on food and nutrition, and
if it is a slow-onset
disaster, there
- can be long-term effects on the population, as the toll would be higher on the
social and economic system.
To assess the potential immediate and long
-term effects of a disaster, both quantitative and
qualitative data, as well as an assessment of the likely duration of the disaster
are needed. The
quantitative data would include the number and characteristics of the people affected as well
as the size of the disaster
-affected area, Qualitative data would include assessment of the
severity and nature
of disruption to services and supplies, and also the likely (and actual) type
of injuries to humans and livestock. These would then be combined with the assessment of
he -
duration and the scope of a disaster.
j
One of the most important components of reconstruction is that of infrastructure development.
An important step towards the reconstruction of infrastructure is the 'feasibility study'. The
basic objective of a 'feasibility study' is to generate the data necessary to have a complete plan
for reconstruction vis-2-vis its economic viability. It also helps to complete the application of
formalities for construction grant for an 'infrastructure rehabilitation programme' after any
disaster or even in normal times.
A 'feasibility study', for example,
may be conducted for improving thl water supply system
i
:
t

87. Funding Arrangements for Reconstruction 103
in an urban area. Eligible feasibility studies include studies of proposed projects that replace,
rehabilitate or restore existing damaged water distribution systems that deliver water for domestic,
municipal or industrial uses. Eligible components may include pipelines, tanks, pump stations,
valves, flow meters, and all other water delivery facilities. Eligible feasibility studies may also
include studies of proposed projects that replace failing water distribution system components,
, such as tanks or pump stations, which threaten the health, safety, welfare and economy of the
area relying on the system. These failing components need not be in
a position of
disrepair:
However, the applicant must provide documentation of the component's potential for failure.
There are some special considerations in the case of a long
-term disaster, as in such a situation,
nutritional surveillance of the population is very important. Again, water and food are important,
and as there
may be a long duratidn of reliance on food relief, it is important for this food to
be acceptable culturally. The priority is the food and not the nutrients. There may be a need
for nutrient supplements, and requirements for certain nutrients may be increased due to the
effects of malnutrition. However, the food should be what the victims are used to eating.
It
should be
as' p$r the climatic and cultural conditions of the affected areas.
- -+:.;>
In slow-onset' diitisters, the priority groups for food distribution are the same as those for
cataclysmic disasters, plus~w'~pecial consideration for health and nutrition needs to be paid in this
regard, The treatment of lnalnutiition and associated secondary diseases as well as social and *
econoinic rehabilitation are the priolity areas. Taking into account the perception of the affected
community also becomes important for launching specific reconstri~ction projects/ programmes.
Usually, people are sentimentally attached to the land whcre they stay and therefore havc
preferences fof design, layout, use of material and technology in reconstruction.
Though the issue of reconstn~ction and the allied problenls and challenges is the pertinent
theme all through this Course, a mention of reconstruction requirements is made in this Unit
in order to understand the financial aspects of these requirements. Where does the lnoney
come to finance these disaster management or reconstruction schemes? How does the
governmental finance ~nobilisation generation set-up operate? What types of agencies are
involved in funding for disaster reconstruction etc? We will now draw our attention to these queries.
8.3 FUNDING ARRANGEMENTS
Government at the central as well as state levels have specific schemes
/ strategies for
providing funds for disaster management activities, be it relief, rehabilitation or reconstruction.
The Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) is one such arrangement at the central level. Even though,
the disbursement by the CRF is meant to supplement relief funds, a sizeable portion is earmarked
for all phases of disaster management pertaining to six natural cala~nities namely, cyclone,
drought, earthquake, flood, fire and hailstorm. Other financial arrangements include ~ational
Calamity contingency Fund, Prime Minister's Relief Fund, and National Fund for Calamity
Relief etc. Let us now take a look at these arangements:
8.3.1 Calamity Relief Fund
The Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) is a centrally sponsored scheme of. the Government of India.
The central government plans and approves every centrally sponsored scheme relating to
investment or disbursement of funds in identified sectors in the states in order to achieve
defined objectives. Ministry of Home Affairs of Union Government is the nodal authority for
this scheme. The implementation, however, remains with the respective state governments.
I
The funding pattern of the CRF, as envisaged by the Ninth Finance Commission, ever since
its inception in
1990-91, has been dependent on the central government. Every year,
centsal

88. 104 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recove?
government contributes 75 per cent of the funds for a state and the rest 25 per cent comes
from the respective state governments. One of the most significant features of the CRF
scheme is that the funds are to be used for meeting expenditure for the provision of immediate
relief to the affected population, and the nature of expenditure should be of a short duration.
Ln India, the Centre's share of CRF released in 2002 -03 was Rs. 1,600 Crores, in 2003-04 it
was Rs. 1,700 crores, and in 2004-05, it became Rs. 1,787 crores. The funds released from
National Calamity Contingency (NCCF) Fund for 3 years were to the tune of Rs. 5,800 crores.
Additional financial assistance is provided from the NCCF in the wake of calamity of severe
nature (Parsai, 2005).
The main objectives of tlie CRF Scheme are to:
o Enable the states to incur requisite levels of expenditure on calamity relief
e Avoid delays in a state government's response to the damage caused by a natural calamity
e Discourage the states from inflating their demands for funds regarding relief
e Ensure against wasteful expenditure by the states
@ Provide greater autonomy and responsibility to the states in relief operations; and
-,
e Make the states more accountable for their actions in the area of calamity relief.
The CRF has been functioning well but for certain drawbacks that have been pointed out
by
the Draft Report on "Natural Disasters and Relief Provisions in India: Commitments and .
Ground Realities". As per the Report, one of the major problems with the CRF scheme is the
lopsided method of determination of the
CRF's size for different states. The allocations of the
CW's share to the stales (during 2000 -01 to 2004-05) by the Eleventh Finance Commission
(EFC) have been made, based on the ability of the states to spend the amount allocated to
them. As it emerges from the analysis
of the allocation, better-off states, which have incurred
higher expenditure in the past, have been given higher allocations
by the EFC. Yet, the increased
allocations have not been
able to
empowcr the states to carry out effective relief operations.
Moreover, the
CRF is limited to only six natural disasters. As per the Draft Report, the
damages caused by other natural calamities such as heat wave, cold wave, landslides, avalanches
and high tides every now and then cannot be ignored. There is a need to increase the quantum
of allocation for relief work as well as reconstruction
and rehabilitation. A part of the blame
for deficiency of relief activities also, however, falls on the states.
If the CRF is to play an
' effective role, it shonld, be vested with responsibilities for relief in a larger sense by including
measures for enabling the affected population, especially those living below the poverty line to
regain normalcy.
I
j
The CRF should try to strengthen the access to livelihood, rehabilitate the entire affected I
population and provide for assistance to the economically backward states for repairs of public
j
properties and buildings in the calamity-affected areas. The states need to be much more I
responsible in using the CRF money for tlze intended purposes. The method of determination
i
I
of the quantum of the CRF for a state should take into account the vulnerability of a state to
I
i
natural calamities, the magnitude of loss caused by calamities in the recent past, and the
.
I
frequency of natural calamities in a state. 1 i
i
The formula for contribution to the CW, which at present is 75:25 for the Centre and every
i
1
state, needs to be.changed keeping in mind the varying abilities of the different state governments j

89. Funding Arrangements for Reconstruction 105
to spend money on relief. A quantum raise in the allocations combined with more realistic and
just distribution of the funds among the states would be worthwhile. Civil society organisations
need to monitor relief work. The result of the assessment made by such groups should have
a bearing on the allocation as well as release of funds to the states in the subsequent years.
Before moving on to other funding alrangements, let us take a look at the funding mechanism
that existed prior to the establishment of the CRF:
e Margin Money Scheme
The Second Finance Commission, while estimating the state's committed expenditure (for the
5 years of its recommendation period of 1955-56 to 1959-60) included in their annual revenue
a margin for enabling the states to set apart sizeable sums of money for accumulation in a fund
for meeting expenditure necessitated by natural calamities. This Scheme was later named Lhe
'Margin Money Scheme'. State government had to set up separate funds and transfer the
amounts calculated for each of them to such funds annually. The Margin Money Scheme was
in operation all through the recommendations of Second to Eighth Finance Commissions.
, The amount of assistance given from the Centre, under the Margin Money Scheme, was
always far short of what the state governments actually needed. Therefore, during the occurrence
of natural calamities, the state governments used to approach the Centre with a claim for
immediate financial assistance for meeting the relief expenditure. At that time, the assistance
amount from the Centre was determined on the basis of the assessment of damage in the
affected area by the central team.
In comparison to the Margin Money Scheme, the states under the CRF now get a higher
asiistance from the central government for relief expenditure, and the response of the state
governments to natural calamities can be quicker than before. The CRF Scheme does give
greater autonomy and responsibility to the state governlnent along with the increase in
accountability for their disaster response activities. Thus, CRF scheme is definitely an
,inlprovement over the Margin Money Scheme.
e National Fund for Calamity Relief
The Tenth Finance Commission considered the issue of a calamity of 'rare severity'. It stated
that
a calamity of rare
sevelity would be adjudged on a case-to-case basis taking into account
the intensity and magnitude of the calamity, level of relief assistance required, capacity of the
recipient state to tackle the problem, as well as the alternatives and flexibility available within
the plans to prbvide relief. Once a calamity is deemed to be of rare severity, it really ought
to be dealt with as a national calamity requiring assistance beyond what
is envisaged in
tlie
CRF Scheme.
The Tenth Finance Commission placed the urge for national solidarity in a moment of distress
on a more formal basis. The National Fund for Calamity Relief (NFCR) was to be managed
by a National Calamity Relief Committee, which would have representatives fronz the Centre
as well as the states. At the national level, it was to be managed by
a sub-committee of the ~ahonal Development Council. The Committee, the Finance Commission recommended, would
?be headed by the Union Minister of Agriculttire comprising of Deputy Chairman of Planning
' Cbmnission, two Union Ministers and five Chief Ministers to be nominated by the Prime
Minister annually by rotation. The Eleventh Finance Commission (EFC), on the recom~nendation
1 of the Ministry of Agriculture, discontinued the NFCR in its present form as it thought it had
: eroded the discipline and economy in expenditure.
The EFC noted that the anticipation and provision for a calamity of rare severity in terms of
intensity and magnitude, prior to its happening, was impossible through the CRF or regular

90. 106 Rehnbilitcltion, Reconstruction and Recovery
budgetary mechanism. It was of the opinion that it is difficult to pre -determine the extent of
funds required to meet a severe calamity; additional financial support from the central government
becomes necessary for such severe calamities. ~ssessmknt of damage could be undertaken
by an independent body of experts. For this pulpose, it recommended the establishment of a
National Centre for Calamity Management (NCCM) for monitoring the natural calamities. The
NCCM was assigned the task to assess whether the state will be in a position to provide relief
in a specific case of calamity of severe nature from the CRF and its other resources. It spoke
of crediting the surcharge collections to a separate fund known as the National Calamity
Contingency Fund
(NCCF).
8.3.2 Natural Calamity Contingency
Fund
b
Another Scheme interlinked with CRF is thus that of Natural Calamity Contingency Fund
(NCCF). As we mentioned, the central government set up the NCCF as per the reco~nmendations
of the Eleventh Finance Commission, replacing National Fund for Calamity Relief that existed
for
5 years (between 1995 and 2000). The NCCF is a central government
find maintained for
providing additional grant for incyrring expenditure on relief in excess of the Centre's coiltribution
from the CRF to that state. Such assistance is considered by the central government only when
the.natura1 calamity is of rare severity. The expenditure on a calamity relief is to be incurred
as per the approved items and norms
of assistance from
CRF/NCCF schemes. In case, any
state government exceeds the amount prescribed, as per the approved norms of'assistance, the
excess expenditure is to be borne from the normal budget of the concerned state government
and not from the CFWNCCF.
8.3.3 MPLADS
Another funding arrangement called the Members of Parliament Local Area Development
Scheme (MPLADS) was started in December 1993. Under the Scheme, MPs are allotted
funds annually to pursue development works in their constituencies. Each
MP gives a choice
of works, to be undertaken in
hisker constituency to the concerned District Heads, who get
them implemented by following the established procedures laid down in the guidelines for the
improvement of their districts under
MPLADS.
Implementing agencies can either be
the government bodies or Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PHs) or any other reputed NGOs that are capable of implementing the works satisfactorily.
Even though, the Scheme has a lot of potential,
as funds to the tune of
Rs.2 crores are
earmarked per constituency, the Reports of Planning Commission and the Coinptroller and
Auditor General have brought out several analllolies such as overlapping of works, regional
imbalances and misutilisation of funds. At the level of administration, some mechanism should
be evolved
so that provision of financial sanction and the administration of project can be
managed
at one place. This will not only ensure control over accounts, but shall also lead to
speedy implementation of the projects.
There should be consistency in the provisions. Prompt action should be taken against District
Collectors
who fail to
obtain utilisation certificate for each sanctioned instalment. There is no
hann if a particular project meant for calamity preparedness is financed from MPLADS funds
and the labourlsalary component of the project is provided from CRF or any other Scheme.
This may provide enough funds to create durable assets for disaster mitigation and preparedness
without compromising on quality.
21.3.4 Prime Minister's National Relief Fund
The Prime Minister's National Relief Fund, created shortly after independence, provides

91. Funding Arrangements for Reconstruction 107
immediate relief to people in distress. The Fund depends entirely on voluntary donations received
from the public. The Fund renders assistance to individuals facing disaster situations. Its
resources are utilised for the provision of immediate relief to the families of those killed in
natural calamities like floods, cyclones and earthquakes.
It also grants assistance to families
affected by major disturbances, riots and accidents. Besides, the Fund extends assistance to
ailing persons in order to partially defray the cost of expensive medical treatment. Over the
years,
lakhs of calamity-affected people have received assistance from this Fund. Apart from
this, there are Chief Minister's Public Relief Fund and Chief Minister's Disasters Relief Fund in
different states that are utilised Eqr fullding of disaster management works.
8.3.5 Insurance Schemes
Insurance is an important risk management technique.'Insurance provisions are very crucial to
meet the losses in the aftermath of disasters. The insurance cover, however, cannot be regarded
as a funding arrangement for disasters. Nevertheless it does act as
a funding source to meet
the exigencies caused by a calamity. We need an insurance system that
co~nlnon people,
especially the rural poor could afford. There is a need for an insurance scheme that compensates
for catastrophic income losses and is easily implemented.
The Eleventh Finance Commission noted that schemes such as crop insu'rance could help
individual farmers to recoup their losses better. Insurance brings quality consciousness in the
infrastructure and also a culture of safety. It insists on following building codes, norms, guidelines,
quality material in construction etc. It also enforces safety standards by bringing about
accountability. In the developing countries, the coverage of insurance sector is less due to
information failure, market lapses, low awareness levels, acute poverty, insufficient purchasing
power, lack of interest in reaching out to the vulnerable groups, as well as public apathy to
educate itself about the true risks posed by natural hazards. One major difficulty in promoting
disaster insurance is that those who are at highest risk have the least capacity to pay the
premium toward insurance.
Disaster insurance can also be possible through, a system of micro -finance. Many Micro-
finance Organisations (MFOs) are now working in disaster
-prone areas. The success of MFO
I
services following a disaster depends on timeliness and ability of the MFOs to coordinate relief
organisations depending on the terms and conditions of the loans. Such MFOs are playing a
significant role in many countries e.g., Bangladesh, There are also various 'Catastrophe Funds'
in different countries to meet the financial burden of ^disasters. The insurance agency may
promote a community rating system to encourage communities to
go beyond the required
standards of minimum safety. The incentives could be a reduction in insurance premium for
policyholders within cominunities that
tdce appropriate actions to red~lce disaster losses. Let us
look at the different types of insurance schemes on offer in India and other countries:
e Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
This Scheme was launched in India on April 1, 1999. It aims at establishing a large number
of micro-enterprises in rural! areas, building upon the potential of the rural poor. The Scheme
is yet to meet the objectives it had set for itself due to lack of awareness
on the part on
villagers
and lack of will on the part of district administration.
e National Agricultural Insurance Scheme
_,This Scheme is available to all farmers-loanees and non-loanees, irrespective of the size of
their holdings. It envisages coverage of all food crops and aims at providing insurance coverage
.
- asid financial support to the farmers in the event of a failure of any of the notified crops as
a result of natural calamities, pests and diseases: he Scheme encourages the farmers to adopt

92. 108 Rehabilitatiort, Reconsfructiun nnd Recovery
progressive farming practices, high value inputs and higher technology in agriculture. These
types of Schemes, if promoted by the government, could help in stabilising farm incomes,
particularly in disaster years.
Seed Crop Insurance
A pilot scheme of Seed Crop Insurance has been launched to cover the risk factor
i~ivolved
in production of seeds. The Scheme is yet to be implemented on a wider scale. The High
Powered ~oln&ittee (HPC) observed that grameen cattle and crop insurance are limited, ad
hoe and scattered in scale, which needs to be corrected.
Kisan Credit Card
A record number of 5,939,318 Kisan Credit Cards have been issued till March 2000, providing
flexibility and security in the flow of agriculture credit system. The Credit Card. Scheme has
benefitted
a large number of farmers, but more awareness generation is required to promote
the Scheme.
b
e SEWA Insurance
A cooperative group, Self -Employed Women's Association (SEWA) started its own Insurance
Unit called Vimo
SEWA, which insures women for life, health, assets, widowhood and accidents.
The Scheme is a huge success in most parts of Gujarat.
0 Insurance Pools
An often-used concept in natural disaster insurance schemes is the insurance pool, whicl~
involves every company to participate in disaster losses in proportion to ils market share in
premiums. This concept ensures that coinpanies avoid being too badly hit or even going
bankrupt because of
a disproportionately high loss burden from specific events. Such pools are
operational in Switzerland, France and Spain and are sometimes supported by the State
reinsurance.
They are also being considered in several other countries in Europe, Latin
America
and Asia. The Turkish Catastrophe Insurance Pool represents an innovative concept for a less
developed market
place where code enforcement is to be linked to the availability of insurance
protection
andlor governmental disaster assistance. There is also a National Disaster Insurance
Scheme in Honduras, which addresses low
-cost housing, public insurance and crop insurance.
There is
a need to create awareness on insurance schemes. Hazards should be announced,
notified and publicly displayed so that people could be dissuaded from settling down
in vulnerable
areas and insurance needs to
be made mandatory in disaster -prone areas. Premiums can be
charged on the basis of intensity of risk involved. Since
many areas are inultihazard-prone,
there should be conducive insurance provisions. Incentives need to be provided to insurers
who
have followed building codes and other prescribed guidelines prevailing in the area. The services
of panchayats, local bodies, cooperative banks, and post offices could be used
by insurance
agencies.
Government should also make provisions to incorporate identity cards, insurance policy
number
etc., to create awareness and also facilitate insurance -oriented information. The landless,
shelterless, assetless and underprivileged people need to be insured by the govel-nlnent on a
' tapering basis. It should be ensured that there ire policies for personal property as well as
'disaster
-oriented schemes. comprehensive Insurance Policy for covering all types of man -
made disasters must also be brought into place.

93. Funding Arraizgeinents for Reconstruction
8.3.6 District Level Funds
HPC recommended that there is a need for institutionalising a District Relief Fund at the
district level, based on the principles of CRF so that there is a ready availability of funds. The
District Level Relief Conilnittee under the chairmanship of the District Collector wo~~ld evolve
the guidelilles and nonns for expenditure going into the district level funds. At least fifty per
cent of the contribution to the funds could come from the public. In view of the fact that the
Eleventh Finance Commission did not recommend the creation of District Level
CRF or
contribution thereto
from State CW, the High Powered Committee or the HPC (2001) felt that
the Fund could be entirely created out of public contribution and donations. To take account
of disaster ~nanageinent component in the development process, various instruments to ensure
preparedness and mitigation action are required for which it was proposed that
10 per cent
allocation from plan funds at all levels needs to be earmarked for disaster preparedness and
mitigation.
8.4 FISCAL DISCIPLINE
Apart from the
CRF, NCCF, there are lunds that are available under Five Yeas Plan allocations
as well as under viirious schemes of Government of India, be it drinking water scheme,
employme~it generation scheme, inputs for agriculture and food control measures. Then there
are facilities for rescheduling of short-term loans taken for agriculture purposes upon certification
by the district or state administration. Central government assets or infrastructure are also to
be repaired/rectified by the respective Ministry/Department of the Government of India.
Besides at the occurrence of a calatnity, funds flow from donors, both local and international
for reconstruction. Based on the recommendations of the Finance Comlnission of the Government
of India, the Inter
-ministerial Committee fixed the norms of assistance for
cach of the eligible
team for which assistance could be given as well as the quantum of such assistance. In actual
practice, a number of states have been allocating funds at scales much higher than determined
by the Government of India, thus exhausting the
CRF
much earlier than they ought to and that
too on cala~nities of lesser magnitude.
It has been observed that while the Government of India remits its quarterly share of the CRF
on a regular basis, the stales sit over it and only when the calamity occurs, the machineiy at
the state headquarters, wakes up from its slumber, taking its own time in making funds available
to the district administration; thereby causing delay in rendering assiqtance and relief when it
is most needed. What is really required is proper financial discipline. There is no room for
tampering with the recommendations of Finance Commissions. The present funding arrangements
would suffice, if the fiscal discipline is maintained. There should not be any cause for complaints
and grievances. More focus needs to be on how disbursed money is actually utilised. The
states have to account for each and every penny spent by them. Without fiscal discipline, even
adequate f~lndii~g arrangements for disaster management cannot produce results.
The norms of assistance fixed by the Government of Inclia need to be adhe;-ed to. The states
should also decide to have a self
-imposed
limits on when, where and how much to assist. There
is also a need for defining calamity of rare severity or laying down broader criteria. Also
adherence to these guidelines should be insisted upon for ensuring eqnity as well as transparency.
The funds from the
NCCF, as prescribed by the
Eleventh Finance Commission should be
drawn upon for calamities of rare magnitude, and only in cases where the funds available under
the CW are found to be inadequate.

94. 110 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
8.5 ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL DONOR AGENCIES
As we discussed in the previous Section, apart from the National Funds and Plan Schemes,
there are many donors
-individuals, groups and agencies at the national and international levels
that provide financial assistance for relief and reconstruction at the time of calamity. These
are:
8.5.1 International Monetary Fund
(ZMF) and World Bank
The IMF, which was created in 1945, is an international organisation enkusted with overseeing
. the global financial system by monitoring exchange rates, balance of payments, as well as
offering technical and financia1 assistance whenever asked. It provides enlergency assistatlce
to help member countries in the wake of natural disasters. Emergency financial assistance is
designed to be disbursed rapidly and is supported by policy advice, and in many cases, technical
assistance.
The IMF was established to promote international monetary cooperation, exchange stability,
economic growth and employment. Since
1962, the IMF has been providing emergency disaster
relief assistance to member countries. The assistance is aimed at 'meetin
g immediate foreign
exchange financial needs arising from; shortfalls in export earnings and increased imports in
order to avoid
a serious depletion of country's external reserves.
Emergency assistance loans are usually disbursed quickly and do not involve adherence to
performance criteria. An
IMF member requesting emergency assistance is required to describe
the general economic policies that it proposes to follow.
If
IMF is satisfied, the assistance is
granted. In normal cbnditions, IMF works to reduce poverty around the world by providing
financial support through its concessional lending facility.
IMF resources are provided by its
member countries. The
major source of funds is through payment of quotas, which broadly
reflect each country's economic size. The total amount of quotas is the most critical factor that
determines IMF's lending capacity.
The World
Bank emerged in the mission of reducing poverty and providing assistance to
i prepare for and recover from natural or man -made disasters. It is a specialised agency of the .
United Nations. In recent years, the approach of the World Bank towards disaster managernent ,
,
. . has revolved around a broader goal of risk management. Instead of diverting finances from
ongoing projects to fund recovery and reconstruction efforts, the Bank now provides investment
lending for emergency response, as well
as disaster mitigation,. disaster prevention and
vulnerability reduction projects.
h
The World Bank has been taking up disaster management funding by financing earthquake
devasted regions' reconstruction projects, streamlining risk management etc. There are different
agencies through which the World Bank or the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD) operates:
1
m The International Development Association (IDA)
I
r The International Finance Corporation (IFC)
I
"9 The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (NIGA)
i I
r
r, The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)
In addition, the World
Bank along with IMF has a programme called the 'Heavily Indebted
:
Poor Countries Initiative', which provides a comprehensive approach to reducing the external
debt of the world's poorest and most heavily indebted countries.

95. Futzding Arrangements for Reconstruction 111
8.5.2 United Nations
The United Nations (UN) was created in October 1945. Although most people associate the
UN with the issue of peace and security, a vast majority of its resources are devoted to
economic, social and sustainable development. Disaster management, in terms of provision of
relief, is one area where the UN is playing an important role. The Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC) is the principal body coordinating the economic and social work of the
UN. The
international agencies like the
UN are relied upon in order to respond to nalural and man-made
disasters that are beyond the capacity of national authorities alone. Today, the UN is a major
provider of emergency relief and longer
-term assistance, a catalyst for action by governments
and relief agencies, and an advocate on behalf of people struck by emergencies.
The
UN has various agencies such as United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO), United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), which
are working in the area of development assistance, poverty removal, primary education, health,
child relief, women empowerment and environmental sustainability. The
UN through its branches
and agencies is involved in capacity building and human development in countries stricken by
poverty, hunger and disasters.
8.5.3 Asian Development Bank
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) was established in 1966. It is a multilateral development
finance institute with a mandate to reduce poverty in Asia and the Pacific. It works with the
World
BSnk on labour market reform, decentralisation of social services, reduction of poverty,
,
proinotion of human development, protection of environment, and improvement of status of
disadvantaged sections.
ADB provides financial and infrastructure assistance to all Asian countries in normal times as
well as in the time of disasters. Apart from this, there are many other institutions engaged in .
funding for disaster management and vulnerability reduction such as the Inter -American
Development Bank, Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), European Union Disbursement, UK
Department of International Development (DFID), Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO),
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and other US Office of Foreign Disaster
Assistance (OFDA).
8.5.4 Bilateral and Multilateral Donor Agencies
Bilateral donors are those that are backed by respective countries' governments, for example
USAID is supported by Federal US Government. Likewise, there are Swedish International
Development Agency (SIDA), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), and Danish
International Development Agency (DANIDA), Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
(SDC), Australian Agency for ~nternational Development (AUSAID), Department for
Internarional Cooperation Agency (DICA) and Norwegian Agency for Development and
Cooperation (NORAD).
These bilateral agencies provide financial assistance to national governments and scores of
international and national NGOs for rendering humanitarian and development assistance. Funding
mechanisms of the bilateral agencies may vary. For instance, funds could be directly provided
to the Prime Minister's National Relief Fund or at times, a bilateral agency inay provide funds
to the
UN
agehcies in the country and ask it to further channel it, as required. Several of these
bilateral agencies have been major supporters of reconstruction and recovery initiatives following
major disasters across the world. As such, these bilateral agencies have amassed conside;able
experience, which usually dictates tenns for funding reconsti-~~ction. It, therefore, becomes

96. 112 Rehabilitatiorz, Reconstruction and Recovery
important to know what type of policy and strategy an agency has towards the reconstruction
process following a particular disaster in a given country.
8.6 MOBPLISATION OF COMMUNITY FOR ESOURCE
GENERATION
In recent times, the role of the comnunity and community-based organisationslnon-governmental
organisations has been the key to effective rehabilitation work. A strong advantage that these
organisations have is the good rapport and trust they enjoy vis -8-vis the community at the grass
roots level. To some extent, this is the reason why the international donor agencies prefer to
entrust funds with Illem for rehabilitation work.
Let us take the example of earthquake
-hit
G~ijarat. Numerous NGOs and local voluntary
organisations have been assisting the villages in rebuilding. The village of Devgargll is one
instance. Completely destroyed, it was reduced to piles of cril~nbled gray stone and rubble in
the Bhuj Earthquake of
2003. A local NGO Sewa
Bharfi adopted Devgargh. Like many other
villages, the main challenge
in rebuilding is mobilisation of construction
~natkrial in remote
locations. Villages' own capacities a11d resources are harnessed by employing and training local
people, using local materials, supporting local enterprises, and working
in partnership with local NGOs.
Unfortunately, there have been few attempts from the government to give incentives to people
for participating
in resource generation. Community level activities in this area need to be
encouraged, especially
wher~ there are so many instances of government, non -government and
cornmullity partnerships, also called the public-private-people partnerships in disaster management.
Applying
a self-help philosophy, the village of Raidenpur, about 11 kilometers from the city of Bhuj, provides another example of how people have been reaching out to those in need. Caritas
India has been actively providing assistance in rebuilding 180 odd houses. Here an owner -
driven concept has been adopted where the villagers themselves (mostly members of tribal
groups and labourers) are einployed to construct their homes. The village has also reopened
schools
in
makeshift tents to enable children to resume their education.
The villagers are required to rebuild improved earthquake resistant houses, using quality material.
Quality testing
and
monitoiing is an integral part of the process. Quality testing laboratories,
including mobile units, have been established at Morbi, Ja~nnagar and Bhuj, and one is in the
pipeline in Bhachau. These laboratories
will test the quality of building material for adherence
to specified standards, While the state government should be commended for its efforts,
people's resilience and spirit to rebuild their lives have
bcen clearly visible 'in the affected
areas. Death and destruction have brought out the best in the people of Gujarat, as displayed
in the strong community bonding and efforts to help one another. The Tsunami of 2004 and I
Muzzafarabad Earthquake of 2005 have also brought into light many instances of coinmunity-
based rebuilding aciivities with the help of locally, generated resources, in collaboration with the
state and central governments.
I
8.7 CONCLUSION
This Unit explained the concept of reconstr~lctioll vis-h-vis disasters. Different processes and
considerations in reconstruction, namely reconstruction requirements and resource generation
were discussed, The key role played by various funding agencies at different levels -national
and international was brought out. The Unit also threw light on the need for fiscal discipline
and cooperation at the central, state and local levels as well as between nationaland international
agencies. Insurance policies, micro
-credit and saving schemes are very
crucial in disaster
I
I

97. Funding Arrarzgernents for Reconstruction . . 113
management funding as they create a corpse of financial reserve that could be used at the time
of disasters. Equally important is the role of coininunity bonding in managing disasters and
raising awareness on fiscal discipline and emergency finance reserve etc. This Unit examined
these important issues.
8.8
KEY CONCEPTS
Disaster Insurance
Insuring against disasters is the best way to guard one's life and property in case of catastropl~es.
Crop Insurance against droughts and floods, house insurance against earthquakes and landslides,
and livestock insurance against cyclones, floods etc., need to be encouraged by the governmental
and non
-governmental agencies. Insurance can also be a means of finance in case of a
disaster, Disaster insurance in most countries is still at a nascent stage and needs to be
promoted through education and awareness.
Micro-finance
Micro-finance is often considered one of the
most effective and flexible strategies in the fight
against global poverty. It is sustainable and can be implemented on a massive scale in order
to respond to the urgent needs of those living below the poverty line. Micro
-finance consists
of making small loans available to individuals, usually the women and the weaker sections to
establish or expand a small business. Grameen or rural banks
are instrumental in
providing
micro-finance, recycling funds, and benefiting community in normal and disaster times.
8.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Brown, Lester R. et al., 1997, Vital Signs: The Eizvironmental Trends that are Shaping our
Future, Worldwatch Institute, USA,
Cuny, Fredrick, 1983, Disasters and Development, Oxford University Press, England.
Commonwealth of Learning Executive Masters Programme
in Public Administration,
IGNOU,
New Delhi,
Fernando, W.B.J, 2003, "Disaster Mitigation" in Pardeep Sahni and Madhavi Malalgoda
Ariyabandu (Eds.),
Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia, Prentice-Hall of
India, New Delhi,
Mohanty, Siba Sankar, 2004,
"Rhetoric and Reality of MPLADS " (A Compilation), The Centre
for Budget and Accountability, New Delhi,
Parsai,
Gargi, 2005, "When Nature Strikes Back" in The Hirtdu, December 25.
Sahni, Pardeep, 2003, "Drought Profile, Management and Risk Reduction in India " in Pardeep
Sahni and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), op.cit.
Sinha, U.P, 1985, Planned Development of Resources in a Developing Region: An
Economical and Geogi.aphical Analysis, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi.
Smolka, Anselm, 2003,
"The Principle of Risk Partnership and the Role of Insurance in Risk
Mitigation
" in
Pardeep Sahni and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), op.cit.
Drnfi Report, 2004, Natural Disasters and Relief Provision in India: Commitnlents and Ground
Realities (Compiled
by Subrata Das and Nandan Kumar Jha), Centre for Budget and Governance
'
Accountability, op.cit.

98. 114 Relzc~bilitation, Reconstruction arzd Recovely
Rodrik, D, 1998, Where did all the Growth go?: Extenzal Shucks, Social Conflict and
Ecunornic Gmwtlt, Haivard University, Cambridge.
Uvin, Peter, 1996, Development, Aid and Conflict, United Nations University, Tokyo.
6Gn-lcl Develupme~it Report, 1999, "Development and the Environtnent", Oxford University
Press, New York.
Hutnu11 Devekopnzetlt Report, 1999, Oxford University Press, New York.
Websites:
www.un.org
www.u~ld~.org
e~~.wikipedia.org/wiki.imf
www,imf.ou
ww~cci.con~/ficci/rnedia roodspeeches-urese~ltations -
youthink.wcrrldbank.org/~lossa~.Qhr,
grameenfoundalion.or~/~nicr~~fi~~ance
y!ww,shantiommosg/hom-files/fund.l~~m
www.ndmindia.nic.in/committee/fund/comin.html
1) Make a list of the different agencies that provide financial aid in the case a natural disaster.
2) Do you feel that comrntlnity awareness is important to strengthen fiscal discipline? List the
different ways of creating community awareness on mobilisation of resources.
3) With reference to any recent tnajos disaster ill India, try to collect information through government
or NGO official documetlrs and complete the following Table :
Table: Fillancing of Reconshetion &r a 'disaster WOU may take up the case of any disaster)
r"- 1
Fund Source I Funds Provided for Reconstruction (Rs.)
Central Goveinment
NCiOs (Specify)
1 I
Livelihood
Support
International Agency
I
(Specify)
I
1
Repair of
Public Building
Grand Total I I
House
C~nstmction
Food Aid Medical
Service

99. , -
UNIT 9 NATURE OF DAMAGE TO HOUSES AND
INFRASTRUCTURE DUE TO DISASTERS
Structure
9.0 Learning Outcome
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Hazard Vulnerability in India
9.3 Earthquake Prone Areas in India
9.4 Nature of Damage to Houses in Earthquakes
9.5 Tropical Cyclones in India
9.6 Damage to Housing during Cyclones
9.7 Nature of Floods in India
9.8 Damage to Housing and Infrastructure due to Floods
9.9 Conclusion
9.10 Key Concepts
9.11 References and Further Reading
9.12 Activities
9.0
LEARNING: OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, yon will be able to:
0 Identify the disaster prone areas in the country
' .
e Examine the nature of damages to houses and infrastructure during disasters; and
e Understand the extent of vulnerability of humans, livestock and resources to disasters,
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters can play havoc with the lives of the people. Earthquakes, cyclones or floods can
disrupt the entire livelihood pattern of people. Damage to houses and other i~lfrastructl~re can
worsen the situation in the aftermath of disasters, as the victims, who have, as it is lost their
kith and kin, have no option but to live in transit accommodation if they lose their hauscs and
property. Before going into the nature of disaster resistant construction to cope with different
disasters, it
is necessary to know the nature of damage that could be caused due
to vulnerable
infrastructure in disaster prone areas. This Unit gives an overview of
the vulnerable regions
in the country and examines the nature of damage caused to houses and infrastructure,
due to
earthquakes, cyclones and floods.
l
9.2 HAZARD VULNERABILITY IN INDIA
India, as we all know, is highly vulnerable to natural disasters. The following statistics give a
picture of vulnerability of the Indian landscape to natural hazards:

100. 118 Rehabilitation, Reconstr~cctiorz and Recovely
Hazard Vulnerability in India
55% Land Vulnerable to Earthquakes
e 12% land liable to severe, earthquake (Intensity Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) Scale IX
or more)
e 18% land liable to MSK Vm (Similar to Latur / Uttarkashi)
@ 25% land is liable to MSK VLI (Similar to Jabalpur Earthquake)
8% Land Vulnerable to Cyclones
e 891 - 1990: 262 cyclones (92 severe) in a 50krn wide strip on the East Coast
e Less severe cyclonic activity on West Coast (33 cyclones in the same period)
e 19 severe cyclonic storms till date; death toll crossed 10,000 lives
5 % of Land Vulnerable to Floods
Floods in the Indo - Gangetic Brahmaputra plains are an annual feature
e On an average a few h11"iJred lives are lost, millions are rendered homeless
On account of heavy rains, floods, cyclonic storms and landslides till November 11, 2005 and
officially,
nearly 4000 people have been killed and damage to 161, 18,723 dwelling units
hris
occurred in 25 states and one Union Territory. The figures do not include the causalities of
October 8, 2005 Muzzafarabaa Earthquake. Among tile natural disasters, if we take a global
overview, floods are the most reported events in Afiica, Asia and Europe, while windstorms are
most frequent in
the America and Oceania regions
(Parsai, 2005). The different areas vulnerable
to earthquakes, cyclones and floods
in India will become clear to us when we go through the
subsequent Sections.
9.3
EARTHBUAKE PRONE AREAS IN INDIA
As we all know an earthquake is a sudden rapid sh'aking of the earth caused by the release
of energy stored in
the rocks. Earthquake occurs due to a violent movement of the earth's
surface from the release of energy in the earth's crust. An earthquake generates a set of
horizontal and vertical vibrations of the ground, which are random in character. 'Tectonic' or
natural earthquake originates due to relative movement of plates or faulting in crustal blocks
whereas 'non
-tectonic' /artificial earthquake originates due to volcanic eruptions.
Atomic explosions or landslides are the two types of earthquakes. Major ones are although
tectonic in nature. Any block of the
earth that is under the influence of unequal forces would
withstand these forces in the initial stages by undergoing elastic
deformation. The forces get
stored in the rock as 'elastic strain'
till a limit is reached when the operating forces exceed
the elasticity of the rock block.
A 'fracture' is caused at that stage in the block and under the
influence of these forces, the blocks created
by fracturing move against each other. This is
called 'faulting'.
It is the point at which rupture takes place, that the movement of blocks starts and generates
vibrations,
which are manifested as earthquake in the surface. The movement of blocks releases
enormous amount of energy
in the form of elastic waves called 'seismic waves'. The movement
of the seismic waves continues until the disrupted rock blocks finally settle down at positions
of least strain. The rupture
and movement of the block may take only a fraction of a minute ,
to be completed. This is the time of the 'major shock'. The final adjustment of the
movillg
blocks may be completed over time ranging from days to months with occasional minor or
major disturbances. These are called 'after shocks'.

101. Nature of Dnmuge to Houses and Infrastructur-e due to Di.snster;s
Earthquake Prone Regions
A large portion of our country is vulnerable to earthquakes. For considering the regional
distribution of earthquakes in the Indian sub
-continent, the
whole area can be divided into the
following seismic regions:
o Kashmir and Western Himalayas
s Central Himalayas (including Nepal Himalayas)
a Northeast India
B) Indo- Gangetic Basin and Rajasthan
@ Carnbay and the Rmn of Kutch
Q, Peninsular India
0 Andarnan and Nicobar Islands
Factors Affecting Stmct~lral Damage
@ The intensity of earth shnking (indicated by the ground accelerations caused at the base of the
structure)
@ The dynamic parameters of the structure (namely, the tnass of V~K~OUS elements, their stiffness,
and deformation- energy dissipating capacity)
o The strength of the foundation soils; the load resisting calsacity of the int9ividual dements, their
connections and
the whole
assembly for c'mying the earthquake forces produced in corljunclioi~
with other concurrently applied dead and live forces
Classification
of damage as per the Medvedev -
Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) Scale of 1964 ics
given below:
Table 9.1

102. 120 Rehabilitation, Recorzstr.uciioiz and Recove~y
9,4 NATUlt;$lE OF DAMAGE TO HOUSES IN EAIPTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are extremely devastating and can lead to partial or total collapse of buildings and
other man
-made structures. Buildings with lightweight materials like bamboo, timber etc., perform
better than heavy materials like stones, bricks etc., during earthquakes. The Non
-engineered
buildings suffer maximum damage due to an earthquake. Construction failure is the principal
threat to life
and limb during an earthquake. Seismic damage to the buildings is caused on
account of four main influences:
a Seismic energy of the earthquake (magnitude, duration
and acceleration of strong motions of
ground) '
...
e Distance from the epicentre
Surface geography in terms of variations of soil, rock and topography, faults etc.
a Damage varies in relation to construction type. There are four basic causes of earthquake induced
damage- ground shaking, ground failure, tsunamis and fire
The maximum damage in case of an earthquake is due to the collapse of poorly constructed
buildings and failure
of
infrastructural facilities. The building types can broadly be divided, from
seismic point of view, into:
i) Engineered buildings; and
ii) Non-engineered buildings.
The engineered buildings are those, which are structurally designed
by qualified engineers and
architects taking into consideration the specified Ioads including earthquake and wind loads etc.,
as per the building codes. For instance, the
RCC frame and shear wall buildings, steel buildings
with rigid joints are engineered buildings. The non
-engineered buildings
are those, which are
constructed
by people through local semi -skilled masons and petty contractors etc. Almost all
the rural and most semi-urban and urban
i~ouses fall under the category, which are weak from
seismic point of view. Let us now take a look at the performance of the non -engineered
structures during earthquakes.
Damage to Non- engineered Structures
Earth
or Mud Houses
he, performance of mud. houses is very poor consisting of wide cracks in walls, separation of
walls at the corners
-and complete collapse of walls, roofs and floors leading to death and injury
to the residents. Single storeyed abode and rammed earth houses with flat heavy roofs show fair'beh&iour during earthquake compared to 2 or 3 storeyed houses, which collapse completely.
Masonry Structures
The suuctures consisting of walls made from fired bricks, random -rubble or fieldstone or a
combination thereof face the following type
of damages:
a THe masonry structure is weak in 'tension' as well as 'shear'. So when it is shaken horizontally,
many types of cracks occur such as vertical bending
- cracks near vertical edges, horizontal
. bending-cracks below roof or floor and above plinth, as well as diagonal cracks starting from qornir of the openings
I ' I

103. Nature of Danzage to Houses and Irzfrastructl~re due to Disasters 121
@ In case of flexible roofs and floors, the perpendicular walls tend to fully separa.te fro1.n each other
@ Parapets and chimleys projecting above the roof subjected to amplified motion easily fall by
bending and overturning
0 Random rubble masonry or stonewalls particularly built with lime or clay mud mortar is very
weak in compression also. Strength f~~rther reduces if walls get wet during rains. On seismic
shaking, they loose their col~esion, shatter completely and ase conve
r
ted into heap of rubble and
clay. Two storeyed buildings fair
quite badly. These
conlpletely collapse even in moderate
earthquakes
@ Randorn rubble and half -dressed stonewalls also suffer from thhe problem of splitting from the
middle into two wythes, which collapse separately (inward and outwiu-cl) causing total collapse
of the house
@ Sometimes buildings have unduly long rooms, their long walls do not get adeqi~ntc lateral support
from the cross walls. Such walls are very dangerous due to out of plane bending and overturning
collapse
e Location and relative size of the windows and door openings to the side or edge of the walls are
seen to have a pronounced effect on the strength
of the wall. Corner windows or those close to
the edge of the wall are found to be dangerous.
Large openings or too
tnany ope~lings in a wall
reduce its strength for vei
-tical as well as lateral loads acting in either
plane
e Quality of construction is seen to affect the seismic performance critically. Good quality
construction can survive an earthquake. Conamonly seen construction defects are: lack of bonding
between I~uilding units, unfilled vertical joints between the units, vertical plane of weakness due
to adoption of toothed joints hetween perpendiculas walls; and absence of through or bond stones
in field stone masonry and half
-dressed stone construction as well as unstable configuration of
stones
in such construction
Wooden Structures
The earthquake-resistant performance of wooden buildings has generally been good, particularly
that of the wooden frame.
The
most dangerous aspect of wooden buildings has been their poor
fire resistance and therefore
a high danger of catching fire during
carthquakcs, due to short-
circuiting of electric wiring.
Other Infrastructure
e Roads and Railways- Roads and flyovers could be darnaged due to shocks of earthquake.
Collapse of building results in road blockage and problem in traffic movement. Cracks are formet1
on the ground/ road creating a surging pattern as a result of water stagnatiorr, which causes
deterioration of the roads. Depending on thc intensity of earthquake rind the proximity to the
- epihentre, rail tracks get bent heavily
9 Water Supply- Water sources are darnaged e.g., collapse of dam, embankments, water
reservoirs and catchments due to earthquake
0 Drainage- Diversion of flow of natural drains leads to unwanted waterlogged areas
,
e Sewerage- Damage to underground sewer lines, manholes, and waterlnggecl sewage creates
unhygienic conditions in the sul~ounding areas. It leads to diversion of flow of sewerage and
contamination of drinking water sources

104. 122 Rehnbilitntiorz, Rec*onstiuctioi? aizd Recovery
@ Telecommunication Network- Falling of poles results in breakdown of co~nmunication network
@ Electricity Network- Damage to electric poles results in short circuits and damage to tr~insrnission
lines cause power cuts in the earthquake-affected as well as the neighbouring aseas
e Important Bnildilags - Darnage to school buildings, educational institutions, religious buildings
and the monumental structures is a huge loss.
-- --
9.5 TROPICAL CYCLONES IN INDIA
Cyclone is basically a tropical depression around which the wind circulates with speed exceeding
17 metres per second (61 kml hr). If the speed exceeds 32 metres per second (I lSk~n/lir), the
depression is said to be of
a full
l~urricane force. Tropical cyclones extend I~lorizonially from
500 lo 1000 kilornetres. A11d vertically from about 12 10 14 kilometres with fierce witids
spiralling an~i-clockwise towards caln~ centre in the Io\ver levels, particularly in the nort11e1.n
hemisphere. If tropical cyclone moves along a coastline or moves inwards towarcls the land
(called 'landfall'), death and enor~~lous damage may be brought to a large expanse of area. The
damages caused due to the cyclo~le arc: rnainly because of violent winds and excessive rainfall,
which may be described as direct effects. The front river flooding that results due to the
disaster may be regarded as indirect or secondruy eflects.
Cyclone is cuniposed of circular area within which the wind nloves at a speed greilter than
17metres/second and has an average diameter about 500 to 600 kilornetres. There are two
parts of a mature cyclone, the 'eye' of a cyclone and the 'outer' part. In the mature cyclone,
there
is a relatively cloud free
central region called the 'eye' of the storm, the diameter of
which may range from 20 kilotnetres lo about 150 kilometres. In this case, the ~lciitt~cr
condition is call11 with light winds and thc pressure at the centre is very low. These wirlds blow
round the low -pressure centre in an anti-clocl~wise direction in the 11o~then1 hemisphere ant[ in
a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.
When a tropical cyclone approaches
a country shore, the risk of
serious loss or damage to the
buildings arises from winds, 1.ainfal1, river floods and slornl surgcs. When mean wind sl)~-ed
, exceeds 12 lunph (33m/sec) and reaches at a hurricane force, it is referred to as destructive
wind. The destructive power of the wind further increases with the square of its speed that
is
a ten-fold increase in the wind speed and hundred -fold increase in
ll~t: winri force. Apart
from the direct damage caused by povi~erful winds, dcaths and injuries can be cairsed by wind
borne objects.
The
principal dangers in case of a cyclone are from: e Gales and strong winds
o Torrential rains
r, Storm surges
High tidal waves are often respotlsible fcbr loss of property though in this case cleoth i~.-cl
destruction are relatively less. Apart from the direct damage caused by powerful winds, du:nth
and injury can be caused by wind-borne objects. The effects of air pressure: the difi'ercnce
between the windward side and the leeward side (suction effect) can bring about wind damage
to buildings atid structures, particularly in the case of tall structures where severe oscillaticns
may occur and result in failure of structures. Flyirig debris may in some cases cause a chain

105. Nature of Damage to Houses and I~lfmstrzictzire due to Disasters 123
reaction of damage to buildings. Tropical cyclotie forces may also produce a destsuctive effect
by lowering the atlnospheric pressure outside a closed structure sufficiently for normal pressure
inside to cause the building to explode outwards and collapse.
Damage Assessment
of a Cyclone-affected Area
On an average, about
5-6 tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea
every year, Out of which,
2 or 3 may be severe. More cyclones
form in the Bay of Bengal
than in the Arabian Sea. The ratio is 4:l. There are two distinct seasons of cyclones in an area.
One is from May to June (Pre-monsoon) and the other is from October to middle of December
(Post-monsoon). May, June, October and Novernber are ltnown for severe cyclonic storms.
11 is difficult to gauge the damage to buildings and structures due to cyclonic wind, as there
js no universally accepted nleasuring scale like that of seiszilic intensity scale. 'The following
damage risk scale (for developing the house vulnerability tables) for cyclonic wind has been
proposed by the Expert Group in the preparation of Vulnerability Atlas of India:
Table 9.2
9.6. DAMAGE TO HOUSING DURING CYCLONES
Extent of Damage
Very High Damage Risk
High Damage Risk
Modgrate Damage Risk
Low Damage Risk
Very Low Damage Risk
Cyclones, just as earthquakes and other natural disasters can be very
damaging for housing and
infrastructure. The following types of damage is most visible:
Nature
of
Damage
Widespread damage is expected. Total collapse of houses
and infrastructure
Boundary walls overturn; walls in houses and industrial
structures fall; roofing sheets, tiles or whole roofs
fly;
large
scale destruction of lifeline structures such as lighting poles,
telephone poies, and communication towers occurs; non -
engineered constructions suffer heavy damage
Loose tiles of clay fly, roof sheets
fixed to battens fly;
moderate
damage to lighting and telephone poles; moderate damage to
non
-engineered buildings
Loose metal
or fibre or cement sheets fly, a few lighting or
telephone poles go out of alignment; signboards and hoardings
are partially damaged; non
-engineered buildings suffer little
damage
'
Little damage is expected in a very limited area. Houses and
infrastructure suffer negligible damage
0 Roof: Building failure occurring due to the cyclone is mainly confined to the roof. The Gable
ended roofs are more liable to damage thm hip roofs; Large overhangs also suffer more damage
and can be easily blown away.

106. s AC Roof Sheeting: Damages to Asbestos Corrugated (AC) or Galvanised Iron (GI) sheet roof
occurs in the form of breakage of sheets, failure of sheets at anchorage points ur enlargement of
holes and deforn~ation of bolts holding the sheets. Blowing away of the roof is caused primarily
because of lack of proper connection between the roof and the external wall.
@ Thatched Woofs: Athatched roof being very light is easily blown away during a storm. Typically,
damage is seen in the form of blowing away of the thatch along the ridge, crown hip and eaves
of the house.
tr Tiled Roofs: Mangalore tiled roofs withstand the stom better than the country - tiled roofs.
Failure of tifed roofs is conlrnon along the ridges, eave and roof intersections. Loss of tiles in the
roofs results in the rnud walls getting soaked and collapsing.
s RCC Roofs: Damages are seen in Reinforced Concrete Cement (RCC) roofed houses in the
form of leaks and heavy corrosion. Some of the rods of houses constructed by the state agencies
and voluntary organisations are also blown off.
s Masonry: Failure of masonry walls of buildings, parapets and compound walls, including cracks
in
walls at
comers; collapse at foundation "level is due to cyclonic stornls. Houses with thick mud
walls are damaged the most, leading to cr-ncks in wall intersections and around door openings,
extending from t11e foundation to the top plate.
As far as the infrastructure goes, it surfers an intense level of damage. The roads get blocked
due
to fallen trees, electricity and telephone poles get uprooted, railway tracks get blocked,
railway station gets obstructed
by
large material wagons, as chemical tanks are swept in by
the storm surge and so on. We can
also witness overturning of
bridges and dalnage due to high
water waves. Ports along the coaslli~le are devastated by storm surge acco~npanying the
cyclone. The loss accrued to ports includes cia~nage to the port infrastructure, docked vessels,
stored cargo and human life.
Electricity supply also gets affected because of exter~sive dalnage to transinission poles and
high
-tension
line towers at several places. The uprooting and falling of trees on electric line
poles also contributes to disruption. Drinking water supply is affected by cyclone due to failure
of the power transmission network and damage to pumping station. Damage is also caused to
telephone lines due to extensive winds.
Park areas get
darnaged due to heavy intensity of
.
winds, and felling of trees ruin the landscape of park areas.
9.7 NATURE OF FLOODS IN INDIA -
Floods are the most frequent natural disaster. Heavy rainfall coupled with insd~qnate channel
capacity lead to overflowing of river causing flooding. The flood-prone regions in India are the
Brahmaputra, Gnnga, Northwest, Central India and Deccan regions.
Types of Floods:
@ Local Floods: These are caused by interjse local rainfall. The inadeql-racy of the drmnage systen~
to carry the water away quickly results in the flooding of the localities in the low-lying meas.
s Tidal Floods: Cyclonic wind causes high tidal waves, which spill over land, flooding low-lying
areas in the interiors.
r
:
e Flash Floods: Fhsh floods ac, sudden phenomena. These are caused by isolated and 1ocalIy i
intense rainfall and steep catchment slope conducive to fast 14111 off, Flash floods are paticularly
dangerous because of the suddenness and speed with which thcy occur.
:

107. Nature of Da~znffe lo Houses and Ir~frastructure due to Disasters
Causes of Floods
0 Overflow of water over the natural banks of river clue to excessive rainfall
o Heavy local rainfall
0 Heavy rainfall synchronisation with river spill
e. Heavy rainfall in areas with poor drainage
e Gradual erosion of the river bank reducing the capacity of rivers to contain the water
@ Avalanches and landslides blocking the normal course of the river results in the backward
overflowing of the river banks
e Change of liver course due to earthquakes and heavy rainfall during cyclone
B Failure of darns
@ Blockages in waterways due to unauthorised construction in the way of streams and river beds,
hill slopes etc,, further aggravate the situation in case of flash floods
Elements at Risk of Flood Damage
e Buildings with their material contents including cattle, fowl etc., and the residents and the
infrastructure sited in the flood plailis of rivers are most vulnerablc to inundation, and hence are
the elements most at risk
0 Buildings and infrastructure in zones protected by vulnerable flood protection works, such as
bunds and embankments are also at a considerable risk due to the probability of overtopping and
/or breaching
0 Earthen buildings or brick and stone masonry with mud mortar, which is water -soluble are highly
risk prone
e Buildings with foundations or with weak resistance to lateral hydrodynamic loads caused by
flowing are also risk prone due to their location at adverse topographical condition in the flood
plain or behind the protection work
e Sewerage, power and water supply systems, industrial and communication equipment, and
basements in buildings are also risk prone, besides the food stocks, livestock and standing
agricultural crops
Factors Contributing to Flood Damage
e Lack of preparedness
0 Failure to give timely warning to all concerned particularly in remote i~~ral areas
Inadequacy of accurate infomation regarding the areas affected by floads
0 Inability of the administrative machinery to establish immediate contact with affected areas

108. 126 Rehabilitation, Reconstluctior~ and Recovery
r, Inadequate coordination among various departments and also the administrative sections and
non-governmental organisations
s Lack of planned action
e Delay in mobilising resources
0 Faulty and weak construction of houses
@ Inability of local authority to move people out of vulnerable areas (e.g., like river banks)
@ Lack of resources (e.g., insufficient boats and air capacity to assist the marooned people)
s, Inability of local administration to launch immediate disease surveillance and check likely epidemics
These causes more or less apply to all the liatural disasters. Weak houses and infrastructure
are problem areas as it is. The situation is worsened due to
high level of apathy and lack of
awareness on the part of disaster management personnel
and the community
at large. Let us
now look at the nature
of
damage causd to the houses and other infrastructure on account
of floods.
9.8 DAMAGE TO HOUSING AND INFRASTRUCTURE DUE
TO FLOODS
The following Table presents a five -fold categorisation of damage to housing:
d
Table 9.3
Level of
Damage
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
(Note:
The loss of value due to damage classified into the five
categolies inay be taken as
follows: Gl: less than lo%, G2: 10- 25%, G3: 25-50%, G4: 50-75%, and G5: more than 75%
or upto 100%)
Extent of Damage
Very Low Damage
Low Damage
Moderate Damage
High Damage
Very High Damage
Nature of Damage
Few cracks in plaster; fall of small pieces of plaster
(about 10% of wall area)
Fall of
very large pieces of plaster
(upto 50% of wail
area), small cracks in the wall (less than 6mm wide)
Large and deep cracks
in the walls, loss of belongings
and damage to electrical fittings
Huge gaps
in the
wills, collapse of pads of building, floating
away of light roofs, erosion of foundation
or sinking
Total damage including collapse of buildings, floating
away of sheets, thatch etc., scouring of foundations,
severe damage
to lifeline structures and systems
'

109. Nnture of Dcrmcige io Houses arzd Ii$fiasbucture due to Disastecs
The High Incideilce of Flood Damage to Buildings is due to:
is Foundation scouring and settbnent; and subsequent wall collapse under hydro -dynamic loads
@ Will1 collapse, either due to inadequate bearing capacity caused by saturation under heavy rain or
.. due to inundation (combined effect of saturation, buoyancy and n~ortar becoming mud), leading
to collapse of roof
@ Floating of roof due to inundation, leading also to wall damage
Other relatively less severe forms
of damage are wall erosion, cracks and bulging, plaster
falling off
and floor settlement apart from dalnage to services like water supply, sanitation and
electrical systems.
A major undocumented type of
flood damage incidence identified in Haryana
is settlement in the core areas of old mound due to soil saturation around or during the floods.
Even though many buildings damaged due to unequal settlelne~lt of soil do not get inundated.
The Extent of Damage to Houses depends upon the Nature of Floods they are exposed
to:
e Overturnilig of bamboo and wooden structures due to uplift caused by heavy force of water
@ Mud wall yielding due to prolonged exposure to water
@ In case of mud wall construction on bamboo poles, the structural frame may stand intact but
pushing water washes away the ~nud plaster
r Efflorescence of brick walls as they get covered with salt due to prolonged water logging
o Damage to finishing materials or floor or walls due to silt deposition
b, Permanent dampness of lower floors and walls making them uninhabitable, leading to decay of
wooden and other facilities
6 Damage caused to wooden tnembers like doors and windows in the form of washing and other
defects, making them vulnerable to insects
r Cracks on walls and floors due to partial settlement of sub.. soil
The nature
of
dalnage to infrastructure due lo floods includes damaged roads and rail netwark.
The network gets blocked due to water logging, and transportation network is disturbed due
to poor drainage system. The drinking water also sometimes gets contaminated due
to mixing
of flooded water with the clear water sources because of which water
-borne diseases are
caused.
The electricity power that gets cut can create a problem of power supply. Damages
are
also caused due to breakdown of teleconimunication network. These networks. are
underground and are more affected when the flooded waters enter in the lines network. In
addition, underground electricity supply gets affected and chances of
short circuit increase.
9.9 CONCLUSION
Disasters destroy housing and infrastructure of the affected areas either wholly or partially.
Each disaster, whether it is earthquake, cyclone or floods has its way of causing damage
to
houses, buildings, roads, railways, water supply, drainage, sewerage, telecommunication and
electricity network. It is very essential to have a clear idea of the extent
of this damage as
the success of any disaster recovery programme depends on
a realistic appraisal of losses to

110. 128 Rehabilitation, Reconstrrlction and Recovery
life and property. This Unit discussed the extent of vulnerability to disasters. It also examined
the nature of damage caused by different disasters and the various elements at risk in the
disaster vulnerable
risk areas. The major objective of the Unit was to
an~lyse the conceptual
underpinnings oE disasters like floods, cyclones and earthquakes by highlighting the nature of
damage inflicted
on physical infrastructure such as roads, buildings, telecommunications etc. -
9.10 KEY CONCEPTS
Avalanches can happen wherever there is snow lying on the ground disproportionately. Snow
is deposited
in successive
layers as the winter progresses. These layers may have dissimilar
physical properties and an avalanche occurs when one layer slides on another. An avalanche
may be dry or wet, depending on the presence of free water in the snow.
Deforestation
Deforestation is the
per~nanent destruction of indige~~ous forest and woodlands. It could be
brouglit about by various factors such as conversion of forests and woodlands to agricultural
land, plantation of cash crops etc., and cattle ranching, commercial logging, felling of trees for
firewood
or building material. It can further lead to soil erosion, silting and desertification.
Hurricane
Hurricane is a prc-existing tropical disturbance, an area of
low atmospheric pressure in the air
over the tropical Atlantic Ocean, near Caribbean islands. The current and moisture of the
ocean during late summer and early winters energises the pre-storm condition and leads to
thunderstorms. Some of the very intense
tropical storms turn into hurricanes releasing tremendous
energy. Hurricanes can cause huge damage
through the swirling winds and force of heat energy.
9. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
IGNOU Certificate Programme in Disaster Management (CDM-02), "Disaster Management:
Methods and Techniques
", Block 6, Unit
29:
Manual on Natural Disaster Management in India, 2001, National Centre for Disaster
Management, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi.
Parsai, Gargi, 2005, "When Nature Strikes Rack" in The Hirzdu, December 25.
Sahni, Pardeep, Alka Dha~neja and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disaster Mitigation:
Experielzces aizcl RejZectioizs, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Website:
9.112 ACTIVITIES i
i
I
1) Try to visit some disaster -affected site near your place or go through the media coverage on any j
disaster. Mdce a list of the different types of damage caused to housing and infrastructure.
I
i
!
I
2) Go through the newspaper or other media reports on Gujarat Earthquake (January 26,2001) or :
Tsunanli (December 26,2004) or Muzzafarabiid Earthquake (October 8,2005) and note down
the nature of' damages in the affected areas in terms of houses, buildings and other infrastructure.
I
1
I
I

111. UNIT 10 DISASTER RESISTANT HOUSE
CONSTRUCTION
Structure
10.0 Learning Outcome
, 10.1 Introduction
10.2 Guidelines for Disaster
Resistaillt Construction
10.3 Traditional Disaster Resistant Construction Techniques
10.4 Stone and Brick Buildings
10.5 Damage to Reinforced Concrete Cement Buildings
10.6 Building Codes and Standards
10.7 Recent Advances in Housing Technology
10.8 Agencies involved in Disaster Resistant Construction
10.9 Conclusion
10.10 Key Concepts
10.11 References and Further Reading
10.12 Activities
10.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading
this Unit, you will be able to:
'!
e Discuss the various types of modern and traditional disaster resistant construction techniques to
"
withstand earthq~~akes
o Examine the damage that could be caused to Reinforced Concrete Buildings; 'and
e Thsow light on the important building codes.
A large portion of the wealth of any nation is invested in its built
-up environment viz,, housing,
infrastructure, industrial and commercial facilities. The quality of this built
-up environment,
expressed in
terms of durability, safety and functionality, is a determining factor for the quality
of life and economic development of the society, and the competitiveness of its industry and
services. Extensive loss of this wealth is caused by natural disasters that strike periodically.
A
natural
disasler is an event of nature that causes sudden destruction, damaging the economy
and social structure on a massive scale. The calarnity results in a huge financial burden in
terms of relief and rescue operations. All-round decline in production, unemployment, indebtedness
as well as increased cost of goods and services are the other debilitating results of natural disasters.
This Unit deals with the traditional as well as modern disaster resistant construction techniques
to meet the aftermath of disasters. It examines the issue of damage to Reinforced Concrete
Cement (RCC) buildings by underlying the necessity of adherence to building codes and
standards. Some recent advances in housing technology are also highlighfed.

112. 130 Rehabilitation, Rcconstrucfion and Recovery
10.2 GUIDELINES FOR DISASTER N3SISTANT
With its vast territory, large population and unique geo -climatic conditions, India is periodically
exposed to natural catastrophes.' Even today, natural hazards such as floods, cyclones, droughts
and earthquakes are frequent phenomena in the country. While the vulnerability varies from
region to region,
a large part of the country is exposed to such natural hazards, which often
turn into disasters causing significant disruption to socio
-economic life of
com~nunities leading
to a huge loss of life and property.
Concerned with the impact of natural disasters, the governments at the central and state levels
are gradually evolving strategies, policies and programmes for natural disaster mitigation,
preparedness and prevention. In response to the
UN General Assembly Resolution declaring
1990 - 2000 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, the Government of
India has been taking several initiatives for strengthening disaster reduction strategies.
An
Expert Committee was also set up in July 1994, after the Yokohama Conference, to examine
disaster related issues and evolve suitable strategies. It is important to note that disaster
resistant construction forms one of the core issues being addressed at the disaster mitigation
and prevention
policy levels. This aspect was dealt with in detail in the Report prepared by the
Expert Committee.
For earthquake resistant construction, it is better to avoid hillside slopes and areas having
sensitive and clayey soil. It
sho~ild be preferable to have several blocks on terraces rather than
one large block with footings at different clusters. The building as a whole should be kept
almost symmetrical. Simple rectangular shapes behave better in an earthquake than shapes
with multiple projections. Separation of
a large building into several blocks is required for
symmetry and rectangularity of each block. Restricting the width of openings, using bond beains and taking recourse to steel or wooden dowels as well as RCC band at plinth, lintel and
roof levels are good disaster resistant techniques for buildings.
In case of cyclones, structures should
be erected in areas, which provide a protective shield
from high winds with natural firm level foundation. Flat roof arrangement should be avoided.
So should be the projecting elements like antennas and chimneys, eave projections, sunshades
etc. The construction should have adequate diagonal bracing, reinforced machinery, thicker
plate glass, and anchoring of
purlins to gable ends. As far as flood resistant housing is concerned,
prohibited zones should be totally avoided. Layout of the buildings/ houses should be such that
they do not block free flow of water. Construction should be done on raised mounds.
Waterproofing treatment, adequate bracing, afforestation in catchment areas
are required for
flood- prone areas. The Expert Committee Report covered the following issues:
Q Identification of various lmard-prone areas
Q Vulnerability and risk assessment 'of buildings
Outlining the disaster damage scenarios
Technical guidelines for hazard resistant construction
of buildings
6 Upgradation of hazard resistance of existing housing stock by retrofitting; and
r, Adoption of technical -legal regime,

113. Disaster Resistant House Construction 131
10.3 TRADITIONAL DISASTER RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION
TECHNIQUES
Earthquakes are not new to India, as 55 per cent of the country is prone to seismic shocks.
. Thus, traditional earthquake resistant house construction techniques are as old as the earthquakes. .
Several earthquake-prone regions in the country have traditionally built houses that miniml'se
the damage to life and property and stand up well in the wake of the quake. The traditional
wisdom and attention to detail can be applied to modern material as well. These techniques are
based on the use of traditional material e.g., timber and bamboo for building houses.
Avoiding compression structures like domes, vaults and arches is *another option. The structural
system needs to be tensile and the material should be flexible, as is the case with timber, steel
and bamboo. It also helps if the structure is constructed in a way that
it vibrates as one unit
and
sways together. Traditional constructions in India for example in the Northern Coast follow
this principle, as also the tall skyscrapers of Tokyo. Tradilionally built timber houses have
proved to be the most effective in keeping the damage at
bay. It would, however, be incorrect
to say that the old
-fashioned houses have survived just because of the material used. The
construction techniques too have determined the amount of damage.
Most new constructions with heavy roofs (slate tiles or
.RCC) supported by weak walls
(random rubble in mud mortar) have proven deadly. Older houses at higher elevations have
timber roofs held together'by timber and tie
-bands, horizontal timber beams spanning across the
entire building, connecting the entire structure and giving
it the character of a cage. Such
houses have suffered little damage despite the mud and stone masonry.
Quake resistant houses should have tie-bands just above the level of the floor, the level of the
doors and windows, and another at the roof level. Corners are the most vulnerable and thus
ought to be strengthened. Elasticity of the structure can be enhanced with flexible steel rods
or wood batons at corners. Doors and windows should be few, small and sy~nmetrically placed
away from the corners. The house should be as light as possible. It should be noted that all
houses designed by the renowned architect Laurie Baker remained intact during the 1999
Charnoli earthquake. Baker had laid emphasis on the use of local construction material coupled
with traditional wisdom.
Some of the huge multi-storeyed building constructions in Garhwal Himalayas, known for high
seismic activity, employ earthquake resistant traditional architectural design,
A few building
structures, five to six storeys high, have endured the ravages of time, weather and geo
-activity
for hundreds of years, These constructions are locally
kilown as 'Sumer', 'Chaukhat' or
'Kothi'. These structures have withstood a number of earthquakes, including the recent ones.
Let us now look at the nature of technology used in such constructions:
The Building Technology in 'Sumers'
.The Sumers are ascribed to the Rajput families of Rajasthan in India. They built the Sumers
to function as watchtowers and to provide for the defence of all the families living in an area,
rather than for the protection of a single family. Structures comparable to the 'Sumer', with
some variations have also been reported from Pakistan, Afghanistan and Nepal, all in the
Himalayan
-
Karakorarn earthquake-prone zone. The indigenously devised building technology,
which is used to erect Sumers, makes use of locally available resources such as long thick
wooden logs, stones, slates and clay to specification. Typical. 'Sumers' stand
15-17 mts high
from the ground level and have
5-6 floors with 4 rooms on each floor. The ground area
covered by the Sumer is
86
sq.mt. A foundation trench 3 mts deep and 70 cms wide is first
dug and then refilled with well
-dressed flat stones. This foundation is then raised above the

114. 132 Rehubilitation, Reconstrucfion and Recovery
ground in the fashion of a rectangular platform, to the height of 2.3 mts with the help of flat
stones, clay and stone fillings.
The structure of the 'Sumer' rests upon this platform.
To raise the walls, double wooden logs ,
are placed horizontally on the edge of the two parallel sides of the platform, which are opposite
to each other. The
width.of the logs determines the thickness of the walls, which is 70 cins.
On the other two parallel sides, the wall is raised with well -dressed flat stones to the surface
level of the logs placed on the other two sides. The walls are further raised to
30
crns by
placing heavy, well
-dressed flat stones upon the wooden logs on the two sides and by placing
another pair of wooden logs upon the stones on the other two opposite sides.
The four walls of the structure are thus raised using the wooden logs and dressed up flat stones
alternately,
up to a height of about
17mt. The structure is further reinforced with the help of
wooden beams fixed alternately that run from the middle of the walls of one side to the other,
intersecting at the centre. This arrangement divides the 'Sumer' into
4 equal parts
from within
and provides for joists supporting the floorboards in each floor of the building. On the fourth
and the fifth floors, the 'Sumer' has a balcony with a wooden railing running around on all four
sides. The fourth floor is also provided with a toilet-cum-bathroom on the balcony. Specially
designed wooden ladders provide access to the different floors, which are located within the
'Sumer'. The roof of the 'Sumer' is laid with slate stones. These type of structures have
proved to be quite resistant to earthquakes, and the design and technique behind them could
be used in the present context.
Technology used in 'Chaukhats'
The technology applied on the 'Chaukhats' or
'Kothi' is reininiscent of a machine stitch on a
fabric that keeps a piece of cloth in shape. In like manner, the technology makes use of wood
like a thread and keeps the entire structure intact against the ravages of weather and geo-
activity. Through -stones and flat -stones are used, and wood predominates the structures of
whatever dimensions they are. Pairs
of thick wooden logs, beginning
from the base of any two
opposite walls are used at every
30 inches alternately with heavy stones to raise the walls and
run through the entire length of all the walls.
At the right angle where any two walls meet, the edges of the pair of logs on one wall are
placed on the edge of the logs of the other
and they are joined together by hammering thick
wooden nails through them. This has an effect of turning the structure into a single piece
construction. Any devices used for windows, doorways, ventilators or floor
-joists are joined to
these well-secured pairs of logs, which further strengthen the structure. The use of pair of logs
gives to the wall a thickness of
almost 70 crns. Such time -tested technologies for building quake
resistant houses are still available in the Himalayan region in India.-Let us now highlight some
quake resistant technologies used in other countries such as Nothern Peru.
Earthquake Resistant
IIousing in Peru
In the Grauniad San Martin regions of Northern Peru, over two million people are vulnerable
to disasters including those caused by floods, landslides and earthquakes. Traditional 'Quincha'
building technology results in a flexible structure with an inherent earthquake resistance. It has
been used in parts of Peru for many centuries. Traditionally, a 'Quincha' house would have
a round pole set directly in the ground, filled in with smaller wooden poles and interwoven to
I
form a matrix, whicli is then plastered with one or more layers of earth, The structures
performed well during earthquakes, but in May
1990, an earthquake struck the relatively
isolated
Alto
Mayo region of Northern Peru and destroyed 3000 houses. It was then decided
by the buiIders, householders and comlnunity organisations in Alto Mayo to introduce improved,

115. Disaster. Resistant House Corzstr~lction 133
earthquake
-resistant building technology called 'Quincha
Mejorada'. Improved 'Quincha' has
the following characteristics over and above the traditional 'Quincha':
e concrete foundations for greater stability
@ Wooden columns tseated with tar or pitch to protect against humidity, concreted into the ground
with nails embedded
in the wood at the base to give extra anchorage
@ Use of concrete wall bases to prevent humidity affecting the wood and the canes in the walls
o Careful jointing between columns and beans to improve structural integrity
o Canes woven in a vertical fashion to provide greater stability
o Lightweight metal sheet roofing to reduce danger of falling tiles
e Nailing roofing material to roof beams; tying of beams and columns with roof wires
o Incorporating roof eaves of sufficient width to ensure protection of walls from heavy rains
In April
1991, a second tremor hit the region damaging a further 9600 homes. However, the
70
improved 'Quincha' houses that had been built since May, wilhstood the tremor so well that
a further 4000 odd houses have since been built along with several schools and co~nmunity
centres. Today, knowledge of this type of design as well as the building skills are so widespread
in the local coln~nunities that the Intermediate Technology Developn~ent Group or ITDG, (An
international
NGO, which works with poor around the world to develop appropriate and sustainable
technologies that will enhance the livelihoods,
e.g., in countries of Latin America, South Africa,
East ~frica and South Asia) has been able to move on to 'Q~iincha' network.
I 1
I Adobe brick is an inexpensive, readily available construction material used throughout Latin
, America, especially in rural areas. Unfortunately, these solid and rigid bricks tend ta crack and
+break apart during an earthquake, causing walls to collapse and ceilings to cave in. Much cleat11
r, and injury could be avoided if structures were made Inore secure in this earthquake-prone
country. Researchers have designed a frame consisting of a grid of bamboo poles anchored
at
the top and bottom that allows the walls and roof to react to the vibrations of an earthquake
as a unit,
rather than breaking apart. The new design has been tested on a seismic table and
has proved capable of resisting a force equal to that of Peru's strongest earthquake. Several
prototype modeIs of schools, clinics and community centres have been built, and the new
I construction methods have been widely promoted. The improved construction teqhniques require
no special skills beyond those of an ordinary mason.
10.4 STONE AND BRICK BUILDINGS
As against the concrete buildings as well as the buildings that
use 'Sumer' and 'Quincha' type
I of design, the stone and brick buildings have a bad track record. As we have mentioned in Unit
9 of this Course, they normally do not perform well duling an earthquake. It is important, thus,
to know why we should avoid using solely stone or brick buildings.
I Stone Masonry Buildings
Such buildings are most commonly used in the hills of Western U.P, Hirnachal Pradesh, and
Killari District of Malu-~rashtra. These are single or double storey buildings with inud mortar
I
or no mortar at all. The thickness of stonewalls is around 40 cm in two vertical layers. Tile

116. 134 Rehabilitatioiz, Reconstruction and Recovery ,
roof generally consists of tiled stone slates. Such buildings suffer maximum damage during any
calamity. The failure seems almost
in the waiting in such buildings leading to heavy loss of
human life and livestock.
Typical Failure Pattern is as
follows:
e Overturning of walls due to out of plane inertia forces
e Separation of the two leaves of stone walls
9 Collapse of roof due to very heavy self -weight
The Main Reasons of ~ailure are:
o No mortar. to weak mortar in stone walls
e No continuity at the joints of the walls in horizontal plane
0 Lack of through-stones between the outer and inner leaves of stone wall
0 Very heavy roof of stone slates
m Lack of interconnection in roofs and walls
Brick Masonry Buildings ...
Brick buildings, if not constructed in adherence to the norms of symmetry, interconnections and
reinforcement, perform rather badly during earthquakes.
Typical Failure Pattern is as follows:
Diagonal cracks through masonry units
I(
e Overturning of walls due to out of plane inertia forees .
e ~krtical cracks in walls due to plane bending action
.
r
e Failure of wall connections
9 Collapse of roof
9 Unreinforced gable end masonry walls being unstable, the strutting action of purlins impos'es
additional force
The Main Reasons of Failure in Such Buildings are:
e Poor material workmanship
i
e Long walls
e Openings in walls to the extent of 50% of length
1
e Openings too close to the corners of walls
t
Lack of structural integrity
?
!

117. Disaster Resistant House Construction
e Unsymmetrical plan of building
e Poor soil or bad foundation
110.5 DAMAGE TO REINFORCED CONCRETE CEMENT
BUILDINGS .
i
A significant number of the mid -rise buildings suffered dramatic failure generally from loss of
stability due to the soft ground storey during the January 26, 2001 Bhuj earthquake. Many
buildings had only two to four columns at the ground floor. The size of columns on the ground
floor varied from 230mrnX 230- to 230mrn ~do~rnrn, depending upon the storey height. The
frames had weak column
-strong girder proportions. Typical deficiencies included insufficient
column ties, lack of cross ties, 90 degree rather than
135 degree hooks on the ties, splices with
inadequate length and confinement and no staggering. Even the
G+10 (i.e., ground floor and
10 more floors) storey buildings had isolated footings without interconnecting foundation beams.
Some of the buildings were located on in
-filled soil without carrying out detailed geo -technical
investigations. These buildings had used poor quality
of concreting including no control on
water
-cement ratio, poor compaction and little curing. Fortunately, from amongst over 3, 00,000
buildings in Ahmedabad, only a very small fraction collapsed or suffered any major damage.
The buildings that suffered damage were the newly constructed ones that had not followed any
building byelaws and codes.
No building can remain entirely free of damage during a high density earthquake. Nevertheless
all houses, big or small, can be made safer or quake resistant. Structures can be made to
withstand earthquakes of a particular magnitude by
taking certain precautions. Buildings generally
collapse as a result of inertial forces. During an earthquake, the lower part of
a building tends
to vibrate, as it is in direct contact with the ground. The forces of inertia, however, keep the
-upper portions static. This conflict of forces leads to collapse. The magnitude of these forces
is directly proportional to the weight of
the building, the heavier the structure
the greater is the
damage. If the structure is light, lesser number of people die in case of a collapse.
* It is necessary to provide horizontal reinforcement in walls for imparting bending strength in
the horizontal plane against plate action for out of plane inertia load, and for tying the perpendicular
walls together. It is provided in the form of following bands:
e Plinth bad ;
Lintelband
e Roof band
'
e Gable band
A band is a reinforced concrete beam provided continuously through all -load bearing longitudinal
and transverse walls at a given level. It consists of 2 or 4 longitudinal steel bars with links or
stirrups embedded in
75 mm or
150mm thick concrete. The thickness of the band may be made
equal to the thickness oflor a multiple of masonry unit and its width may be made equal to the
thickness of the wall. The steel bars are located close to the wall faces, and full continuity is
provided at the corners and junctions. The diameter of the bars may vary from Xmrn to 16mm
depending upon the unsupported span of the walls.

118. 136 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovely
10.6 BUILDING CODES AND STANDARDS
Building codes are standards and guidelines for constivction of buildings to ensu?e a minimum
level of safety for the occupants. An appropriate building code iucorporates a thorough
understanding of the forces that natural hazards impose on the area governed by the code.
. Building codes are only one of the tools for increasing the resilence of the built -up environment
in the face of natural hazards.. Land use planning, emergency management, natural resource
protection and infrastructure development policies play significant roles as well. Coordination j of these activities can be achieved through comprehensive hazard mitigation planning.
It is never possible through any building standard to
lay down foolproof regulations for protection
of infrastructure from earthquakes of all magnitudes. It is also not possible to build earthquake
proof buildings.
However, the design approach adopted in the building codes is to ensure that
a building structure possesses:
Minimum strength to withstand minor earthquakes, which occur frequently, with some non-
structural damage
o Resistance to moderate-earthquakes, which occur once in ten years or so, with minor stxuctural
damage and some non~structural damage; and
a Withstanding capacity to a major earthquake, which is likely to occur once in a lifetime of the
structure, without complete collapse.
Actual forces that occur during earthquakes are much greater than those specified in any
building code. However, ductility (capability to undergo deformation), arising from inelastic
material behaviour and detailing
of reinforcement and overstrength, arising from the additional
reserve strength in structures over and above the design strength are relied upon to account
for this difference in the actual and design loads. Critical facilities such as hospitals, telephone
exchanges, powerhouses, schools, community centres, water tanks, airports etc., are designed
for higher
earthquake forces so that they must remain functional after the occurrence of
:'earthquake.- It may be noted that the cost of incorporating earthquake resistance features in
a new building may be merely about 15% to 25% of the civil costs of the building.
The building regulatory system plays an important role in ensuring the quality of the built -up
environment. But designing appropriate standards and mitigation programmes for natural hazards
reiukes a sound understanding of the distribution, magnitude and frequency of those hazards.
Also, it is equally essential to evolve an inspection mechanism that ensures adherence to the
code and plans. Enforcement is generally .the wehkest part of the system, often due to lack
of human and financial resources allocated to this function. It could also be due to political
interference
in the regulatory system.
The Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS) has initiated several pre -disaster mitigation projects to
reduce the impact of natural disasters on life and property as well as bring down social
vulnerabilities. It has undertaken standardisation efforts in the area of earthquake engineering.
The
HilnalaLan - Nagalushai region, Indo-Gangetic plain, Western India, Kutch and Kathiawar
regions in Gujarat are geologically unstable parts of the country. Hence, some devastating
earthquakes of the world have occurred here. Strong earthquakes have also visited a major
part of peninsular India. But these have been relatively few in number and of considerably
, lesser intensity. Table 10.1 indicates the frequency, intensity and damage caused by earthquakes
around the world in the past century. Taking cognisance of their frequency and intensity, it is,
thus, all the more important to follow the building codes and earthquake resistant designs more
rigorously,

119. Disaster Resistant House Construction
Table 10.1
S.No.
1)
2)
1 I I I
Date
3)
1 5) 1 December 16, 1920 I Gansu, China 1 7.8 1 200,000 [
April 4, 1905
August 17, 1906
4) 1 January 13, 1915
Place
I I I I
-
December 28, 1908
Kangra, India
Valparaiso,
Chile
I I
L I
Avezzano, Italy
7)
Magnitude
-
Messina, Italy
8)
9)
1 11) I January 25, 1939 ' I Chillan, Chile ( 8.3 1 28,000 1
Deaths
8.6
8.2
7.5
~e~tember 1, 1923
May 22, 1927
lo)
I 12) 1 December 26, 1939 I Erzincan, Turkey 1 7.8 1 30,000 I
19,000
20,000
7.2
29,980
December 25,1932
January 15, 1934
100,OOO
Kanto, Japan
Tsinghai, China
May
30, 1935
Gansu, China
Bihar, India
13)
7.9
7.9
.
*
Quetta, Pakistan
14)
15)
, 143,000
200,000
7 6
pi '+
.- 8.1
I I' I I
October 5, 1948
16)
17)
18)
70,000
10,700
7.5
May 31, 1970
~ebruary.4, 1976
19)
20)
Source: The United States ~eolo~ical Survey (Cf The Hindctsta~~ Times, October 9, 2005),
3
60,m
Ashgabat, Turk
- -
July 27, 1976
December 7, 1988
September 29, 1993
21)
22)
Table 10.2
Peru
Guatemala
January
26,2001
December 26,2003
Worldwide Annual Frequency of Earthquakes
7.3
Tangshan, China
Spitak, Armenia
Latur, India
December
26,2004
October 8, 2005
I ~es~ri~tian I Great 1 Major Strong ,-, ., 1 oder rat el Light 1 in or 1very Minor 1\.
30,000
7.9
7.5
-
Gujaral, India
-----
Barn, Iran
110,000
23,000
7.5
6.8
6.2
Sumatra, Indonesia
Near
Muzaffarabad (PoK)
Soukce: ibid. .
655,000
25,OOO
9,748
7.7
6.6
*r
20,023
26,200
9.0
7.6
26,106
N.A.
Annual
Average
1 17 134 1319 13.00 130,000
: .-
' 1,300.000
' ,

120. 138 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
The damage caused by these major earthquakes has been very huge. In a bid to bring down
the loss of life and property after disasters, there is a need to systernatise and standardise the
earthquake resistant design and construction of structures taking into account seismic data
from studies of the past earthquakes. To serve this purpose, building standards have been
formulated in the field of design and construction of earthquake resistant structures as also in
the field of measurement and tests connected therewith by the Earthquake agineering Sectional ''
Committee, CED 39. Let us now look at some of these building standards:
e IS 1893 Standard- Deals with earthquake resistant design of structures and is applicable to
buildings, elevated structures, bridges and dams. It also provides a map, which divides the country
into five seismic zones, based on the seismic intensity
@ IS 4326: 1993- Provides for guidance in selection of materials, special features of design and
cons&uction for earthquake resistant buildings including masonry, timber and pre -fabricated
constructions. It intends to cover [he specified features of design and construction for e'arthquake
resistance of buildings of conventional types. The general principles to be observed in the
construction of such quake resistant buildings as specified in this standard are lightness, continuity
of construction, avoiding / reinforcing projections and suspended parts, building configuration
strength
in various directions, stable foundations, ductility of structure, connection to non -structural parts and fire safety of structures
0 IS 13827: 1993- Deals with the design and construction aspects for improving earthquake
resistance of earthen houses, without the use of stabilisers such as lime, cement and asphalt. It
has been recommended that buildings should be light, single -storeyed and of a simple rectangular plan
e IS 13828: 1993- Covers the special features of design and construction for improvingearthquake
resistance of buildings of low strength masonry
e IS 13920: 1993- Includes the requirements for designing and detailing of monolithic reinforced
concrete buildings to give them adequate toughness and ductility to resist severe earthquake
shocks without collapse
0 IS 13935: 1993- Covers the selection of material and techniques to be used for repair and
seismic strengthening of damaged buildings during earthquakes, and retrofitting for upgradation
of seismic resistance of the existing buildings
Despite, the stipulated building codes and standards, their adherence is still a rarity in the
developing countries of South Asia. Lack of awareness on the part of community and inadequate
training of masons and builders in earthquake resistant techniques could be the reasons for this.
It is lamentable that no governmental or community monitoring mechanism exists to oversee
the. implementation of the byelaws, legal provisions
and sanctions.
-
We all have a very reactive approach to disasters. Crores and crores are spent on relief and
rehabilitation while not even 1/41h of this amount goes into preparedness and proactive measures.
,The recent Earthquake in Muzzafarabad in Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (POK) is an eye
opener. It has been the most devastating Earthquake of this century. It just seems that even
today, in this age of massive scientific advancement and Information Communication Technology
revolution, we are where we were centuries ago i.e., ever vulnerable to the wrath of nature.
I
10.7 RECENT ADVANCES IN HOUSING TECHNOLOGY
L
Let us move on to some of the technologies that are innovative and quake resistant. These
" [
need to be made use of in order to cope with disasters like the earthquakes and cyclones:

121. Disaster Resistant House Construction
Base Isolation Technology
Reducing the forces transmitted to the building from the ground by placing the building atop
a mechanical system of isolators, sliders and dampers is called 'base isolation technology'. This
dampens the violent movements of the earth during a seismic event. By using isolators and
dampers, the building is 'decoupled' from the ground motion of any earthquake and the
transmission of seismic energy to the building is dampened.
This is done by lowering the vibrational frequency, allowing the building to move or displace.
It is also done
by lowering the shock acceleration of the seismic event; thus reducing the
tendency for the upper floors to move faster than the lower floors. In general, buildings that
have been isolated in this way are subjected to
113" to 115"' of the horizontal acceleration to
that of conventional structures during a seismic event. The isolator is a sandwich of alternating
layers of 1/4th inch steel plate and 1/4th inch rubber, which are vulcanised to form a single
integrated unit. It is able to displace horizontally in any direction
by 24 inches from the centre.
Natural Disaster Resistant Housing
Over the years, the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), in partnership with the
U.S. Department of Housing
add Urban Development (HUD), has been funding major research
and empirical studies involving the
NAHB Research Centre and universities around the country
to examine
a variety of structural performance issues related to natural disasters. The research
findings are being used to guide the future use of existing and new construction technologies
and building systems. One of the Research Centre's activities is zeroing in on how well the
houses using Insulating Concrete Forms
(ICFs) are able to resist natural hazards such as
hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes, floods and fires. .
ICF construction is relatively new to the building codes and home building industry of the
United States, ICFs are hollow foam blocks or panels that stack and interlock to create exterior
walls of a building. Reinforced concrete is then placed inside the foam blocks, creating strong,
insulated concrete walls. ICF construction is already noted for benefits such as energy efficiency
and durability, but its structural performance when faced with natural hazards is largely
undocumented, and that is the focus of ongoing (study at the Research Centre.
Reinforcing Concrete
Reinforcing concrete to keep it from cracking is nothing new. There are records to show that
ancient civilizations used to make use of natural fibres to inhibit cracking in structures. Today,
synthetic
-fibre reinforcement is available to reinforce
non-structural concrete applications with
superior results. Currently, the most widely accepted form of reinforcement is Welded Wire
Fabric (WWF), It is a mesh of thick steel wires that is placed in concrete. However, synthetic -
fibre reinforcement avoids the increased labour costs and difficulty in placement that are
associated with WWE
Small diameter synthetic fibres (nylon and polypropylene) are now being added to concrete in
order reduce shrinkage and cracking by more than 80%, according to certain independent
laboratory tests. Reducing
the cracks lowers concrete premeability, increases its toughness and
long
-term exposure to weather. It also reduces callbacks in concrete slab floors, decks, driveways
and walks. According to fibre manufacturers, the placement, curing or finishing characteristics
of the concrete are not affected by the addition of fibrous reinforcement. Larger
-diameter
synthetic fibres (steel and polyolefin) added at higher content by volume
(0.5% to 1.5%
respectively) also enhance hardened flexural strength, but at an increased cost.

122. Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recove~y
Cyclone Resistant Dwelling Construction
The Cyclone-ravaged Orissa is in the process of being rebuilt using disaster resistant housing
technology. Modern building techniques, which help the dwellings to withstand instense storms
like the one that lashed Orissa on October 29, 1999, are being made available to the people
who have to rebuild their homes. The new technology has been developed by the National
Building Construction Corporation (NBCC). It involves the use of pyramidal roofs so that the
thnist area is reduce'd and the tile use to give the roof the required shape is made possible.
The walls and foundation .have been well
-spaced to allow for flexibility when a building is
buffeted
by strong winds. Such building techniques are commonly used in quake-prone areas
in Japan and along the
Californian coastline in the United States.
Disaster Resistant Pier Systems
A good foundation of the house is of immense help in making it disaster resistant. For
manufactured houses, one option is a disaster resistant pier system, with stout members rigidly
connecting the house's cl~assis to a slab, grade beam, or array of pads. Some systems incorporate
lateral or diagonal bracing for greater resistance. Though often referred to as Earthquake
Resistant Bracing
(ERB) systems, these also resist high winds, frost heaves and floods. Not
only are these systems cost
-effective in reducing structural
movement (compared to
conventionally manufactured housing foundations); they can even save lives and property.
I11 earthquake-prone zones, disaster resistant pier systems are generally considered to be more
cost-effective than ground anchor systems, which do not aIways perform adequately. The
anchors are usually located on the longer sides of the house, which bear the greatest wind
loads. However, earthquake loads can occur in any direction and additional anchors on the
short sides increase costs. Because the piers are usually separated from the soil by pads, rust
and deterioration are not such big concerns, as they are for ground anchors.
10.8 AGENCIES
INVOLVED IN DISASTER RESISTANT
CONSTRUCTION
' Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO)
As we will also be reading in our next Unit, there are many agencies working in the area of
housing technology for disasters. One
of the most important ones is HUDCO. It is the only
organisation in India that has been
working on the issues of disaster mitigation'and use of
disaster ~esistant technology in construction for the past several decades. Apart from its routine
operations of techno
-financing, housing and basic infrastructure, it promotes disaster -resistant
technologies for
hunlan habitat. It adopts villages to demonstrate how to go about building
shelters with simplicity and safety through simple illustration of 'Do s and Don'ts' in disaster-
prone areas. It provides knowledge on spatial planning and design in disaster-prone areas
keeping the traditional socio
-cultural styles intact.
HUDCO
imparts skills in improvising traditional building techniques using local materials to
masons and artisans through its network of building centres all over the country. It conducts
workshops
to
train engineers, architects, builders, administrators and project managers on the
importance of using safe technologies for construction of buildings at its Human Settlement
Management Institute
in Delhi. It funds rehabilitation projects that require reconstruction and
extends financial help for retrofitting of housing and infrastructure. As on December
2004,
HUDCO has funded reconstruction
/ rehabilitation of 1, 911, 368 dwelling units in the country
with a loan amount of Rs.1342.37 crores in disaster -affected areas. Its total operations in
hoi~sing loan commitments have been around Rs. 17, 116 crores.

123. Disaster Resi.ttarzt House Consrrucfion
8
FICCI-CARE Gujarat Rehabilitation Project (FCGRP)
This Project has raised nearly 120 crores for relief and rehabilitation work in the worst-affected
communities of Gujarat. The Project has successfully completed co~lstruction of over 3157
csore earthquake and cyclone resistant homes. The construction of additional 2765 homes has
commenced and the construction of community infrastructure is underway. These buildings
incoriorate important safety features such as steel reinforcing of all corners of the house and
reinforcement of the plinth, beam and roof levels, the latter being an essential component for
cyclone resistance, since the area is prone to high winds from the Arabian Sea.
In fact, all construction is
as per the specifications of the Indian Standards for Earthquake
Safety
4326-1993, as provided in the guidelines issued by the
Gujarat State Disaster Management
Authority. Each core house covers an area of
30 square meters, and it
takes into account the
existing lifestyle of the beneficiaries. The design for the core house has been developed in
consultation with the people and top architects, well -versed in earthquake and cyclone safety
guidelines. There are many other agencies that are involved in disaster resistant construction.
We will read more about them in our next Unit.
10.9 CONCLUSION
The wrath of natural disasters could be reduced to a considerable degree with the adoption and
implementation of improved design, siting and disaster resistant construction techniques practicable
within the context of the cultural and socio
-economic constraints prevailing in the given regions.
When houses and buildings
constlucted through traditional methods, using conventional building
materials, do not exhibit the necessary disaster resistant characteristics, new designs and non
-
traditional building materials and construction techniques need to be developed
and put to use.
Adoption of disaster resistant technology for constructio~i is, therefore, an important consideration
for the national prograinmes and projects on disaster mitigation and prevention. This Unit threw
light on the different types ol ~nodern and traditional earthquake resistant construction techniques.
It discussed the importance of adhering to the building codes.
It also examined the role of
building agencies involved in disaster resistant construction.
10.10 KEY CONCEPTS
Arch
It is a curved structure
in a building supporting itself over open space by pressure of stones
one against the other.
Dowels
A dowel is a wooden metal peg joining two adjacent
.parts.
Dome
Rounded vault, which forms a roof.
Eave Projections
Overhanging edge of a roof.

124. 142 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovely
Gable Ends
Roof's corner joints or ends to support the wall.
Lintel and Plinth Levels
Lintel level is the top of the door or window and plinth is uppermost level of the foundation
at which damp proofing is done.
One of several horizontal timbers supporting
the rafters of a roof.
Yokohama Strategy
The Yokohama Strategy for Safer World had constituted an Expert Group in 1994 to study the
issues related to the impact
of natural hazards with .respect to housing and infrastructure. The
Yokohama Message includes:
0 Those affected most are the poor and socially disadvantaged in the developing countries as they
are the least equipped to cope with the situation
0 Disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than disaster response
0 Disaster response alone yields temporary relief at a very high cost
o Disaster prevention contributes to lasting improvement in safety
10.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
. Dhameja, Alka, 2003, "Disaster Risk Reduction through Disaster Resistant Construction
Techniques
" in
Pardeep- Sahni and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), Disaster Risk
Reduction in South Asia, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Guidelines on Improving Earthquake Resistance of Housing, 1999
-2000, Building Materials and
Technology Promotion Council
(BMTPC), Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty
Alleviation, Department of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation, Government of India,
New Delhi.
Guidelines
for Building Reconstruction in Cyclone Affected Areas in
Orissa, 2000, HUDCO,
January.
IGNOU Certificate Programme in Disaster Management (CDM 1 and 2).
Mathur,
G.C, 1986, Housing in Disaster Prone Areas, ESCAP, New Delhi.
,
Seminar Excerpts on "Earthquakes in Built Environment ", 2001, Journal of Indian Building
Congress, Volume 8, No.1.
Websites:
I

125. Disaster Resistant House Construcfiorz
10.12 ACTIVITIES
4
1) Go through the newspaper clippings or magazine write-ups on any recent reconstruction work in
a disaster-affected region and make a list of the number of structures erected as well as retrofitted
using disaster resistant technology
in that
aredregion.
2) Prepare a list of existing houses, and other infrasbuctme in your area that have made use of
disaster resistant building technology.
3) Make a list of the agencies involved in building disaster resistant material and technology.

126. UNIT 11 ROLE OF WOUSING/BUPLDING
AUTHORITIES
Structure
11.0 Learning Outcome
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
in the Aftermath of Disasters
11.3 Role of Various Agencies in Reconstruction
11.3.1 Governmental Agencies
1
1.3.2 Non-governmental Agencies
1 1.3.3 International Agencies
1 1.4 Conclusion
11.5 Key Concepts
1 1.6 References and Further Reading
11.7 Activities
11. LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
e Discuss the nature of rehabilitation and reconstruction in the event of disasters
a Throw light on the f~~nctions that are performed at the pre -, during- and post-disaster and
e Examine the role of governmental, non -governmental and international agencies in the area of
reconstruction in disaster -affected areas.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters, due to the scale and extent in which they affect the population, are devastating
calamities. It thus becomes imperative that actions to mitigate their adverse effects are initiated
quickly and at
all the governmental levels-central, state and local. It has been observed that
over the past few decades, though the frequency of disasters has been on the rise, the
rehabilitation work has been slow and tardy. Among the important reasons for increased
I
vulnerability is the lack of initiative and coordination efforts on the part of all the stakeholders
to manage a disaster situation. Precious time is lost by the concerned agencies in getting their
I
act together in order to' make an impact at the time of disaster.
'L
,Even though various efforts have been made to control, mitigate or inanage disasters, success
stories on the rehabilitation front have been few and far between. This is so despite
the fact
that considerable progress has been made in the area of organisation of governmental functions
and division of responsibilities at the central, state and district levels. The district administration
in the country is now required to prepare in advance a contingency plan depending on the types
of disasters that are likely to occur in the district. At the level of the state government, natural

127. Role of Housing / Building Authorities 145
disasters are usually the responsibility of the Revenue Department or the Relief Department.
While important policy decisions
are taken at the state headquarters by the Cabinet under the
Chief Minister, the day
-to-day decisions involving policy matters, or exercise of financial powers,
which have not been delegated to the Divisional Commissioner or Collectorate, are taken or
exercised by the secretaries in the
rninistries/departments.
At the district level, while the immediate rehabilitation is carried out by the district administration
functionaries, the long
-term exercise is supposed to be taken up by different state and central
level agencies. For instance, shelter provision is
usually taken care of by the State Housing
Boards and Development Authorities. In all types of rehabilitation efforts, the district administration
becomes the coordination body. This Unit highlights
the
nattwe of rehabilitation and reconstruction
in the wake of disasters and brings out the role of different governmental, non -governmental
and international agencies in disaster management.
11.2 REHABILITATION AND 'RECONSTRUCTION IN
TNE
ATH OF DISASTERS
The priorities in a situation of disaster rehabilitation are:
e Provision of emergency relief to be operationalised by the way of mobilising human and material
resourcei on a war footing. It should comprise food security, construction of temporary shelters
and other basic needs
e Rehabilitation of all the displaced people, restoration of basic and alternative means of livelihood
along with community
-based infrastructure and institutions; and
e Initiation of long-term development interventions, which would lead to sustainable community -
based actions.
The 'oughts' and 'shoulds' pertaining to rehabilitation always sound logical and coherent. There
is often a sense of clarity and unanimity on the concept of rehabilitation. However, various
studies on disaster aftermath project a chaotic picture of mismanagement and lack of coordination
(Medury and Dhameja,
2005). The work regarding rehabilitation should, thus, mainly comprise
housing and infrastructure rehabilitation,
econolnic rehabilitation and social rehabilitation.
Psychological rehabilitation is also an important component, but
we will deal with it separately
in our later Units.
For housing rehabilitation, the existing inhabited settlements may
be completely reconstructed
at a new site for which land acquisition may have to be done. Housing rehabilitation may also
be carried out by way of upgradation of existing damaged houses through repairs and retrofits.
Infrastructure such as
. roads, . water supply, sewerage, school, health centres etc., may be
required to be built in the existing sites or in the new relocated site depending upon the nature
,and extent of the rehabilitation programme.
The community's social systems have to be restored. The restoration of such systems can be
an important factor for the sustainability of all the essential services within the community,
. Economic rehabilitation is another very vital component of rehabilitation. All essentials such as
seed, manure, livestock etc., have to be distributed as initial capital to restart the economic
activities. In this way, employment can
also be generated for rehabilitation work. Also, all the

128. 146 Rehabilitation, Reconst~.~tction and Recovery
-military forces have a mandate to aid civil authorities during disaster management. They have
a major role to play in all the phases of disaster management i.e., disaster preparedness,
disaster response and disaster rehabilitation.
At the national level, depending on the type of disaster, a nodal ministry is assigned the task
of coordinating all activities of the state and district
adminislration and the other support
ministries/departments. The rescue, relief ,and rehabilitation measures have to be undertaken by
the concerned state governments. The coordination for all relief operations is the responsibility
of the Central Relief Commissioner, At the central and state levels, the coordination is to be
achieved by various cormnittees and departments involved in disaster management. The exercise
is dependent on
the huge amount of resources that are mobilised for rescue, relief and
rehabilitation work during natural disasters. An emergency situation is characterised
by
overwheln~ing basic needs, competing priorities, damaged communication and transportation
infrastructure, rapid influx of providers of humanitarian assistance coupled with an outburst of
mutual aid from local citizens; and highly stressed local governmental and non-governmental
institutions. Thus, when we think of disaster aftermath, an image of chaos quickly springs to
our minds.
While coordinatioll may not be easily defined, its absence is characterised by gaps in service
to the affected population, duplication of efforl, inappropriate assistance, inefficient use of
resources, bottlenecks, impediments and slow reaction to changing conditions; and frustration
of relief providers, officials and survivors in general due to an unsatisfactory response
to an
emergency situation. Coordination is
a result of intentional actions to harmonise individual
responses to maximise impact and achieve synergy
-a situation where the overall effect is
greater than the
suin of the parts. There can be a little coordination or a lot of coordination
and for the part, the more coordination the better
it is.
At its best, coordination results in a humane, neutral and impartial assistance, an increased
management effectiveness; a shared vision of the best possible outcomes from a given situation,
a seamless approach to service delivery, and high confidence levels. It basically results
in
sufficient.resources to achieve the desired outcomes i.e., the least possible amount of human
suffering and material darnage, and a rapid return to normal living conditions and the ongoing
development process. Coordination begins with the initiation of working relationships and regular
sharing of information. As coordination increases, change could be seen in the way the relief
providers implement their programmes of assistance.
Since the relief providers cooperate with each other, the individuals and organisations adapt and
adjust their efforts based on changing needs and each other's strengths and weaknesses.
Coordination rarely is the result of one group or organisation telling another how
to do their
work. Certainly examples of coordination as
"directing" exist, especially where relief operations
are directed and controlled
by a strong national government, or in some cases, an international
organisation, but
these situations are rare. In this sense, natnral disasters are an economic
burden on developing countries like India.

129. Role of Housing / Building Authorities
Table 11.1
Functions that are generally performed at the pre -, during-, and post -disaster phases are
explained in the following Table:
Pre
-disas ter Awareness and information
Training of local volunteers and people
Advocacy and planning
During
-disaster . Immediate rescue and first aid
Supply of food, water, medicines
and other materials
- Sanitation
~~~iene
- Damage assessment
Post
-disaster Technical and material aid in reconstruction
Financial aid
Moni
toling and evaluation
Strengthening infrastructure
Information dissemination on disaster prevention and mitigation
11.3 ROLE
OF VARIOUS AGENCIES IN RECONSTRUCTION
Comprehensive rehabilitation measures are usually taken up if the magnitude of the disaster is
high. With the assistance from the international agencies, the government can take up rehabilitation
work, which includes restoration of shelter and livelihood depending upon the type of rehabilitation
required in the affected areas. The resources can be lnobilised through the concerned Ministry
as per the needs in order to tackle the natural disasters at the appropriate 1evels.Besides
various agencies, be it governmental or non -governmental or international, are performing
crucial functions in the management of disasters. Let us now discuss their specific responsibilities:
11.3.1 Governmental Agencies
As we mentioned before in our earlier Units, the basic responsibilities for undertaking search
and rescue, relief and rehabilitation
measures in the event of natural disasters is that of the
concerned state governments. The role of the central government is generally supportive in
terms of physical and financial resources. At the level of the state government, natural disasters
are usually the responsibility of the Revenue Department or the Relief Department. While
important policy decisions are taken up by the Cabinet headed by the Chief Minister at the
state level, the actual day
-to-day work of administering relief or implementing plans for disaster
mitigation at the field level is the responsibility of the Collector. The Collector or the
Cornmissioner
is the focal point at the field level for directing, supervising and monitoring relief measures for
disasters, and also for preparing the district level plans.
The basic responsibility
of disaster management lies with the state governments. However, the
actual operations are carried out by district administration. Also, there are other governmental
and
semi-ezutonomous agencies like the Housing Boards, working in the field of rehabilitation
and reconstruction of the disaster
-affected areas. Some of these agencies, as we have mentioned
. in Unit 10, are:
e State Housing Corporation: Its role is related to disaster resistant housing construction

130. 148 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC): Its role pertains to
propagating low -cost building materials and alternative constrilction techniques for disaster resistant
construction
s Central Building Research Institute: It works in the area of research on the habitat aspects
for disaster
-prone areas
e Housing and Urban Development Corporation
(HUDCO): It worlts in financing and
executing post
-disaster rehabilitation work along with conceiving methods for disaster preparedness
and disaster resistant housing
Structural Engineering Research Institute: It works in the areas of post-disaster surveys,
damage analysis, vulnerability and risk analysis of buildings and structures against natural disasters
11.3.2 Non-governmental Agencies
Disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness measures can play a
inajor role in minimising
the physical and human consequences of disasters via a wide range of structural and non -
structural measures. However, it is recognised that governments alone cannot achieve significant
sustainable hazard risk reduction and that greater emphasis must be placed upon local -level and
community
-based approaches, as well as on indigenous
ltnowledge and coping strategies
supported by Non
-governmental Organisations (NGOs). Indeed, NGOs appear to be well -
placed to play a significant role in this area. NGOs tend to work with the privileged, as well
as the marginalised groups in the society. Moreover, the participatory approach to development
pursued by many NGOs offers them an opportunity to
examine the nature of vulnerability of
the community and to incorporate appropriate measures into their work to cope with the
vulnerable groups.
NGO activities form an important part of international development and relief work. There are
different NGOs like the Red Cross Society, which have specific areas of field operations,
and
an extensive network to extend material,
linancial, as well as technical support. There are
charitable trusts for undertaking the distribution work immediately afler the disaster. These
organisations always come forward to play a crucial role to help the government in developrner~~tal
activities in different parts of the country.
The
NGO sector worldwide has grown rapidly in the past two decades, largely due to the
changing
wbrldwide perception on the NGOs among the communities, development professionals,
aid agencies, governments and the general public. It is now believed that the NGOs tire
particularly effective actors in development and relief. Some of the key features norinally cited
to justify this perception are:
e NGOs choose to work with the most needy sections
Participatory approach of NGOs, responding extensively to the needs of local people
r Long-term commitments of NGOs
o Speedy, flexible and cost -effective operations of NGOs
NGOs are innova'tive in identifying emerging issues and hying out new methods
e Disempowered or marginalised people could be given a voice in policy discussions with the rich
and powe&l through the NGOS ,

131. Role of Housirzg / Building A~~thorities 149
Some examples of NGOs working in the area of disaster manageinent are:
o Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywliere (CARE India): It is committed to
mitigate human suffering and loss of support systems in disaster situations. Their activities are
confined to relief operations in the aftermath of major natural disasters. They work closely with
national and state goveininents, generally responding to disasters at the governlnental request.
Their relief and development interventions
aim at improving the socio -economic conditions of the
poor
o Oxfam India Trust: It works in collaboration with development related organisations, and funds
the rehabilitation programmes in disaster
-affected areas
@ Ramakrishna Mission: It works in the areas of disaster preparedness and post-disastel-
management
0 Indian Red 'Cross Society: In the event of a disaster, the services of the Red Cross becon~e
auxiliary and/or complementiuy to that of the government. It provides immediate relief in case of
disasters. It takes care of medicines and first
-aid needed for the disaster -affected people
o Catholic Health Association of India (CHAX): It is the world's largest Voluntary Healthcare
Organisation. Its disaster response is characterised by 'holistic health through people's
empowerment'
0 Voluntary Health Association of India
(VHAI): Its goal is to 'Make health a reality for the
people of India'
o Action Aid: It has been involved with disaster management relalecl work in India since 1972
a Sustainable Environment and Ecological Development (SEEDS): It undertakes research
'
in all areas of disaster management and also provides support services for disaster related work
This is just an indicative list. There are several other NGOs in each country that are engaged
in addressing location
-specific vulnerabilities that may lead to disasters.
t
' '
11.3.3 International Agencies
There are different international agencies like the United Nations (UN) that are parlicipaling
in. the assistance work related to reduction of natural disasters. The pre-disaster and post -
disaster recovery process, usually consist of a series of distinct but interrelated programmes
e.g., for financial grants, building materials, technical equipment, rehabilitation, food for work,
and also assistance in the future development.
The important international agencies are: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
United Nations Economic and Social ~oo~eration (UNESCO), United Nations ChiIdren's.ljund
(UNICEF), World Health Organisation (WHO), United Nations Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA), United Nations World Food Programme
(WFP), Food
Agricultural Organisation
(FAO), International Labour Organisation (ILO), United Nations Fund
for Population (UNFPA), International Organisation for Migration (IOM). Asian Development
Bank
(ADB) and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
a International Federation of the Red Cross (WRC) and Red Crescent Societies: It is the
' world's largest huinanitarian organisation. Its main mission, broadly speaking, is to improve the
situation of
the world's most vulnerable people

132. 150 Rehabilitation, Recoizstruction and Recovery
e Department for International Development (DFID): It aims at funding and providing support
to disaster relief programmes
r USAID: In majority of the cases, United States Aid Programme (~~~1~)'doesn't directly
involve itself in disaster relief. It is more concerned with monitoring and reporting on disaster
preparedness and response activities. There may, however, be a provision through partner NGOs
for short
-term food aid to disaster victims
'. World Bank: The Disaster Management Facility of the World Bank has been established to
streamline disaster prevention and mitigation initiatives connected with all the activities pertaining
to disaster management. It has been doing a lot of work in the area of disaster mitigation
Q UNDP: Although the agreement does not allow UNDP to participate in relief operations unless
specially requested, it does receive all infarmation on the nature and extent of disaster damage
and loss of life. Its broad aim is to design responsive structures as well as implement prevention
and mitigation strategies
Q UNICEF: It contributes by donating funds to the Prime Minister's National Relief Fund. It
regula
r
ly meets with the government of the affected country in order to facilitate a more
coordinated disaster response mechanism
e UNOCHA: This office of the United Nations is mandated by the LN General Assembly to
coordinate humanitarian assistance of the UN family as well as that of international humanitarian
actions.
A Regional Office of the UNOCHA for Asia and the Pacific operates from Bangkok,
Thailand
NGPs work in close coordination with the international agencies. The financial aid for natural
disasters should be released throu
gh main channels as disasters impose a huge strain on
country's financial and other resources. In such a situation, it is almost impossible to cope with
the financial aid from international agencies. For that matter, it is very essential to keep
a track
of all the amounts pouring into the affected countries, and to ensure that they are utilised in
an appropriate manner. Disaster management mechanism can be made effective and functional
only through adequate coordination among different agencies. Necessary steps should be taken
up so that there is no duplicity in the
working of the governmental, non -governmental and
international organisations, and unnecessary delays and bottlenecks are avoided, ,.
11.4 CONCLUSION
For effective functioning of different agencies; both governmental and non -governmental, an
elaborate but simple Coordination system has to be in place. Efforts need to be taken up to
ensure that there is a regular communication and information exchange with the governmental
agencies at all levels. There is also a need for an adequate disaster preparedness strategy and
a systematic disaster rehabilitation policy, Plus, there is a need for provision of human resources
to help in distributing government
-sponsored relief. It has to be seen that there is:
Systematic communication and
networliing with other NGOs working in the area of disaster
management; and
@ Adequate disbursement of the resources available with the donor agencies to the affected
community.
.
,
This Unit highlighted the importance of reconstruction and rehabilitation process. It examined .
the role of different agencies in disaster management. It also stressed upon the need for "1
f
I
I
V

133. Role of Housing / Building Authorities 15 1
effective coordination between the agencies in order to utilise time and resources to the
maximum and keep red tapism and duplication to the minimum.
111.5 KEY CONCEPTS
Coordination
It is a result of intentional actions of all the agencies involved in disaster management lo
harmonise individual responses to maxirn,ise impact and achieve synergy in a situation, where
the overall effect is greater than sum of the parts.
Economic Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation aims at making the entire system work once
again.by allowing it to function
normally. Economic rehabilitation would mean restoring econotnic attributes of a system, namely
creation of livelihood opportunities, reconstruction of infrastructure and resources in
a
disaster-
affected area.
Social Rehabilitation
Restoration of social attributes of an affected system, namely building of educational institutions,
cultural places, community resources and infrastructure.
11.6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Disasters, 2001, Volume 25,
Number I, March.
Disasters, 200 1, Volume 25, Number 3, September;
Seminar Excerpts on " Earthquakes in Built Environment ", 2001, Journal of Indian Building
Congress, Volume 8, No. 1.
Misra, Girish K and G.C. Mathur (Eds.), 1993, Natural Disaster. Reductio~z, Reliance, New Delhi.
Medury, Uma and Alka Dhameja, 2005, "Rehabilitation of Cyclone Affected People " in Amita
Singh (Ed.), Adininistrative Reforins: Towards Sustailznble Practices, Sage, New Delhi.
11.7 ACTIVITDES
1) Try to visit the office of any governmental or non -governmental organisation engaged in the area
of disaster management and enlist their specific functions.
2)
Go through the various media reports and note down the role of any International Agency involved
in disaster resistant construction.
3) Prepare
adlist of all NGOs (national and international) working for disaster management in your
city or. state.
. .

134. UNIT 12 EDUCATION AND AWARENESS '
Structure
12.0 Learning Outcome
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Concepts of Education and Training
12.3 Significance of ducati ion: Training and ~wareness in Disaster Management
12.4 Role of the Media
12.5 Participation of Stakeholders
12.6 People's Participation in Disaster Rehabilitation and Awareness,
12.6.1 Community Consultation and Participation
12.6.2 Role of the Community in Sustaining Rehabilitation Efforts
12.7 Conclusion
12.8 Key Concepts
12.9 References and Further Reading
12;10 Activities
12.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
e Examine the importance'and scope of education, awareness and training
0 Understand the pertinence of education, awareness and training in disaster m'anagement cycle; and
o Discuss the nature and extent of con~munity participation in sustaining rehabilitation and
. reconstruction efforts.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The-pqticipation of the comnunity in a disaster situation depends a lot on its awareness of
handling a disaster. The term participation is being used as a bnllwork in all development
processes
in the country. All UN agencies as well as
NGOs are increasingly demanding that
the developmental programmes should stress on involvement and participation of recipient
communities. Public awareness has to be generated, especially to dispel the myths
and beliefs
attached with the occurrence
of disasters.
Education and awareness can be targeted at two levels
- the departmental level and the
community level.
At the departmental level, the training on how to provide disaster related
education to the personnel
is a crucial issue. Awareness could be generated through lectures,
workshops, seminars, training and debates etc. This can be undertaken by different organisations
that conduct training at
their own level
e.g., Disaster Management Institute (DMI), Bhopal. At
. the conlmunity level, education, training and awareness, all put together, are the key factors to
community participation. Well -trained people will hatre more role-clarity on disaster reduction

135. Education and Awareness 153
and preparedness programmes. They will therefore contribute substantially towards disaster
management. This Unit attempts to discuss some of these issues.
12.2 CONCEPTS
OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Education and training are means of learning, which continue throughout human life enabling
the human beings to modify their behaviour fairly rapidly, in more or less, permanent way as
a result of new perceptions, concepts and other experiences. Education and training have an
important role to play in planning and implementing disaster management strategies at both the
pre
-disaster and post -disaster stages. Sustenance of disaster education is dependent on well -
formulated training and research strategies. In fact, education and training are interdependent
concepts. Disaster management covers a wide range of
f~~nctions and skills, which include
planning and organising day-to-day management activities, counter -disaster operations, crises
management work, recovery functions and specific tasks related to information and
communication. Therefore, carefully structured and implemented education and training
programmes are needed for development of competence and organisation of expertise.
The role of education programmes is often differentiated from the role
of twining programmes
in bringing about the required changes. While the former is supposed to focus on knowledge,
concepts, understanding and analysis, the latter is required to pay more attention on improvement
of knowledge, skills and attitudes in the trainees. In essence, both education and training overlap.
Education adds the essential 'why' dimension to the
'how' initiated by training. Training develops
an understanding of the distinctive purpose and practice with which disasters should be
approached. It imparts knowledge, skills and attitudes to cope with disasters. It also creates
commitment and improves individual and colleclive peiformance in decision-making under disaster
conditions.
The foremost goal of all educational programmes should be to target the community. No
disaster management programme can achieve its objectives unless the
con~munity participates
in the formulation, irnple~nentation and evaluation of disaster related tasks. Adequate community
participation is the key to effective disaster management. Thus, the individual, whether singly
or more likely in teams, will have to be called upon to take more hitiative, add value and
contribute to the hitherto untouched disaster management areas. The entire approach to disaster
education and training is dependent upon volunteers, social workers, functional specialists and
the people at large.
12.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF EDUCATION, TRAINING AND
AWARENESS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
As we read in the previous Sections, education, training and awareness in disaster preparedness,
are the key factors to disaster management. People
will be able to contribute their best only
if they understand the significance of issues involved in disaster management. Adequately
trained, aware and well
-informed people could act as human resources in disaster management.
At the
community level, awareness can be generated through the media, public meetings,
community awareness programmes, door
-to-door campaigns, lectures, discussions, social
gatherings,
community functions etc. Today, as we already read in Unit 11, we have various
means of mass media, such as the teIevision, radio, newspaper, magazines, theatre and movies
etc., that could make a positive difference in the field of disaster education. Long
-term and
short
-term mitigation measures could be captured
and projected through the various media to
strengthen disaster preparedness.
Disasters occur at frequent intervals and because of improved communication systems gnd

136. 154 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
1
1
media activity, the disaster -related news is quickly disseminated all over the world. Moreover,
since population growth, urbanisation and increased poverty means high levels of vulnerability,
the role of media in a disaster situation becomes multipurpose. It should be informative,
suggestive and analytical in all the three stages of the disaster management cycle, namely pre
-
disaster, during -disaster and post -disaster. In the process of rehabilitation and reconstruction,
media can be used to extract opinions and provide expert solutions on
suitawe building materials,
model houses, right topography for building new houses, do s and don'ts in the construction
work etc.
It has to be recognised that there are useful links between disaster management and training
per se. More so, in the changing context, when a lot of premium is being laid on the technical
and specialised skills. Disaster management, which earlier used to be a task of emergency
1
1
agencies, is becoming everyone's responsibility. This includes the responsibilities of administrative
agencies, NGOs, international bodies and the general public. There is a rise in public awareness
I
on disasters and the concept of accountability towards victims has received a new connotation. 1
The concepts and trends in disaster management are changing. The definition of the problem
of disaster management now concentrates on increasing the types and frequency of risks,
I
technical knowledge, identification of vulnerable areas, and standardised techniques to combat
I
natural and man -made disasters. We are witnessing a shift from post -disaster assistance to
pre
-disaster preparedness, from readiness to mitigation, from dependency to self -reliance, from
individual aid to restoration of community services, as well as from relief to rehabilitation. The
I
entire ad hoe approach to disaster management is gradually giving way to a specialised and
professional perspective of looking at the ever
-changing demands of the disaster preparedness
system including its education and training needs.
I
I
I
The Meet of WHO in Bangkok in December 2005 aimed at: I
e Identifying gaps in addressing response, preparedness and recovery for health needs of the
affected and vulnerable populations; and
r Developing benchmarks and corresponding framework for action.
The Meet laid stress on strengthening the coininunity level preparedness and surveillance
systems
(The
Hinch, Dec.28, 2005). This could be effectively achieved through systematic
training programmes and educational campaigns for all the stakeholders in disaster management.
The education and training requirements of individual countries are likely to vary. In the context
of disaster management training, it is the community,
NGO activists, local government
functionaries that require training.
Panchayati Raj members and self -help groups also need to
be instilled with requisite skills and knowledge to carry out disaster management tasks.
The education and training needs are conditioned by several factors. These relate to the size
and geographical disposition of the country, the extent of disaster threat, the national policy
towards disasters, the nature and availability of disaster related resources, the degree of
dependence on international assistance, as well as the level of training capability. The objectives
of education and training also differ
froin each target group for each disaster type.
At the time of formulation and implementation of education and training programmes, it is
advisable to identify certain contextual factors. Some of these could be the bases of organisation,
which applies to the current status of disaster management, the degree to which the disaster
t
management system is utilised in many of its functions, the experience of disaster management
i
f
i I
staff; and the facilities available to implement education and training programmes. Due emphasis
needs to be laid on these germane and research-based issues.
I

137. Education and Awareness 155
Adequate newspaper reporting of a disaster is also very crucial. The media have a great
responsibility, as we mentioned earlier and as we will see in the following Section, in creating
disaster related awareness. Community participation can be encouraged through various
approaches such as face
-to-face interaction, electronic media, print
mediahaterials etc. Face-
to-face interactions are an effective way of creating community awareness. In India, the use
of electronic media is becoming an important means of creating mass awareness.
The Radio and the
TV, two important components of the media, could be used to prepare
special thematic programmes on various natural disasters to educate people regarding the need
for preparedness in the pre-disaster period, the nature of government help at the time of
disaster, the role of community, public use of local knowledge etc. Other methods of disaster
s related education could take the form of notices, posters, photographs, exhibitions, films,
documentaries, inscriptions on shopping bags, banners etc. Some more means of disaster
education such as display at public functions, open sport events, country fairs, folk songs,
training camps, college festivals and school annual days are also effective.
isa aster education and training techniques must lay stress on understanding different types of
natural hazards, disaster management techniques and impediments in the way of disaster
reduction. The nature of disaster education would vary from region to region depending on the
type of disaster and its impact on people and infrastructure. There is an urgent need for a
comprehensive strategy to lessen the negative effects of disasters by resorting to management
techniques related to preparedness, prevention, mitigation and response. Disaster education and
training could play a crucial role in this direction.
12.4
-ROLE OF THE MEDIA
Mass media, as we all know by now, also play an important roIe in the dissemination of disaster
information and building up of community preparedness.
The suggestive, informative and analytical
role of the media, just like the
NGOs must form a key component of disaster education. It is
the most potent way of educating the co~n~nunity on disaster prevention, mitigation and
rehabilitation. The disaster education related tasks can be carried out on the basis of the dual
role of the media related to imparting information and anlysing disasters discerningly.
The effects of disasters need to be examined not only in technical and scientific terms, but also
in humanitarian, social and economic terms. The media can play an important role in this
direction. Their contribution to disaster education must take the form of pronlotion of national
consciousness on disasters and should endeavour to evoke an interest about systematic disaster
mitigation in the community and agencies involved in disaster management. The media could
also serve as a platform for sharing information between the handful of scientific community
members and the public at large, Complex scientific phenomena could be explained in an easy
language through the eyes of a common man and his daily life.
The media must try to build a creditable and accountable public image. It must try to utilise
the effective mix of traditional and modern technologies to disseminate information. Usually, the
media reports cover only the disaster event in great detail. But, when it comes to rehabilitation
and development work in the affected area, the media generally shirks from their responsibility
of giving it a due coverage. It is mere sensationalism that a majority of media is alleged to be
cashing in on, rather than providing details on the entire disaster relief, recovery and rehabilitation
work. The news coverage and circulation of inforination should not be subjective and non-
professional. It needs to be covered comprehensively,
The national media have to professionalise its functioning since the international flow of
'nformation to our country is far more quick and intense. Amateur Radio Public Service

138. 156 Rehabilitation, Recortstruction and Recovery
Organisatiolls and Voluntary Radio Networks are becoming an integral arm of the media
worldwide, yet such initiatives have not made a substantial inark on the Indian media scene.
New concepts such as risk communication, interactive channels, pager net etc., have established
their utility in the West, while these are still groping for an estimable place in India. These
factors have to be looked into adequately in order to bring about changes in the role of the
media. The media must take on the role of an educator to enable the people to understand the
nature and consequences of disasters in the right perspective.
The various components of the media should effectively target the right information and maximise
helpful and positive coverage. A proactive rather than a reactive role on the part of media is
called for. They have to establish'proper liaison with all relevant groups / bodies engaged in
disaster management work to put their point across. There is a need to adopt an impartial
approach with adequate emphasis on reducing vulnerability and recognising the role of social,
psychological and cultural factors in the disaster management process. Alternatively, the local
administration and government functionaries also need to regard the media
as partners and
collaborators in building the disaster management capacity.
A
more proactive initiative on the
part of the government'could go a long way in devising the desired prevention and mitigation
strategies.
12.5 PARTICIPATION OF STAKEHOLDERS
The community should be provided all the necessary information available with administration.
The flow of
inforrnation should continue even in the normal non-disaster period. The community
must work together at every step to overcome the problems, which arise in restoring normalcy.
The details relevant to the community should be provided to them through awareness generation
and training programmes. For inslance, information could be provided to use school buildings
as disaster resistant shelters. Awareness should be generated on providing special warning
signals, checking rumours, helping the most vulnerable sections of the society, and arranging
for relief to the community.
Training at different levels is an essential part of disaster preparedness. The community, NGOs
and the government officials should be trained in various aspects of disaster management. As
the people are generally illiterate and hail from a rural background, it will be more suitable if
NGOs, along with the village panchayats, organise training programmes so that people can
take part
in them actively and develop a culture of self -help in disaster related preparedness,
prevention and mitigation activities. Various types of training can be imparted to different
stakeholders in disaster preparedness. These stakeholders are:
Community: People should be trained in the field of earthquake resistant construction. Young
people should also be trained in rescue and relief such as helping the injured
by providing them
first aid. The most important benefit
of community awareness is that the community is able to
judge their strengths and weaknesses and identify
the areas in which they really need outside
assistance. There should be
specialised training modules for specific target groups. Government
officials, NGOs, CBOs, school- teachers and local leaders need specific training capsules that
inculcate knowledge, skills and attitudes to cope with disaster situations.
Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs): The NGO functionaries should be trained in the
methods of spreading public awareness amongst the people and also in the post -disaster
activities such as providing rescue and relief, identifying the target group, distributing relief aid *.
and supplies, as well as conducting damage assessment.
Governnlental Employees: The staff in the governmental sector should be trained to coordinate

139. Education and Awareness 157
and manage the different stages of disaster management so that they are able to work as
disaster managers at the time of natural disasters.
Pasticipation has no meaning unless the stakeholders involved in disaster management have a
,significant control over the decisions of the organisation to which they belong. Development
economists tend to define participation by the poor sections of society in terms of equitable
sharing
of benefits of the projects. Yet for others, participation also acts as an instrument for
enhancement of efficiency of projects or co
-production of services.
12.6
PEOPLE9S PARTICIPATION IN DISASTER
REHABILITATION
AND AWARENESS
Community participation may be viewed as a process that serves one or more of the following
objectives:
s Increasing Empowerment: It should be defined as seeking to increase the control of disaster-
affected people over the resources and decisions affecting their lives in the disaster aftelmath;
and ensuring their participation in the benefits produced by the society in which they live. Any
project or development activity during the rehabilitation process is then a means of empowering
people so that they we able to initiate, as well as sustain disaster mitigation actions on their own,
and thus influence the process and outcome of development.
9 Building Beneficiary Capacity: It could be achieved by ensuring that participants are actively
involved in projects of rehabilitation that aim at social consciousness and awareness generation
through formal or informal training.
9 Enhancing Project Effectiveness: Community participation tends to enhance project
effectiveness when the involvement of beneficiaries contributes to better project formulation,
design and implemnentation, and leads to a better balance between project services and beneficiary
needs and constraints.
e Sharing Project Costs: An object of community pasticipation is the desire to share the costs of
the project with the people it serves. Thus, beneficiaries may be expected to contribute labour, or
other infrastructure resources to ~~ndertake or maintain the project.
Froin the government's point of view, participatory services may be of some beilefit as increased
participation on the part of the people can reduce the overall cost of social transfers entailed
in a project. It is thus a form of cutting costs of social programmes that allow the governments
more flexibility with respect to rehabilitation. People connected with project -based progralnines
can also provide the government with great deal of information on the social and economic
needs of the population. Organisations involved in participatory service may help the government
to identify potential leaders who assist in the rehabilitation process, or at least disseminate
information about the goals of the government programmes.
12.6.1' Community Consultation and Participation
People's participation is a fundamental requirement for the success of rehabilitation and
reconstruction efforts. Local people will have to be actively involved in decision -making and
executing reconstruction activities. The affected people in both rural and urban areas want to
participate in development progrimmes and contribute to the range of disaster management
efforts, including decisions about rebuilding, site relocation, housing, distributing services and so
on. Participation of people co~ild accomplish several objectives in the rehabilitation and
reconstruction phase. These are:

140. 158 Rehnbilitatiorz, Reconstruction and Recovery
@ Increased Transparency and Accountability
Large-scale reconstruction efforts with tenders and formal bidding processes reduce opportunities
for the local people to gqt involved in reconstruction. Many government officials, NGOs, and
community members feel that large contracts reduce transparency and increase the risk of
corruption. Local people have expressed their concern on the negative impact of outside
commercial interests, which may promote costly solutions. Lack of trust in the local contractors
and builders is particularly strong at this time because people tend to blame them for poor
quality of construction and material. Informed participation of communities could contain costs,
and ensure accountability and reliability.
e Decreased Irregularities
By ensuring that funds are made available directly to the communities and the stakeholders
involved, the scope for irregularities is reduced. Thus, wherever possible, communities should
undertake their own construction efforts, on the basis of their knowledge about the support
services that are available. Village people should be involved in enlisting beneficiaries and
reviewing damage assessment reports. Material and cash transfers should be made only in
public meetings to ensure transparency. Accounts and records should be accessible to the
public and regularly updated. During the process of relief provision itself, the people should
take
up responsibility for restarting schools with some material support and financial assistance
from outside. They should also take recourse to other infrastructure for meeting their immediate
needs for temporary shelter.
e. Reduction in Dependency
While relief and humanitarian assistance are important in the immediate aIterinath of a natural
disaster, they should be replaced as soon as possible with efforts to foster a greater sense of
ownership and involvement among people. Greater local participation and contributions to the
reconstruction effort could reduce social tensions and lead to more sustainable developmental
efforts.
Provision of Opportunities for Employment
Employment and
income are urgent needs of the affected people. Rather than purchasing
material, expertise and labour from outside, efforts need to be made to utilise resources and
employ local people in the rebuilding activities, including work schemes such as removal of .
debris, and construction of com~nunity infrastructure.
e Increase in Access to Services
Community participation in decisions on schools and health centre locations, and the type of
water supply and sanitation infrastructure to be built, for example, would ensure better access
and increased utilisation of services. This would make them inore effective in meeting people's
needs. Experience has shown that women's involvement in the planning of public services, as
well as housing the disaster affected does benefit families and communities
a great deal.
Organisations
such as the Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan and the Self-Employed Women's
Association
(SEWA) assist in working
with women. Such endeavours need to be encouraged.
0 Reduction of Trauma
Trauma and depression are not always visible immediately after a disaster, but may occur
weeks or months after the event. Active involvement of affected people in counselling sessions,
as well as their participation in community affairs could red~lce the psychological problems
.I

141. Education and Awareness 159
experienced by many disaster victims. We shall discuss the importal~ce of psychological
rehabilitation of disaster victims in our subsequent Units
- 14 and 15 of this Course.
12.6.2 Role of the Community in Sustaining Rehabilitation Efforts
Considering the failures of the rehabilitation and reconstruction process
that followed Latur
Earthquake of
1993 and other natural disasters in the recent past, it has become imperative that
attention should be given to the critical aspect of
sustainability in this process. Sustainable
rehabilitation and reconstruction is about shaping the future of the beneficiaries in such a way
that the social, environmental and economic issues are seen as interlinked. These issues need
to be solved in an integrated and amicable way. Social factors i14clude housing, water, health,
education, sanitation etc. Economic faclors pertain to employment, trade and innovation etc.,
and the environmental factors include climatic as well as the efficient use and reuse of natural
resources and energy.
There may be many definitions of colnrnunity participation, but three concepts are commonly
used in most of the development programmes. These are:
e Participation by the project authorities
e Participation as community contribution
e Participation as community decision-making
In India and other developing count~ies, there is a long history of project failures, as the goals
and methods do not fit into the needs and capacities of the target beneficiaries. There is a need
for radical changes in the attitude of programtne implementation authorities as well as funding
agencies. Some of the advantages of community participation include cost reduction, increased
efficiency, accent on self
-reliance and self-dependence, higher sustainability and decreased
vulnerability along with efforts made to adjust the project to match people's parlicipation..
The main aim of community awareness programmes is to
make the community more infonned,
alert, self-reliant and capable of participating in all activities and programmes of disaster
management in close collaboration with governmental and non
-governmental organisations. In
disaster mitigation programmes, local people should be
made aware of the
following:
The vulnerability of the area to -natural disasters
e The types of risks and elements at risk due to natural disasters
e Nature of mitigation measures that should be adopted
0 Significance of a local prepasedness plan
e Availability of resources and e tent of governmental help at the time of disaster
1
e The impoi-tance and need of community pasticipation
e Value and significance of early warnings and related communication
e Importance of information -sharing
12.7 'CONCLUSION
Education, training and awareness are the most important and most effective non -structural
disaster mitigation measures. The local people should be made aware
of the vulnerability levels
to different types of natural disasters in their area. They should also know the elements at risk
and expected losses that could be faced due to these disasters. People should also be in the
know
~f the existing contingency or preparedness plans for specific disasters, as well as about

142. 160 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
the availability of resources through governmental and non -governmental organisations at the
time of disaster. These organisations should play the role of facilitators by providing education
and training material required for disaster preparedness and mitigation activities. There is a
need for a multidimensional approach to education, awareness and training, which concentrates
on varied training techniques and tools.
Learning is the essence of education and training. The training programmes should enhance the
ability of the target group to use the skills and information imbibed for fulfilling specific tasks
within the disaster management framework. The education and training programmes must
therefore highlight the steps to be taken to meet the special needs of the most vulnerable
categ&ies of people. The government, NGOs, CBOs, media, as well as education and training
institutes should also come forward to organise disaster education programmes throughout the
country. The initiatives for improvement have to come from the communities themselves. This
Unit examined these very significant issues.
12.8 KEY CONCEPTS
The concept: of empowerment is contextualised for marginalised people. The centrality of the
notion
of empowerment is located in the dynamics of sharing, distribution and redistribution of
power, which has a basis for legitimacy. Empowerment deals with power, from the perspective
of the marginalised groups. It challenges the power structures of subordination. Redistribution
of power and
e~npowerment aims at social equality on the one hand, and diselnpowerrnent of
structures, systems and institutions that perpetuate inequality on the other.
(Debal K. SinghaRoy, 2003 "State, Society and Women" in Alka Dhameja (Ed.), Corttemnporar:y
Debates in Public Adnzinistmtion, Prentice-I-Iall of India, New Delhi.)
Sustainability
The ability to provide for the needs of the world's cul-lent population without damaging the ;bility
of future generations to provide for themselves. When a process is sustainable, it can be carried
out over and over without negative environnlental effects or high costs to anyone involved.
12.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Carter, W. Nick, 1991, Disaster Ma~zagemerzt: A Disaster Manager's Handbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
I
Prakash, Indu, 1994, Disaster Malzngement, Rashtriya Prakashan, New Delhi: ,
Sahni, Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Urna Medury (Eds,), 2001, Disaster Mitigation:
Experiences and Rej7ectiotzs, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi Ariyabslndu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Re~lciction in Soutlz
Asia, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sharnla, Vjnod K (Ed.), 1995, Disaster Mariagement, IIPA, New Delhi.
12.110 ACTIVITIES
1
1
1) Enlist the different steps that could be taken to inculcate cormnunity awareness on disasters.
I
1
2) Make a c11at-t of activities or nlethods that could be adopted to disseminate knowledge on coping I
strategies in disaster aflermath. 1
i
i

143. UNIT 13 THE PHILOSOPHY OF COPING WITH
DISASTERS
Structure
13.0 Learning Outcome
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Philosophy of Coping with Disasters
13.3 Disaster Recovery Planning
13.4 Humanising Disaster Recovery Efforts
13.5 Conclusion
I
13.6 Key Concepts
13.7 References and Further Reading
13.8 Activities
113.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
<After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
" 6 Understand the philosophy of coping with disasters
o Appreciate the pertinence of disaster recovery planning; and
e Discuss the efforts that go into hummising the process of disaster recovery,,
3. INTRODUCTION
I-.. .
. .
-, .
Huinan beings have struggled against the elemental forces of nature ever since they found
theinselves on Planet Earth, waging a daily battle to gather resources for food and shelter.
History is replete with numerous incidents of disasters that have stnick humankind. Wind,
water and tectonic forces have wrecked .havoc in the past and continue to
do so. Disaster
aftermath is always
a traumatic picture of large -scale loss of life and destruction of infrastructure.
Although science
and technology have made tremendous strides in the present century, the struggle of humankind against the evil forces of nature has not ceased altogqther and large
regions of the world's population continue to remain susceptible to natural disasters.
We have read about the nature and intensity of disasters in our previous Units. In fact, our
Units generally begin with an account on the nature of disasters in order to provide a basic
understanding and overview of the disaster situation, This kind of prelude is essential for
comprehending each and every aspect related to disaster management. For the three
-year
period
i.e., 1993-95, the United States Sub -committee on Natural Disaster Reduction estimated
that annual losses from natural disasters in the country averaged one billion dollars per week,
Conservative estimates for
the year 2000 suggest that
the lossgs due to disasters were twice
the amount of losses for the year 1980. The figure for the year 2005 has risen enormously,
as we have already mentioned in our earlier Units.
Evidence has thus been documented to show that disasters have increased in frequency as well
f

144. 164 Ri~habilitntion, Recot~.struction ctncl Recovery
as severity in the last century. The number of disasters resulting from natural hazards has gone
up tlaree times worltlwide in the past ten yeas and economic losses air now cight tlmes higher.
This Unit focuses on the need to understand the philosophy of coping with disasters, as it is
very essential to comprehend the basic theory underlying disaster management to deal with the
disaster aftermath.
It
also examines the relationship between vulnerability to disasters and
nature of
human psyche during the rehabilitation process.
133 THE PHTEOSOPEU OF COPING WITH DISASTERS
India is a 'land of disasters' with almost every type of disaster having struck the nation in the
last century including one
of the worst cyclones
towads the end of the 20Ih century (Supcr Cyclone
in Orissa in October 1999) and one of the worsl earthquakes at the dawn of the new millennimn
(Gujarat Earthquake in January 2001). And now with the Tsun~ni in Peninsular India and the
Earthq:iake in Pakistan Administered Mashmir, disasters seem to be wrecking havoc in the Indian
sub-corytincnt year after year. The unique geo-physical setting of the sub-continent makes it highly
vulnerable to natural disasters like droughts, floods, cyclones, eiuzhquakes etc.
With over one billion population living in a very high -density envirorl~ncnt having one of the
poorest infraslructures in the world in terms of transportation and communication, and the
barest
of the amenities that the citizens expect in the 21" century,
lndia is likely to remain
prone lo disasters and could become a disaster manages's nightmare in the years to come. Tn
facc, the frequency of all kinds of disasters, varying from epidemics to road accidents and
perennial droughts and floods, is escalating resulting in a multifold increase in injuries, disabilities
and deaths, disrupting life-support systems and adding to the health, social and economic
burden of the already impoverished people.
According
to some recent estimates, 22 out of 27 Indian states
(85% of the countzy's area)
are vulnerable to one or the other type of disasters and
57% of
the area lies in high seismic
zone including the national capital. It has been rightly assessed that, "in this part of the world,
disasters occur with amazing frequency ". Table 13.1 gives the number of hurlIan lives lost due
to natural disasters in India in the last decade:
Table 13.1: Human Lives Lost due to Netlira1 Disasters in India during the Last Decade
Year Floocls Cyclones Hailstorms Earthquakes Total
1997-98 f 560 216 247 39 2062
1998-99 2567 1 292 106 3'7
1999-00 2117 10,457 12,574
Total 17811 17330 377 8851 44369
.-
(Snrin-e: Department of Aglic~ilture arid Cooperation, Minlstry of Agriculture, Gnvenunctlt of Indin)
Let us have a took at some more revealing statistics:

145. The Philosoplzy of Coping witlz Disnster.~ 1 A5
@ Of the 32 states and union tei~itories, 22 are disaster-prone
@ Between 1988 and 1997, disasters clainied 5,116 lives and affected a colossal 24.70 million
people each year
@ In the Orissa Super Cyclone of 1999, over 10,OOC) people were killed and thousands were 2:
homeless
@ In January 2001, Over 16,000 lives were lost in the earthquake that sstruck Mutch and other- areas
in the state of Cujarat. Thousands are still homeless. Thoirsands nlore have even lost their
precarious Ineans of livelihood
e 28 per cent of the country's total cultivable arei is drolight-prone
ap 55 per cent of India is eiu-thquake-prone. The fragile Himalayan mountain ranges asarc. exirerncly
vulnerable to earthquakes, landslides and avalanches. Western and central India are equally
unsafe
e 76 lakh hectares of land 6-3.e flooded every year. Over 1,300 lives are lost to floods every year,
Worse, the areas affected by iloods are rapidly extending beyond the basins af the Himalayan
Rivers to the other parts of the country as well
e India is the worst cyclone -affected part of the world. Around 5 to 6 tropical cyclones form in the
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea every year, of which two or three are severe and lash the
densely populated coastal areas of India, causing considerable damage
(Source: www.infochan~eindia.ore/DisastersIbp_;i.~p, 18 Dec., 2005)
The philosophy of coping with disasters can be better understood if we comprehend the
elements of risk, hazards and vul~lerability conditions that go into determining the intensity of
disasters. The definition of a disaster must include a consideration of the effect of a hazardous
event on the target population. The impacl of a hazardous event on a community is partiillly
determined by the mechanisms and adaptations that the populatioil has developed to deal with
the effects of potentially damaging events.
In some communities, natural hazards occur with such regularity that effective. methods have
already been developed to cope with them.
In such cases, the
occurrence of a Iiazardous event
might trigger emergency activity, but would not result in a disaster. Imagine the impact of a
typical Vermont winter on Southern Florida, or a moilsoon season in Phoenix, Arizona. Vermont
does not declare a disaster every winter, because the residents have adapted to the weather
conditions in that region. Cincinnati, Ohio is an example of a city, which has adapted to frequent
flooding. Located in the flood plains of the Ohio River Valley, Cincinnati is subject to flooding
every
14
inoilths or so. As a result, local organisations have developed a sophisticated sel of
procedures for responding to floods. The coping mechanisms
af the community are so effectivn
that emergencies such as floods do not disrupt the community's routine to a major
extent.
The number of deaths and
injuries and the extent of destruction tb infrastructure are often used
as criteria for defining a disaster, but this may be somewhat misleading. A ten-victim multiple
vehicle collision might overwhelm a rural community hospital, whereas the same event may nor
cause undue problems at a large urban trauma centre. Research does suggest that nan -routine
procedures and inter
-organisational coordination are almost always required when a civilian
disaster produces more than
120 casualties. In contrast, much more
death, injury and loss of
material are managed in wartime without exceeding the ability of the system to respand

146. 166 Refzabilitntion, Reconstruction and ~ecovery
effectively and smoothly. Bomb shelters, fire control, management of debris clearance, and
systems for handling the dead and wounded become routine.
Some disaster plans identify three levels ,of disaster. A typical version is described in the
, Student Manual for Disaster Management and Planning for Emergency Phjsician's Course:
Level I: A localised multiple casualty emergency wherein local medical resources are
available and adequate enough to' provide
for field medical treatment and stabilisation, including triage. The patients will be transported to the appropriate
local medical facility for further diagnosis and treatment
Level
11: A multiple casualty emergency where the large number of casualties and/or
lack of local medical care facilities are such as to require multi
-jurisdiction
(regional) medical mutual aid
Level 111: A mass casualty emergency wherein local and regional medical resource
capabilities are exceeded and/or overwhelmed. Deficiencies
in medical supplies
and personnel are such as to require assistance from the State or Federal Agencies
These descriptions of disaster levels can be useful for planning the different levels of disaster
response, but one caution is in order. It must be recognised that even in local (Level
I)
disasters, central and state agencies are often involved, and their views need to be considered
when coordination procedures are planned.
The Federal Emergency
~anagement Agency (USA) defines a disaster as "an occurrence of
a severity and magnitude that normally results in deaths, injuries and property damage, and that
cannot be managed through the routine procedures and resources of government. It usually
develops suddenly and unexpectedly and requires immediate, coordinated and effective response
by. multiple government and private sector organisations to meet human needs and speed
recovery.''
This requirement, to
do things in non-routine ways, often under conditions of extreme urgency,
is one of the keys to understanding disaster response problems. Often, to a significant degree,
disaster
-stricken
corninunities end up improvising their responses. Good disaster management
is not merely an extension of good everyday emergency procedures. It is more than just the
mobilisation of additional personnel, facilities and supplies. Disasters often pose unique problems
rarely
faced in daily emergencies. During disasters, conditions may arise that make the traditional
division of labour and resources, the characteristic of routine emergency management, unsuitable
for disaster response. These conditions could be:
Disasters may put demands
on organisations, requiring them to make internal changes in structure
and delegate responsibilities
@ Disasters may create demands that exceed the capacities of single organisations, requiring them
.to share tasks and resources with other organisations that use unfamiliar procedures
e Disasters may attract the participation of organisations and individual volunteers who usually do
not respond
to emergencies
@ Disasters may cross the jurisdictional bound
ar
ies, resulting in multiple organisations being faced
with overlapping responsibilities
@ Disasters may create new tasks for which no organisation has a traditional responsibility
I

147. The Plzilosophy of Coping wit11 Disasters 167
@ Disasters may render unusable the nonnal tools and facilities used in emergency response; and
@ Disasters may result in the spontaneous formation of new organisations that did not exist before.
As we are aware, most of the world's natural disasters occur in Asia and the Pacific cawing '
enormous destruction and human suffering, Natural disasters, wars and development: pw.:.' ,is
all over the world cause large -scale impact on life, property, infrastructure, as well as socjizl
and cultural set-up. Disasters push societies back by decades and leave them vulnerable to
physical, social and economic hardships. This may inhibit large sections of the affected groups
of the people to come back even to the basic level of normalcy, let alone develop at par with
the rest of the nation.
In both man -made and natural disaster situations, the adverse impact is mitigated to a great
extent through adequate planning and preparedness. Negative impacts can come down
if man-
made disasters can be managed, if social, ecological and economic consequences of our actions
are considered, and if development decisions are made accordingly. On the other hand,
if we
are not adequately prepared for a natural disaster, we cannot
totally eliqinate its negative impact.
Before the physical requirements for disaster mitigation are actually determined, we must keep
in mind the philosophy behind coping with disasters,
It is a simple philosophy but is still very
important. This philosophy is that disasters can have wide-ranging effects -political, economic,
social, cultural and environmental on
a country. Therefore, the primary responsibility for coping
with
a disaster should be that of
the government, and the rest of the tasks must lie with the
secondary partners.
The government with secondary partners in stakeholders such as NGOs, CBBs, and international
agencies should thus perform a major role. The government is responsible to the people for
meeting the needs of a disaster situation, in the same way that it is responsible for
the
general
provision of goods and services. However, a government may, and usually does, need assistance
, from non -state actors. In fact, a collaborative endeavour of all these agencies is crucial in the
aftermath of a disaster.
Recovery from major disaster events necessitates the presence of large quantities of material
and human resources, as well as effective organisational or institutional capacity. Although
there may be various national and international organisations to support the local population in
.
recovering from the impact of the event, much of the responsibility for rehabilitation arid
'
reconstruction falls on the government of the country concerned. Besides an effective recovery
response, much depends on the capacity of authorities
to plan and coordinate the efforts of the
various groups involved in this process. Facilitating these
actio~is requires a strong political
commitment on the part of the government for the benefit of the disaster stricken areas,
However, channeling of funds, allocating resources of all kinds, and providing services and
opportunities for recovery often happen in .a political context. Electoral pressures and loca?
power structures may also turn out to be instrumental in shaping the nature of recotistruction,
5 2.
-
While most governments in the immediate aftermath of a disaster declare tlieir intentions of.
making up for all losses, with the passage of time, they generally lose the initial momentum.
As media attention drops, the public loses faith in receiving relief support
and the authorities
shift their focus to
-other issues. Many newspapers have covered
news items on the r~umber
of Tsunami victims in Chennai, Nagapattin~n and Andaman and Nicobar islands who have pot
yet received the full amount of their compensation package by the central and state governments.
Same has been the case with the Muzzafarabad Earthquake victims. Recovery is thus delayed.
The situation is not so dismal though, as over half of the Tsunami
-affected people are back to work,-and economies are fast returning to normal, says a Report .from Oxfam International.
The Report
"Back to
Work" shows how a year after the Tsunami up to 60 per cent of people
who ldst their jobs are earning a living again (The Hindu, December 21, 2005).

148. 168 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
The speed and effectiveness of recovery, therefore, is as much a political issue as it is a matter
of resource mobilisation. In
this respect, the nature of rehabilitation and reconstruction planning
will
be greatly shaped by the level of political
comnlitment and its sustainability throughout the
process. Thus, the philosophy of coping with disasters revolves around a systematic disaster
mitigation plan,
an interactive and participatory approach of the governmental, non -governmental,
private and other
comlnunity agencies to disaster management, and a recog~lition of social,
cultural, economic, psychological and political factors governing disaster management.
113.3 DISASTER RECOVERY PLANNING
Basic Brinlciples of Disaster Recovery Planning
The cjuestio~ls facing the recovery planners are: Who are the needy, when to begin the
reconstruction work and
what type of
reconstri~ction package needs to be implemented. The
satisfactory answer to these questions will, to a large extent, determine the overall effectiveness
of the recovery efforts. Given an overwhelming demand for human resources, policy makers
and irnplementers should seek to mobilise a wide range of actors, including the public, private
and voluntary sectors of qocirty in disaster management.
In terms of timing, disaster recovery related to rehabilitation and reconstivction passes through
five stages, Figure
13.1 gives a rough indication of these stages. We have to see as to
which
actors might participate at a given stage. However, all situations are different. Therefore, those
who plan ifor disaster recovery will need to develop their own 'role casting operation' to make
certain that:
e All available 'actors' are involved
i
e Qualified 'actors' are given appropriate tasks
For each task, there is
a clear definition of authority, resources and accountability; and
Actors are co
-coordinated by a designated focal point.
Figure 13.1
I I I I
I
1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
Source : Yasemin Aysan and Ian Davis, 1993, "Rehabilitation and Recmstnlction" (Module Prepared
I
for Disaster Management Training Programme) Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA)
UNDP. I

149. The Philosophy of Coping itlitlt Disasters
Long-term Rehabilitation
To successfully manage the continuity during the disaster aftermath operations
and restore
normalcy to all concerned,
organisations require a good disaster recovery plan. When a disaster
strikes, organisations need to mobilise all the expertise and resources needed to continue their
operations and return to a state that existed prior to the disaster. Every department in an
organisation has individual responsibilities during
a disaster. Planning for a disaster and then
dealing with it is a team effort
by people from all parts of an organisation.
If any part of this team does
not have a good grasp of the whole plan, then the groups end
up merely working side by side, instead of working togetl~er in an integrated fashion to solve
a problem. It requires much more than a battalion
of dedicated workers to survive most
disasters. When the alarm sounds, the organisations that
most successfillly deal with disasters
are the ones that run like proverbial well
-oiled machines.
The
underlyjng philosophy of disaster recovery (if we talk about man -made disaster at the
organisational level) needs to be rooted
in an organisation's desire to protect and preserve its
positive public image,
iis well as its physical assets and the lives of employees. This image
would include high levels of custonler satisfaction and the failh of stakeholders that an
organisation has worked so hard to develop. Disaster management can be understood at an
organisational level by taking up the case of any organisalion that has a disaster or crisis-
management plan in place. Michael Erbschloe surveyed over 250 organisations lo determine
trends and proble~i~s in disaster recovery planning and preparation. The status of disaster
planning in these organisations varied considerably:
e One out of every ten of the organisations sui-veyed did not have a plan in place
e Two out of every ten of the organisations surveyed had plans in the developrnel~t stage
e One out of every ten of the organisations surveyed had plans in place, for less than one year
e Three out of every tell of the organisations surveyed had plans in place for 2 to 5 years
r, One out of every ten of the organisations surveyed had plans in place for G to 10 years
8 'fio out of every ten of the organisations surveyed had plans in place for over ten years
Disaster recovery planning activity
has intensified considerably since September 11, 2001 in the
US (after the attack on the World Trade Centre in New York). Three out of every ten
organisations surveyed have reported that spending on
disaster recovery planning has increased
slightly and one out of ten has reported that spending has increased dramatically:
e Three out of every ten organisations reported that spending on disaster recavcry planning had
stayed about the same
8 Three out of every ten organisations reported that spending on disaster recovery planning had
increased slightly
m One out of every ten organisations reported that spending on disaster recovery planning had
dramatically increased
e None of the organisations reported that spending on disaster recovery planning had decreased
dramatically

150. 170 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
e Three out of every ten organisations stated that spending on disaster recovery planning trends
could be revealed
The following principles provide
a foundation for understanding disaster planning. They will
help guide the people
in an organisation who need to develop the disaster recovery plan:
s, Developing a solid disaster recovery plan requires the support and participation of upper -level
managers, the directors of all functional departments such as human resources, facilities
management, Information Technology
(IT), corporate security, legal counsel, and the
managers
of all business units
Assessing an organisation's risks requires detailed time -consuming analysis based on a realistic
understanding of the environmental, economic, social .and political conditions in which the
organisation, its suppliers and its customers operate
e All policies and procedures in the disaster recovery plan must support the critical needs of business
operations and comply with all relevant laws and regulations. They should also be understood by
the parties responsible for implementing them, and need to be approved by upper management
The disaster recovery
plan must clearly delineate and document the chain of
command of the
managers responsible for declaring, responding to, and recovering from a disaster. The plan must
also document the role of each department and outside support organisations in a disaster
ta The disaster recoveiy system must facilitate and allow control of communication among decision
makers, managers and staff, as well as with external support organisations, law enforcement
agencies, emergency services and media'
e All policies and procedures in the disaster recovery plan must be documented clearly so that all
participating employees can understand and implement them
Disaster recovery policies and procedures must be available to all de~~artments, managers, and
staff at all times during disaster response and recovery
c~ All employees involved in disaster response and recovety must be trained to implement documented
procedures
and to address unanticipated problems
e Disaster recovely procedures must be tested and rehearsed. Planners should evaluate each test,
rehearse well to determine weaknesses in
the plan, and use the results of this
evaluatio~~ to
modify the plan, procedures or training design
0 Planners must continually evaluate new threals and business conditions as they develop, and
then update disaster recovery plans and procedures accordingly
r, During disaster response and recovery, the organisation must evaluate the effectiveness of its
procedures and monitor the pl~ysical safety and mental health of employees at all times. Tl1c
results of the evaluation should be used to imp;sove the disaster recovery abilities of the organisation
Even though the above mentioned examples pertain to disaster recovery systein within the
organisations, especially in the US., we could very well emulate the planned strategies discilssed
in this Section for natural or mail -made disaster management in any part of the globe, The
micro-analysis could well be developed to arrive at a macro-recovery plan. However, certain
contextual considerations will have to be taken into view while implementation. The organist~tiorls
involved in managing disasters could adopt these types of planned steps and strategies in their
every day work
-framework in order to have some impact on the disaster situation,

151. The Philosophy of Coping with Disasters 17 1
Understanding the basic principles of disaster recovery planning can keep the team members
, from getting lost in the long -drawn process of developing a solid plan for their organisation. As
the team is assembled, all members should be briefed on the basic planning principles and the
seven steps
of developing a plan, as discussed in this Section below. This information will help
the team members understand how the pieces fit together to form an integrated and
comprehensive plan.
Disaster recovery planning can be broken down into seven major steps. Each step
is interrelated
and builds upon the others. The disaster recovery planning team is responsible for developing
the disaster recovery plan. Every member
of the team needs to be
made familiar with certain
steps and how they relate to each other: These are:
i) Organising the team
ii) Assessing risks in the organisation
iii) Establishing roles across departments and organisations
iv) ~evelo~ing policies and procedures
v) Documenting disaster recovery procedures
vi) Preparing
to
handle disasters; and.
vii) Training and testing the ongoing management activity.
These basic steps provide
a guide for project managers to
organise and plan their efforts over
time. The steps also serve as important milestones for the planning team. Building a solid
disaster recovery plan can take many months and, in some cases, years. When team members
understand where they are
in the planning stages, they will be less frustrated by what many
people consider a long
-drawn
and tedious process. Team members also need to know that the
recovery plan will require ongoing monitoring and evaluation once
it is developed. To be
effective, the plan must be updated to
ensure that the organisational operations ;we sustainable
over a long period of time. Let us now have a look at the general disaster recovery steps:
Disaster Recovery Planning Steps
Disaster survivors
normally experience a range of psychological and physiological reactions.
The reactions of survivors may become more intense as the amount of disruption to their lives
increases, Streagth and type.of reaction varies with each person and depends upon several
factors:
m Prior experience with the same or a similar event
0 The intensity of the disruption
8 The emotional strength of the individual
When ddscister strikes,
plzysictzl ussista~zce may only
be n part of whut s~irvivars
need. "Psychological First
Aid" for disaster-irzdtired
stress and trauma ?nay also
be required.
9 Individual feelings that there is no escape
e The length of time that has elapsed since the disaster event
Survivors
may go through distinct emotional phases following a disaster. As we have
already
discussed in our previous Units, there are four distinct phases that an affected person normally
faces. These are:

152. 172 Rehabilitation, Recolzstruction and Recover-y
@ Impact Phase
@ Inventoly Phase
@ Rescue Phase
Disaster-induced stress
and traurna are "rzormal"
?.eactiorzs to a rz
"abnornzul" situatiorz.
Recovery Phase
In the irnpact phase, survivors do not panic and may, in fact, show no emotion. They do what
they must to respond to the situation and try to keep themselves and their families alive. In the
inverzroly phase, which i~nniediately follows the disaster event, survivors are engaged in
assessing the damage and trying to locate other survivors. During this phase, routine social ties
tend to be discarded in favour
of the more functional ones, required for initial response
activities such as searching for
family members and seeking medical, assistance, In the rescue pltasc, emergency services personnel are involved in responding to the victims
and the survivors or victiirls are busy taking djrection from these groups without protest. They,
tnore or less, trust the rescuers and feel that th~y will address their needs, and that they can
then
put their lives
back together quickly. 111 the recovery phase, survivors may believe that
rescue efforts are not proceeding quickly
enough.
That feeling, combined with other emotional
stressors (e.g., dealing with insurance penple and living in tempormy accommodations) may
cause survivors to pull together against those who are trying to help them.
Disaster recovery planning is not merely a scientific technique. Even if the disaster recovery
plan is foolproof and talces care of each and every nitty gritty of producing relief and comfort,
there are certain factors which need Lo be kept in view in order to humanise the recovely
efforts. The recovery tear11 must be clear about all post-disaster symptoms, as depicted in the
'Table below:
Post-disaster
Psyclxologicsal and Physiological Syrnptonls
Psychological Symptoms I Physiological Symptoms
I
I e Irritability or anger / s LOSS d appetite i I
I @ Self-blame, blaming others I s Headaches I
I e Isolation, withdrawal I e Chest pain I
/ e Fear of recurrence 1 s Diarrhoea, stomach pain
I
I
1 @ Feeling stunned, numb or overwhelmed I @ Nausea I
Feeling helpless
@ Conceiltration and memory problems
e Sadness, depression, grief
rr Denial
e Mood swings
e Iqghtmares
@ Lack of sleep
e Fatigue, low energy
s Hyperactivity
s Increase in alcohol or drug coilsumption

153. The intensity, timing and duration of these responses will vary from person to person. They
may be acute or mild, immediate andlor delayed, or cumulative in intensity. Children may also
experience psychological or physical disco~nfort following a disaster. Those feelings may not
last long, but it is not uncommon to have disturbing reactions many weeks or months after the
event. It is important to ren-ternber that emotional responses apply to both the disaster victims
and the rescue personnel. Those engaged in recovery process are often those who have also
lost their near and dear ones in the disaster. Moreover, recovery \vorkers from outside too have
to witness the physical and psychological aftermath each day, which makes them agonised and
distressed.
Thus, the recovery personnel also need to be sensitised to the aftermath situation. The recovery
plan needs to also keep in view their psyche and mind
-set. It is good to be alert to the signs
of disaster
trauma in victims and helpers In order to take steps to alleviate stress. There is a
need to incorporate stress - relieving elements (exercise, ~neditation, rest, good nutrition) into
everyday life in order to de
-stress physically
and mentally in order to cope with disaster situations.
The rescue operation cart be made more responsive to the psychological needs of both survivors
and rescuers. Psychologists encourage open and honest expression of ernotioils as a self-
protection mechanism. To avoid 'emotional overload', the survivors and rescuers should be
allowed to express their feelings openly as long as !his does not interfere with the rescue
process. The objective should be to
"listen but try
not to dominate over others' feelings ". One
of the reasons why the disaster response
is difficult to coordinate is because disasters are
different from routine or daily emergencies. The difference
is more than just one of magnitude.
Disasters generally cannot be adequately managed merely by rnobilising more personnel and
material. Disasters may cross jurisdictional boundaries, and
this may create coordination problems. This type of situation may trigger the need to undertake unfamiliar tasks, change the structure
of responding organisations, result in the creation of new organisations, expedite the mobilisation
of those participants who do not ordinarily respond to local emergency incidents, and disable
the routine equipment and facilities for emergency response. As a consequence of these
changes, the nor~nal procedures for coordinating com~nunity emergency response may not be
adapted well to the disaster situation.
Although emergency relief is a distinctive stage of post
-disaster activities, many of the actions
and decisions at this stage can influence the later stages of the recovery process. Extended
external relief
assistance can undermine local and national coping capacity and create dependency.
For example, food aid following a typhoon
in Fiji might meet short-term food needs, but if the
traditional coping
mechanis~ns are underestimated and underutilised, the ability of the com~nunity
to feed itself may be damaged. Any relief assistance, therefore, should try to put immediate
pressure on the co~nmunities to sustain already existing local coping abilities to ensure rapid
recovery.
Large
-scale damaging events, often due to
pressures from the media, result in large amounts
of international relief, which does not often stretch
up to provision of resources for long -term
recovery and rehabilitation. Continuity
of support by agencies and donor
goveriiments beyond
relief needs to be considered at early stages of allocating funds and other resources in order
to have a more balanced approach
to long-term recovery. Methods of articulation of rehabilitation
and reconstruction needs
in the
forin of relief appeals and integration of relief and long -term
assistance also need to be explored.
While assessing damage, basic requirements of food, water and shelter as well as the availability
of resources need to be specific and prioritised for the task at hand, as often relief and
rehabilitation decisions are based on these early data. This is partly due to the cost and time
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154. Rehabilitation, Reconstnlction and Recovery
it takes to collect the data and to meet the public demand to act rapidly. Ideally, it is necessary
to monitor the changing needs as the situation develops. However, this
may not be the case
after most disasters. This common pattern needs to be recognised. Therefore, the drawbacks
of
early disaster assessment and the need to maximise the initial data collection must be taken
into account while planning for rehabilitation and reconstruction.
During the early stages of disaster response, it is important to plan the coordination of data
collection, multi-disciplinary assessment teams, and data generation for later phases., This will
improve the quality and effectiveness of early information for rapid rehabilitation and
reconstruction decisions. However, we must remember that
as conditions change, decisions ,
need to be modified in the light of updated information. For example, after a major earthquake,
the number of homeless is often calculated in relation to damaged or destroyed buildings.
However, due to the fear of aftershocks, the public may refuse to go back to their surviving
homes, which may increase the need for shelter provision beyond the initial assessment.
While it is important to recognise patterns from early diagnostic indicators for rapid response,
decisions to effect long
-term actions should not be taken in haste, only in a bid to
meet the
relief operations. Decisions such as relocation or provision of tem
porary shelters require careful.
examination of their long
-term implications after due consultation with the affected communities,
There are many examples of temporary shelter provisions that were made as a response to
the early identified needs, and which eventually turned
into permanent dwellings at huge costs
and often in wrong locations. Similarly, medical programme or food distribution should not be
prolonged unnecessarily without monitoring the cbanges at the local level.
It is also icportant to note that the perceptions and expectations of the affected groups keep
changihg rapidly following the disaster After the Gujarat Earthquake, peoplehin Kutch first
wanted tents as an immediate need for shelter. Soon the demand for providing tins for roofs
and bamboos for support
etc., surfaced and later the local authorities had to take up a systematic
assessment of the damage to houses in order to determine appropriate compensation packages
to be given out to
the victims.
13.5 CONCLUSION
Thus, we can say that disaster recovery planning is a comprehensive exercise, which needs
to bring under its purview both short-term and long-term physiological and psychological
requirements
of the victims, The needs of the victims vary from stage to stage in a long -drawn
recovery process. There is, therefore, a need to take into view the requirements of each and
every stage of
the disaster management cycle. Taking cognisance of the participatory and
interactive elements in formulation and implementation of the
r&ovesy plan is also vesy important.
This Unit highlighted the
basic philosophy of coping with disasters. It
also'brought out the
pertinencepFdisaster recovery planning, and methods of humanising disaster recovery in order
to ensure! smooth rehabilitation
in the aftermath of disasters.
13.6 KEY CONCEPTS
Information Technology
It literally means collection, dissemination and evaluation of information through the use of all
types of available technology, be it traditional or modem. In case of disaster
nianagement, loud
speakers, folklore, street plays, wireless, print material, comguters, satellite system, radio,
television etc., all forms of technology are used to gather and provide information.
. .

155. ! The Philosophy of Coping with Disasters
I
I Stress Relieving Factors
Stress could be a silent killer in the aftermath of disasters. Steps therefore need to be taken
in order to ensure that affected people are gradually able to cope with stress caused by loss
of property or death of dear ones.
It is not easy, but certain stress relieving factors such as
peer counselling, professional counselling, engagement in some productive or even creative
recreational activity, right medication, yoga and meditation, helping out the other victims can go
a long way in bringing down the stress levels.
Triage
It is a system
used by medical or emergency personnel to ration the limited medical resources
when the number of injured needing care exceeds the resources available to perform care, so
as to treat the greatest number of patients possible. This is done by sorting out patients into
those who need more medical attention and those who need less medical aid.
13.7 REFERENCES AND
FURTHER READING
Arnold, Christopher, 1985, "Techniques of Vulnerability Assessment " in Fred Krumgold (Ed.),
I Proceedings of the International Conference on Disaster Mitigation Programme
1 Inzplementatio~z, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.
I
Erbschloe, Michael, 2003, "Understanding the Disaster Recovery Planning Process " (Data
available at the website: www.itemwlovmentadvisc~rs.com/Articles/1TEA-Art2-0303.ht~.)
Goel, R.S, 2004, "Disaster Management and Sustainable Development: Role of NGOs &
Professional Societies ", Paper presented at World Congress on National Disaster Mitigation,
Institute of Engineers, New Delhi.
Report of Expert Group Meeting, 1979, "Natural Disasters and Vulnerability Analysis", Office
of UN's Disaster Relief Coordinator, Geneva.
Singh, W.B and. A.K. Singh, 2000, "Socio-economic Dimensions of Natural Disasters in India:
Suggested Strategies
for Mitigation", Paper presented at
World Congress on Natural Disaster
Mitigation, op. cit.
13.8 ACTIVITIES
1) Go through the newspaper clippings on the Tsunami disaster of 2004 or the Muzzafarabad
Earthquake of 2005, and write an essay on your observations about
the philosophy of coping with
disasters,
i
2) Make a list of the steps involved in disaster recovery planning.

156. ITNIT 14 DEALmG WITH $rHCTMS9 PSYCHOLOGY
Structure
14.0 Learning Outcome
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Dealing with the Human Psyche in the Aftermath of Disasters
14.3 Stress Management
14.4 Countering Trauma through Counselling
14.5 Conclusion
14.6 Key Concepts
14.7 References and Further Reading
14.8 Activities
14.43 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
Understand the nature sf human psyche in the afternlath of disasters
clr Discuss the importance of stress management; and
e Examine the different ways of countering panic through counselling.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
As we all know by now that the disasters impact humans and livestock in the cruelest way
possible, The victims and their kith and kin go through a traumatic experience that is beyond
description. The physical and econolnic infrastructure could still be brought back to normalcy
with developmental efforts, but the human psyche in the disaster aftermath may get scarred
forever. No disaster management programme can succeed
if the psyche of those affected is
not kept into view. Panic management and post -trauma
co~~nselling should become an important
part
of every disaster rehabilitation package. This Unit discusses the nature of
hurnan psyche
in the aftermath of disasters. It highlights the relevance of stress management and also deals
with
the different ways of
countering panic through systematic counselling.
14.2 DEALING WITH THE HUMAN PSYCHE IN THE
ATN OF DISASTERS
Disaster survivors normally experience a range of psychological and physiological reactions.
Survivors' reactions
may
become more intense as the extent of disruption to their lives increases.
Their rzaclion would depend on the nature of their strength and resilience, which further
depends
upon several factors:
e Prior experience with a similar event
@ intensity of disruption

157. Dealing with Victims' Psychology
e The emotional strength of the individual
Degree of pessimistic feelings which sets.the stage for panic
8 The duration of time elapsed since the occurrence of the disaster event
Disaster
-induced stress and
trauma are "normal" reactions to an "abnormal)' situation. Survivors
may go through distinct emotional phases following a disaster. There are four distinct phases
that an affected person normally faces. We have read about them in our previous Unit. Just
to recapitulate, these are:
i) Impact Phase
- ii) Inventory Phase
iii) Rescue Phase
iv) Recovery Phase
Reactions of panic and stress of the survivors are different at every stage. Helping survivors
to cope with the trauma thus needs adequate knowledge of facts and sufficient training in skills
and altitudes. The critical factors that need
to be kept in view are:
o An evaluation of the training process to ascertain how many trained persons have actually applied
their
skills to the field in order to provide mental health support
e Need for medication for the intensely depressed and the suicidal ones
m Monitoring of symptoms such as acute grief reaction; some days after the disaster (anxiety and
panic, depression and suicidal attempts, acute psychotic reactions, alcol~olism).
Let us now see how disaster induced stress can be systematically dealt with. After the critical
panic phase in the aftermath of a disaster event is dealt with, the efforts should be to minimise
stress that may set in after a few days of the event.
We have touched upon the 'stress'
element in our previous Unit.
We have also read about the physiological and psychological
symptoms generally observed in the victims after a disaster. Let us now see how
these can
be managed.
14.3 STRESS MANAGEMENT
Shock and denial are typical responses to disasters and other kinds of trauma, especially shortly .after the event. Both shock and denial are normal protective reactions. 'Shock' is a sudden
and often intense disturbance of one's emotional state that may leave one feeling stunned or
dazed. On the other hand, 'denial' involves not acknowledging that something veIy stressful
has happened or not experiencing fully the intensity of the event, The victim may temporarily
feel numb or disconnected from life and hence also from the disastrous event. Post -traumatic
stress disorder is a disabling psychiatric disorder and needs to be given serious attention. As
,
the initial shock subsides, reactions vary from one person to another, The following, however,
are normal responses to a traumatic event'
. a Feelings become intense and are sometimes unpredictable. The victim may become more irritable
than usual, and the mood may change back and forth dramatically. The victim might be esppially
, ,
anxious or nervous, or even become depre$sed

158. 178 Rehabilitatiolz, ~econstruction and Recovery
e Thoughts and behaviour patterns are affected by the trauma. The sufferer might have repeated
and vivid memories of the event. These flashbacks may occur for no apparent reason and
may
lead to physical reactions such as rapid heartbeat or sweating. The victim may find it difficult to
concentrate or make decisions, or
become more easily confused. Sleep and eating pattellls also
may be disrupted
e Recurring emotional reactions are common. Anniversaries of the event, such as at one month or
one year, as well as reminders of the event such as aftershocks from earthquakes or the sounds
of sirens, can trigger upsetting memories of the traumatic experience. These 'triggers' may be
accompanied by fears that the stressful event might recur
e Interpersonal relationships often become strained. Greater conflict, such as more frequent
arguments 'with family members and co-workers
is common. On the other hand, the victims
might become withdrawn and isolated
and avoid their usual routine activities e Physical symptolns inay accompany the extreme form of stress. For example, headaches, nausea
and chest pain that may require medical attention. Pre-existing medical conditions may worsen
due to stress
It
is important to realise that there is no one 'standard' pattern of reaction to the extreme stress
conditions caused by traumatic experiences. Some people respond immediately, while others
have delayed reactions
- sometimes months or
even years after the disaster event. Some suffer
froin the adverse effects for a long period of time, while others recover rather quickly. The
reactions could even change over time. Some victims who have suffered from trauma are
energised initially and feel geared up
to face the challenges of coping, only to become discouraged
or depressed later. A number of factors tend to affect the duration of time required for
recovery. These are: e The degree of intensity and loss: Events that last longer pose a greater threat, and where lossof
life or substantial loss of property is involved, it takes even longer to resolve
e Aperson's general ability to cope with emotionally challenging situations: Individuals who have
handled other difficult and stressful circumstances well may
find it easier to cope
wiLh the trauma
e Other stressful events preceding the traumatic experience: Individuals faced with other emotionally
challenging situations, such as serious health problems or family-related difficulties, may have
more intense reactions to the new stressful event and
may need more time to recover
Helping Yourself and Your Family
There are a number of steps you can take up to help restore the emotional well-being and a
sense of control following a disaster or the resultant traumatic experience, including the following:
.e Give yourself time to heal. Anticipate that this will be a difficult time in you life. Allow yourself
to mourn over the losses you have experienced.
Try to be patient with changes in your emotional
make
-up e Ask for support from people who care about you and who will listen and empathise with your
situation. But keep in mind that your typical support system may be weakened
if those who are
close to you have also experienced or witnessed the trauma
I
Communicate your experience in whatever way it is comfortable to you - such as talking with ' I I
family or close friends, or keeping a diary to jot down your innermost thoughts 1
El

159. Dealing with Victims' Psychology 179
e Find out about local support groups (NGOs, Self-help Groups, and Community-based Organisations)
that are often available for those who have suffered physically or mentally from natural disasters.
These can be especially helpful for people with limited personal support systems
e Try to be a part of groups led by appropriately trained and experienced professionals. Group
discussion can help people realise that they are not alone and that other individuals in the same
circumstances often have similar reactions and emotions
e Engage in healthy conversations to enhance your ability to cope with excessive stress. Eat well -
balanced meals and get plenty of rest. If you experience ongoing difficulties with sleep, you may
be able to find some relief through meditation and other relaxation exercises. Avoid alcohol and drugs
0 Establish or reestablish routines such as eating meals at regular intervals and following an exercise
regimen. Take some time off from the demands of daily life by pursuing hobbies or other creative
activities
0 If possible, try to avoid life's major decisions such as switching careers or jobs in the immediate I
aftermath of a calamity, as drastic changes in the nature of job tend to be highly stressful
Taking Care of the Children
The intense anxiety and fear that often follow a disaster or other traumatic events can be
especially troubling for the affected children. Some may regress and demonstrate peculiar
behaviour such as thumb
-sucking or bed -wetting. Children may become more prone to nightmares
and fearful of sleeping alone. Performance at school
may suffer. Other changes in behaviour
patterns may include throwing tantrums more frequently, withdrawing from friends and becoming
more solitary.
There
are several ways through which the parents and others who
-care for the children can
help alleviate the emotional consequences of tra~~ma, including the followin g:
0 Spend more time with children and let them be more dependent on you during the months following
the trauma
- for example, allowing your child to cling to you more often than usual. Physical
I
affection is very comforting to children who have experienced trauma
o Provide a playful atmosphere to help relieve tension. Younger children in particular may find it
easier to share their ideas and feelings about the event through non
-verbal activities such as
drawing, painting, acting and dancing
e Encourage older children to speak with you and mingle with one another, in order to share their
thoughts and feelings. This helps in reducing their conf~lsion and anxiety related to the trauma.
Respond to their questions in a way they can easily comprehend. Reassure them repeatedly that
you care about them and that you fully understand their fears and concenls
e ~elp a regular schedule of activities such as eating, playing and going to bed to help restore a
sense of security and normalcy
e Don't move a child if care can be arranged locally and try to keep the child with hislher own '
community people. Also, do not try to change the child's name
e ' Make use of interviewers or other people who speak the child's language and understand hislher
culture. Also record all information about the child . .
e Encourage the establishment of day care centres or 'mamta gruhas' in order to assimilate an

160. Rehabilitation., .Rec~nstructiorz and Recove~y
artificial fanlily with link mothers (One woman colnpassionate enough to be called a mother
should be made the guardian of
. 5-6 . children, thus
tui-ning it into a family-like arrangement)
Seeking Professional Help
Some people are able to effectively cope with the emotional and physical demands brought
about
by a natural disaster or other traumatic experience by using their own support systems.
It
is not unusual, however, to find that serious problems persist and continue to interfere with
daily life. For example, some may feel overwhelming nervousness or lingering sadness that may
adversely affect their job performance and interpersonal relationships. Individuals with prolonged
reactions that disrupt their daily functioning should consult a trained and experienced mental
health professional. Psychologists, psychiatrists and other appropriate mental health providers
could
help educate people about normal responses to extreme stress. These professionals work
with individuals affected by trauma to help them find constructive ways of dealing with the
emotional impact.
In children, as we just read, continual and aggressive emotional outbursts, serious
probleins at
school, preoccupation with the traumatic event, extreme withdrawal, and other signs of intense
anxiety or emotional difficulties point towards the
need for professional assistance. A qualified
mental health professional could help such children and their parents to understand and deal
with the thoughts, feelings and behaviour patterns that emanate from trauma.
14.4 COUNTERING TRAUMA THROUGH COUNSELLING
A supposed precursor to the 'stress' factor in the aftermath of a disaster is the 'panic' factor.
Contrary to popular belief, research has shown that panic is not a common reaction to disasters.
This is not to say that panic never occurs, but that it is rare. Fudhermore, if it does occur, three
conditions seem to be predominant:
e A perception of immediate danger
Apparently blocked escape routes; and
e A feeling experienced by tI~e victim that he or she is isolated.
Finally,
if panic occurs, it is not widespread or contagious. It is generally highly localised and
r
of a short duration. One of the reasons for the belief that panic is common is the failure to i
draw the distinction between outbursts related to evacuation and wild panic. Fleeing a vulnerable i
area or being asked to vacate a vulnerable area is not the same as panic. Sometimes withdrawal
is the most intelligent response to a hazard. A panic-stricken individual, however, flees without
i
1
consideration for others. I b I
In contrast, persons who leave an area through an orderly evacuation process often assist each
1
other in the process. For instance, when residents of Denver Colorado were threatened by the /I
rapidly rising floodwaters on June 16, 1965, 92 per cent of the families who evacuated actually
5 1
left together. This is in contrast to the pattern one would expect from a panic-stricken population,
Imagine this happened four decades ago,
but it is not that systematic evacuation has not taken
El
ti /
place in the recent past. Before Hursicane Katrina unleashed its fury in the U.S. in 2005, many 1
towns of North Orleans were evacuated in an orderly manner without m~lch panic. We must
analyse whether we have lemt anything from these exercises or not, as such instances are rare.
--
I1 is often difliculr to persuade people to evacuate when a disaster threatens, Some or the other

161. Dealing with Victims' Psychology 18 1
type of reluctance in being evacuated in the face of an impending disaster has been documented
in many instances. In some of these cases, even the threat of force and coercive measures
have not been enough to ensure evacuation. Impressing upon the inhabitants to evacuate the
disaster
-vulnerable area is a must, as there are a number of reasons why persons hesitate to
evacuate in face of a threatening disaster.
The most
common reason why people do not evacuate is that they do not believe that they are
in any immediate danger. Even when persons hear warning messages and accept the fact that
there is an impending disaster, they may still fail to evacuate because they do not believe that
they are in personal danger as such. Another common reason, why the people hesitate to
evacuate is because they want to protect their property and other valuable belongings. In some
cases, it is also because of the fear of looting. oreo over, the people in disaster-threatened
areas often hesitate to evacuate until they have assured the safety of other family members.
Even after evacuation, the inhabitants may return while the threat is still present. For instance,
after the initial wartin~e evacuation of British cities, during the 2nd World War, over 60 per cent
of the population returned to their hoines in four months. This was in spite of official warnings
that these areas were pritne targets of air raids and roclcet attacks. Although the cities were
being bombed at night, the children were brought back to London in large nu~nbers. A similar
pattern occurred in Germany in spite of governmental efforts to discourage it
by
withl~olding
ration cards and schooling.
Fortunately, when Hurricane Rita struck New Orleans after the disastrous Hurricane Kattina,
casualties were minilaurn as the lowns were vacant. The occupants had not returned after
Hunicane Katrina. People tend to interpret observatioils in the light of what they expect to
happen. Since some types of disasters are such rare experiences for most people, the natural
reaction to warning is disbelief. This effect is magnified when the warning is related to the type
or severity of threat that is unlikely to occur in the recipient's area. Thus, residents of Kansas
are likely to heed a springtime tornado warning. On the other hand, a flash flood warning to
those living near a quiet stream, which has never been flooded before, is less lilcely to be taken
seriously.
In addition, the thought of an impending disaster is one that most people would prefer to avoid,
and thus they may tend to deny it. This is not lo say that they will necessarily ignore warnings,
but if there is any ambiguity
in the warning inforination, it is often interpreted as evidence
that
the best rather than the worst situation exists. For example, an air raid siren inay be taken for
another test, or a mistake. Often, only after these possibilities are shown to be untenable, are
the other less pleasant interpretations considered. In most cases, the first reaction to a warning,
if it is not expected, is to try and confirm its validity. One of the ways this is carried
out is
by observing the behaviour of others. The failure to see them behaving in an
alarmed marine?
may lead to a discounting of the warning as a mistake, misunderstanding or overreaction.
.
Counselling Tips
. a Help the family in arranging their basic needs of food, clothing and shelter, and try to be there as
their fried
w
e Initiate the return to normal, routine and everyday activities as soon as possible. You could start
from the very first day by organising
a community kitchen and enlist the help of as many as you
can to run it. The
buzz of activity of a domestic chore will help in expediting the reconstruction
process, which will hasten the return of
the normal routine
e Assist families in availing the benefits provided by the government and other relief organisations

162. Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and RECOV~~
Help families in filling out compensation forms and make visits to the application centres along
with them. Some of these places are very taxing, as they may be very crowded with just a f~
overworked staff members
.
e Inform authorities about women with young children, persons with disabilities and those who we
mentally ill. Make efforts to ensure that they have access to the relief services, and that they
have not been left alone. Enlist the help of persons from the community to keep them in a group
along with others
e Reassure children, the elderly and the disabled that they are safe by actively reaching out to them
and helping them organise their activities
6,
Listening Tips
r Listen patiently to what the other person has to say, even if you may believe him or hkr to be off
the mark or illogical. Indicate simple acceptance, not necessarily agreement, by nodding or perhaps
injecting an occasional "mrn-hmm" or "I see"
o Try to understand the feeling behind what the person is trying to express. Most of us have
difficulty talking clearly about our feelings, so it is important to pay careful attention
e Allow time for the discussion to continue without interruption. Spend time with the person who
has come to you.
Do not be in a hurry to finish a conversation. There is no substitute to personal
presence
e void direct questions and arguments about the facts; refrain from saying, "that is just not so ".
You may want to review evidence later, but
a future review is irrelevant to how a person feels in
the present
o Empathise with and listen to, as well as share the experiences of the other person, as if they are
your own e Provide support by patting on the shovlders or by holding their hand as they cry. Be sensitive to
co~nmunity nonns about the code of conduct vis-a-vis the opposite sex, weaker sections and the
elderly
1
e If the other person genuinely wants your viewpoint, be honest in your reply
r Do not get yourself emotionally involved in the other person's plight. Try simply to understand
first
and defer evaluation until later
14.5
b. CONCLUSION
Counselli~tg for stress management is a continuous protracted exercise. The process does not
end with just the first session of talking to the victims. Healing requires time, and the counsellor
may be called upon time and again, sometimes to listen to what has been said before, sometimes
to discuss specific problems and at others
to just offer reassurance and support. Stress
management is
a long drawn process. At every stage, the counsellors have to exhibit empathy
and concern, care as well as caution. Dealing
with victims' psychology is a very sensitive issue
and must be dealt with in the same manner.
No rehabilitation package can succeed without taking into view the psychology of those affected

163. Dealing with Victims' Psychology 183
by disasters. Human psyche comes into play at every stage of disaster management cycle, be
it rescue and relief, recovery, mitigation or reconstruction and rehabitation.
A participatory
disaster recovery programme that involves the local people, grass roots organisations and
affected people at decision-making and implementation stages would go a long way in shaping
a more humane and viable disaster rehabitation programme. This Unit highlighted some of
these crucial elements involved in rehabilitation.
14.6 KEY CONCEPTS
Counselling
:c.
Counselling is the systematic and scientific manner of providing techniques and tips for coping
with trauma and stress.
A methodical counselling programme is always at the heart of handling
post
-trauma stress disorder, which is a common consequence of a disaster situation,
most
evident in children and women. A good counselling programme has to be generally based on
empirical ratings, case studies and clinical expertise. It must involve coping techniques based
on description, classification and diagnostic pattern of disaster related experiences.
Stress Management
Stress can cause severe health problems and in extreme cases even death. Effective stress
management, especially in the aftermath of disaster is extremely crucial. Stress
nlanagelnent
must involve -a package on awareness of the causes of stress, and the types of stress relievers,
stress quenchers or busters. For effective management of stress, it is necessary to determine
the extent of stress, reduce the trauma of victims, build coping capacities, and strengthen the
I sense of control.
I
14.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
McLuckie, Benjamin F., 1970, The Warning Syste~n in Disaster Situations: A Selective
Analysis,
Disaster Research Centre, University of Delaware, New York.
Palakudiyil, Tom and Mary Todd, 2003,
"Facing
Upto the Storm: How Local Communities Can
Cope with Disaster
- Lessons
from Orissa and Gujarat" (for the Christian Aid), London and
-. L
New Delhi. , .
Perry, R.W, 1985, Comprehensive Emergency Managemerzt: Evacuating Threatened
Populations,
TAI Press, Greenwich.
Tiivedi, K.B, 2004, "Capacity Building, Education and Public Awareness", Seminar Proceedi'ngs
of
World Congress on Natural Disaster Mitigation, Institute of Engineers, New Delhi.
14.8 ACTIVITIES
1) Make a list of various
counseUing tips that could be given to the disaster victims.
2) Try to conjure up an image of a person caught up in a disaster situation and prep* a list of the
ways to counter panic and stress in that person.

164. UNIT 15 ROLE OF INFORMATION
DISSEMINATION
Structure
15.0 Learning Outcome
15.1 Intrbduction
15.2 Reaching out to the Community
15.3. Media and Disaster Management
' 15.4 Role of the Media in Disaster Management: Contemporary Context
15.5 Role of Civil Society Organisations in ~nformation Dissemination
15.6 Conclusion
15.7
Key Concepts
15.8 References and Further Reading
15.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
0 Understand the pertinence of information dissemination in disaster management
e Discuss the role of media in reaching out to the people
0 Examine the ways and means of systematising media operations during disasters; and
@ Analyse the role of the NGOs and other civil society organisations in information management.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Media transmits facts from a place of happening io the general public or specific target group.
It is, thus, an important channel of information. Communication is a critical aspect of media.
The relationship between the disaster managers and media people could
be proactive as'well *as reactive. The emergency managers many a time feel constrained when they have to divert
much needed time and resources to address the demands of the media, while at the same time
trying to mount a multi-organisational disaster response under conditions of extreme urgency
and uncertainty.
Well
-planned interactions with the media could be of critical importance in bringing down
the
loss of life and property, fn disaster situations, where warning is not always possible, accurate,
timely
and consistent information dissemination by the media can be a useful contributor in
preventing death and injury. It has been suggested that difficulties with the media occur
because emergency agencies
do not understand how the media operate in disasters and how
to deal with them in an effective way.
This Unit discusses some of the important patterns of media behaviour at the time
of.disasters
and suggests ways of optirnising the interaction between the media, general public and disaster

165. Role of Information Dissemination 185
response agencies. The role of information management in disaster situation is indisputable.
Informed communities, vigilant media and alert statal, parastatal and non
-statal organisations
could make the task of disaster management a lot more systematic. Educational and awareness
programmes could help in building participatory knowledge
-based communities, which may
contribute substantially towards disaster mitigation and sustainable development. This Unit
highlights the pertinent role of information dissemination in a disaster situation. The objective
is also to analyse the role of the community, NGOs and international agencies in the dissemination
of information.
115.2 REACHING OUT TO THE COMMUNITY
India is one of the world's most disaster -prone countries. Both, natural and man-made disasters
cause tremendous amount of damage to life, property, flora and fauna. They hugely impact the
national economies. It is, therefore, necessary to adopt measures to mitigate these disasters
and ensure sustainable development. Experience related to disaster mitigation and management
in developing countries like India reveals that the efforts
and contingency plans concentrate on
the post
-disaster situation rather than preparedness, planning, prevention or mitigation of a
djsas ter.
Disaster mitigation is a major function in any politico
-administrative system. The level of,
preparedness is a reflection of the nation's resolve and the general attitude of the government
towards human life. When a disaster strikes, the whole nation pays the price. Every disaster
has three distinct cost factors viz., human costs, social costs and economic costs. It is a proven
fact that disaster preparedness helps to reduce these costs. It involves an exercise in planning,
which in turn involves a large number of variables and constraints. Public awareness is of
prime importance to mitigate the disasters as well as manage the crisis. The role of media,
NGOs and civil societies has been found to be critical to long
-term planning, communicating
with public and mitigating disasters.
Reaching Out to the Affected Public
There is a need for educating the general public about ,the consequences of a major disaster,
the warning signals, and the various other protective actions that can be taken up by public
organisations and individuals. Soinehow these have been considered as peripheral aspects
of
the warning process and the disaster preparedness
programine in general, It needs to be kept
in view that avoidable loss of life and damage to property has been caused in the past
due to
ignorance and lack of knowledge on the nature of disasters and preparedness skills.
It is now
realised that well-info
r
med and trained cornrnu~lity is a major asset in the management of a
disaster situalion.
The training and education of the public in disaster preparedness and prevention must be
provided by governments and other organisations. High priority should be given to education,
training and public information in disaster prevention and preparedness, both by individual
governments and international organisations. This should be directed towards public officials,
decision makers, professionals in building and construction industries, national health planners,
public health workers and the people situated in particularEy-vulnerable areas. It is to be noted
that in managing
any programme successfully, complete awareness on disasters is very important.
Thus, the strategy for a public awareness campaign should be effectively developed in
consultation with all concerned stakeholders of the selected states, districts, blocks in
order to
take preventive measures in the wake of natural hazards to minimise the losses. In disaster
mitigation programmes, the local people should be made aware of the following:

166. 186
Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and
Recovepy
e
The areas that are prone to natural disasters
e
Elements of risk involved
in
disasters-prone areas
a
Risk assessment and local preparedness plan
a
Availability of the resources
and
help
that
would be available locally from
governmental institutions
and NGOs a1 the time of disasters P
e ~mpokance of conimunity participation
The following modes of awareness creation programmes could help in generating public
awareness:
e
Face
-
to
-
face interaction
e
Lectures
a
Meetings
a Nukkad Nataks
e Door-to-door campaign
I
e
Electronic media
e
Print
media
,
I
!
i
Disaster stricken communities often face difficulties in communicating with the public. Issuing
i
warnings is one of the most important methods of averting the destructive consequences of
disasters. An effective warning system may depend on cooperative interaction between
L
organisations involved in disaster management. The community's response to warning is not
1
simple and straight. Rather, members of the community often have to be convinced that they
I
L,
are in danger. The source, context and tone of the message can influence the impact of
warning on public behaviour.
$
i
Convincing the inhabitants to evacuate areas threatened
by
impending disaster is often difficult.
The warning should have the potential
of
saving lives and property. However, the effectiveness
t
of warning requires that the message is well
-
received by the public, and is based on accurate
analysis of human behaviour. Thus, warning can be one
of
the most important types of disaster
communication, allowing the recipients to avoid the threat altogether or to
signijficantly lessen
its
effects.
A
number of counter disaster measures may
be
taken as a result of effective forewarning.
In many disasters in the past, precious lives have been saved, even in the face of tremendous
property losses, as timely advance warning could reach
the
vulnerable population. However,.
effective procedures for warning must be based on accurate assumptions about how the public
reacts to warning messages, There are three conditions, as we have mentioned in Unit
14,
which require
an
effective message: (i)
A
perception of immediate danger;
(ii) Apparently
blocked escape routes; and (iii)
A
feeling amongst the victims that they
are
isolated.
We have also read in Unit
14
that there
are
a number of reasons why people hesitate to'
evacuate
in
the face of a threatening disaster, They
may
not be convinced that
they
are
actually at risk; they may wish
to
stay and protect their property; or they may want to ensure
the safety of other family members before
leavi;lg. Thus, the most common reason why people
,

167. Role of Information Dissemination 187
do not evacuate is that they do not believe that they are in immediate danger. There is,
therefore, a need to enhance warning effectiveness. The credibility of warning is enhanced if
it is issued in a context that is consistent with a sense of urgency. The authenticity of the past
warning messages can also influence believability. Importantly, repeated and continuous warnings
increase the likelihood of proactive action.
Warning messages are more likely to be believed if they are issued by government officials
from the police, .civil defence and fire departments. The specificity of warning influences its
effectiveness. The process of warning becomes complicated due to the fact that it requires the
accomplishment of a number of tasks that the organisations working in the area of disaster
management are involved with, thereby necessitating systematic coordination.
Importantly, establishing a regional system of disaster information centres for the public could
help in dealing with the problems of warning process. The regional system should be composed
of local information centres connected with regional centres, away from the centres of emergency
activity. Information on the dead and injured could be collected from designated officials at
local hospitals, police departments, morgues, Red Cross, Salvation Army, and community shelters.
Reaching Out to the World at Large
Following any major disaster, the media become extremely active and charged up. Being on
the right side of the recent technological advances and communicatio~~ interventions, various
television channels generally broadcast a continuous and sometimes live reporting of the
happenings at the disaster site. Those who want to help the affected are continually in need
of the latest information. For example, the queries such as what is the contact number of
victims in the disaster
-affected areas, what is being done to assist the victims,
what is exactly
needed to open up the roads and bridges, is. air 1 water navigation possible, what are the
weather conditions on the ground (disaster site), what is the local authority doing, and what specific
assistance is required by the local authorities etc. The list of such questions continues to grow.
In order to reach out to the international community, and inform the emergency managers and
the donor community, the UNOCHA colnpiles and distributes Situation Reports (called SITREPS).
These SITREPS are continually updated with the latest information received from the UN and
other staff at their website. Disaster updates are also based on official information received
from the affected government sources. To facilitate the rescue and relief work at the site of
disaster, United Nations Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) also
maintains a Virtual On
-Site Operations and Coordination Centre (OSOCC) at the
Website:
http:Nwww.reliefweb.inf. Even those who have only the basic knowledge and interest in the
rescue and relief work can access the site;
and request the OCHA Webinaster for a password
and join the virtual
OSOCC.
The OCHA Website is an interactive website where the visitors can directly interact, on the
bases of their experiences, with those at the disaster site. Such interaction greatly facilitates
the resolution of some of the issues without much loss of time and efforts, in order to save
maximum number of lives within a minimum possible period. There is a need to encourage
these types of innovative interactions and create more such websites.
15.3 MEDIA AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disasters are a significant source of news. In fact, one-fourth of all news stories revolve
around natural disasters, technological hazards, civil disturbances or conflict. As we have read
in
unit 4 of this Course, the disasters offer ready material and news, which is generally sought
after for the purpose of reports, coverage and stories that attract
the people. From the

168. 188 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
journalist's point of view, a natural'disaster has all the ingredients of a perfect 'media event'.
It makes for a
brief, spectacular, often mysterious and action-oriented coverage that portrays
human suffering.
Another, reason, why disasters attract so
much of media attention is that they are generally
very easy to cover. All it takes is a film crew, a public shelter where victims can be photographed,
a few shots of rising water or destroyed homes, some high turf, an authority figure to interview,
and the coverage is there for everyone to see. Nevertheless, the presence of analytical and
sensitive reportage on disasters is also not rare.
In fact, the media in disaster management
could play a friendly role in the following manner:
e The people, public officials, NGOs etc., engaged in disaster mitigation work sometimes feel that
they would be able to carny out their disaster management duties in a calmer atmosphere, if the
media were not there for picking holes, criticising actions and questioning decisions. However, in
spite of this feeling, the absence of the media from
the site of disasters could create enormous
difficulties. Thus, a positive role of the media should be encouraged. e It should not be forgotten that the mass'mnedia, especially the electronic media (T.V. and commercial
radio) are the most important source from which the public obtains information on disasters. The
mass media can play a number of important functions that may help to lessen the adverse effect
of a disaster. They transmit warnings of impending cyclones, hurricanes, floods, tsunami (severe
tidal waves)
and volcanic eruptions.
Cominercial radio and television are the most frequent source from which the public receives
I
i
initial warning about an impending disaster. Even when initial warning is from another source !
such as sirens, people generally turn to media for additional and corroboratin g information. In
fact, people often react to warning sirens with disbelief until some confirmation from the media
is obtained. When media warning messages are clearly worded and consistent in content, they
can be very effective
in stimulating appropriate disaster management activity.
e It is not only the public that receives useful warning and inforn~ation from the media; the best
source of information for emergency response organisations is also the media. There is often
inadequate exchange of communication among these organisations that
is rectified through the
information that comes
fi-om the mass media.
@ It is to be noted that media convey important informalion about the disasters to the government
officials and their agencies. The mass media may also perform
a number of other useful functions
to
aid disaster-specific organisations and the public.
Importantly, disasters are
a major source of news. Often, news reports are called stories and
reporters are encouraged to find events that have the same attributes as that of a good fictional
novel or a
comtnercial fllm. Disasters offer all the necessary ingredients and more. For television,
they present the additional advantage, as they make for quick attention grabbing news. Public
officials sometiines decry the mass media. Many feel that performance of disaster related
work can take place in a calmer atmosphere if the media are not there to play 'sideline
quarterback' (i.e., as we mentioned earlier in this Unit, 'criticising actions and questioning
decisions' type of attitude).
Emergency managers often feel frustrated when they have to divert their time and resources
to address the demands of the media, especially when they are trying to mount a multi-
organisational disaster response under conditions of extreme urgency and uncertainty. It is to
be noted that inedia may complicate the tasks at hand if too much attention is paid to the plight
of the victims of the disaster site rather than relief work.

169. Role of Itzforination Disseininatio~z 189
Sometimes, media even go to the extent of reporting greater precision on the intended actions
than what actually exists. This factor leads to credibility problems for the officials involved.
The convergence of media personnel with the relief workers at the disaster site could physically
interfere with the response and recovery operations. The media have been considered a source
of interference in local decision
-making, pressuring officials to indicate what action needs to
be taken before the officials are ready to decide what to do.
Hyper media coverage diverts attention
from urgent matters like casualty care, search, rescue
and evacuation. Media are believed to make excessive delnarids on co~munication, transportation,
and other local resources. Even the entertainment aspect of news broadcasts focuses on the
dramatic and needless aspects of disasters, favouring the reporting of the unusual over the
typical or representative events. Media, in their attempt to highlight the cases of civil unrest,
rumours of looting and negative aspects of disasler management could even worsen the situation
instead of lending a helping hand.
However, in spite of all this, the presence of the media at the disaster site is essential. The
inass media are the most important source from which the public obtains information on
disasters. The developillent of a reasonable, effective and constructive working relationship
between the emergency managers and the media in disasters should be
a high priority goal of
disaster management agencies. The fundamental responsibility of all
govern~nents is to ensure
the safety and well
-being of its citizens. The mass
media may perforn~ a number of other
usef~~l functions to aid disaster management organisations and the public:
e They may convey instructions to the public as to how they can lessen the impact or deal with the
effects of the disaster, They may help to educate the public about preparedness measures
e They may stimulate donations from other parts of the country, which could expedite recovery
a They may draw attention to natural and technological hazards and stimulate public support for
actions to prevent or mitigate disasters. They may help to overcome public and governmental
apathy by drawing attention to disaster risks.and inadequate preparedness
e T11ey.lpay help to ininimise the number of inquiries from anxious relatives about their loved ones
by providing accurate infornlation about the severity and scope of the disaster. This could be
done by publicising the list of survivors
a When other means ase not available, they may be used for point -to-point and person -to-person
communication, if necessasy, to expedite recovery
@ They may often withhold news if they consider it to be dangerous to release it to the public
e They may facilitate future funding and inflow of donations if good publicity lo he disaster coverage
is given. It inay also mean recognition for those involved in the area of disaster management
15.4 ROLE OF THE MEDIA IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT
Considering the impact, both positive and negative, that the media could have on the public and
disaster response agencies, the need for planning in this area is of paramount importance.
Importantly, if the local media are to be able to carry out their designated functions in a
disaster, they must first be able to survive the impact, Consideration must be given to the
importance of locating broadcast stations and transmitters in areas vulnerable to natural hazards
and providing backup power generation.

170. 190 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
Significantly, media functions are best carried out when the participants have an adequate
disaster knowledge base. Education could help to reduce inaccurate news reporting. Probably
one of the best ways to educate the media about disasters is to involve them in the disaster
planning process. One of the most impo
r
tant requirements for effective disaster management
operations by the media is to
familiarise the media personnel about the stages of the disaster
management cycle. One clever strategy for handling media relations would be to delegate the
responsibility of information dissemination to the local media themselves.
Role of the Internet
All disasters, whether natural or man -made, demonstrate common characteristics of disruption
of
transportatioll and communication systems. Some areas can be benefitted from planning in
advance. In any area of scientific inquiry, reliable and updated information is a base line
requirement. In order to understand the magnitude of any problem like natural disasters, wars
or ethnic uprisings that unsettle social and economic parameters, it is very important that global
information is available.
This is when the Internet becomes an easy source of materia1Yor any scientific inquiry.
Internet can access data banks worldwide and retrieve relevant data at any time. It also helps
in co~nrnunicating to the outside world the details of any local disaster so that the aid can reach
the affected areas through responsible and authorised agencies. The Internet transactions are
paperless, instantaneous, cost
-effective and quite efficient. Once the Internet services are
accessible, infonnation database have to be searched using appropriate search engines. The
search engines are user
-friendly and one simply needs to follow directions or the memos as
they appear on the site. The sites that are available on search give a brief outline of the
document along with the link sites and subjects on which information is sought; thereby enabling
surfers to go to the required site, which is just a mouse click away.
Thus, any document could be downloaded so that the required data may be compiled for
reference.
We have mentioned about one such interactive
website in Section 15.2 of this Unit.
Through this medium, the people can now communicate with each other, share ideas, information
and resources on disasters and other matters of interest online through e
-mail, interactive
websites and web blogs. The continuous exchange of information helps in adopting the best
practices developed elsewhere in the globe, and providing several alternatives at most ecoi~omical
rates. The concept of establishment of knowledge networks is one of the most modern ways
to deal with the disaster situations.
Role of the
DISKNET
The National Centre on Natural Disaster Knowledge Network is, therefore, expected to act
as a three dimensional organisational tool to collect, collate, organise, catalogue and disseminate
information as
a prelude to breeding a sound culture of durable multilateral communication and
multidirectional interaction. The ultimate objective is to find timely and apt response to hazards
that threaten safety. National Natural Disaster Knowledge Network
(DISKNET) is a network
I
I
that could aid and
sti~~ulate the following functions:
I
e Assist in implementation of national projects by establishing crosslinkages and appropriate
alignments with other related projects ensuring free flow of high quality information and online
interaction
e Assist state governments and disaster related institutions in securing appropriate partnerships by
matching the felt needs with available capacities
Leverage funding from the Internet and external resources

171. Role of Iizformatioiz Disseinination
0 Match specific needs with apt solutions in public or private domains
Provide technical guidance to the stakeholders and beneficiaries at large
Serve as a national clearing house of information on natural disasters
e Promote partnerships between the government, public and the private sectors
DISKNET aims at:
0 Enhancing the innovative ability to create public awareness, establish a culture of safety and
deliver social goods on the foundation of new knowledge
e Assisting in protection of the ownership of new knowledge
0 Facilitating partnerships in pursuit of multi -hazard research
e Establishing knowledge -based enterprises in order to enhance national capacity for natural disaster
mitigation
e Acquiring an appropriate level of technology, aiming at innovations in construction by tracking
down the new developments across the world
0 Improving the international competitiveness for new know -bow and technologies
0 Developing new programmes and projects with broad -based partnerships, in order to add new
knowledge through continuous dialogues, monitoring and feedback
0 Assessing technological options, accessing new technologies as well as transferring technology
The target audience for DISKNET would include: national disaster management planners, state
disaster and emergency managers, fire officials, local government officials, local crisis staff,
town planners, geologists and professionals (state and non -state) working in the area of natural
disasters.
0 15.5 ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS IN
INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
Civil Society Organisations or the CSOs that comprise NGOs, self-help groups and community-
based organisations (CBOs) have a crucial role in disaster management and mitigation. By and
large, these organisations have well
-delineated priority areas:
0 Developing personnel capabilities, with inputs from organisations like Church's Auxiliary for
Social Action (CASA) and Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE), which
have long experience in monitoring disaster mana
gement e Identifying the feasible area from the long list of disaster management needs
Reducing relief duplication and wastage
'Coordinating access to the donors
e Communicating avenues and hardware (telephone, fax, radio, wireless, transceiver etc.)

172. 192 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction a~tcl Recovery
Lately, there has been a shift in the philosophy and practice of organisations that serve to
provide disaster relief and rehabilitation in India. There has been
a reorientation from providing
response
-based relief to ensuring 'long -term development and disaster mitigation'. Relief
organisations
we increasingly focusing on empowering the community and incorporating disaster
preparedness into large
-scale development programmes.
The CSOs have to constantly interact with the governmental agencies. They must thus
be
familiar with the governmental set -up at the central, state and local levels. The nodal agency
for disaster relief for Government of India is the Union
Ministry of Home Affairs. The Office
of the Central Relief Commissioner (at a Joint Secretary Level) coordinates all relief operations
for disasters, receiving information on the situation and posing
it to the Secretary of the
Ministry. The National Crisis Management Committee gives direction to the Crisis Management
Group when required.
The respective state governments
have their own Crisis Management Groups. At the local
level, the District CollectorlMagistrate or Deputy Commissioner is responsible for directing,
supervising and nlonitoring relief measures according to the contingency plan. There is a
Disaster Relief Co~nlnittee as a part of District Control Room that has been established for
everyday monitoring of relief activities.
The National Institute for Disaster Management (NIDM), New Delhi is another nodal agency
working in the area of disaster management. It provides the framework of action for national,
state and district level administration in the event of a disaster.
It coordinates various research
activities; training programmes, and assimilates a database on natural disasters. The main
objective of
NIDM is to provide an
info~mation base on the damage caused by natural disasters
and arrange for technical services to the national disaster management programmes. Besides,
as mentioned earlier, the NGOs play a critical role in disaster relief and management. They
network with the governmental agencies and the CSOs. Localised
NGOs are mostly networked
with the larger NGOs, some of which provide direct assistance to the reconstruction and
rehabilitation of disaster
-affected areas. Some of the organisations engaged in disaster mitigation
and disaster management are:
Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE India), which is committed to
mitigate human suffering
and loss of support systems in disaster situations
e International Federation of Red Cross (IFRC) and Red Crescent Societies which are
the world's largest humanitarian organisations
8 International Committee for Red Cross that has a track record of responding to several
conflicts in the South Asian Region
@ Indian Red Cross Society that provides a well-knit and well- organised network countrywide
i
0 Catholic Heaith Association of India, which is the world's largest voluntary health care
organisation
f
a Voluntary Health Association of India that links 4000 odd health and developmental I
. organisations across India
I
1
e Evangelical Fellowship of India Commission on Relief (EFICOR), which is a church -
based organisation that provides relief to all communities during the time of calamity and supports
I
" long- term development programmes
f
i
@ Action Aid that has been involved in India since 1972 and exists to facilitate the empowerment
I
I
of the poor through the process of social development
k
I
I

173. Role of Inforinntion Dissemination 193
0 Caritas India that has been operating in India since 1972..It is a development organisation of
Catholic Bishop Conference of India
e Save the Children that is involved in rehabilitation of destitute children in 12 states of India
0 Catholic Relief Services (CRS) that has been operating in India for nearly 50 years. It is
closely associated with USAID and has a working partnership with the Indian Government
-
0 Lutheran World Service that has been functioning in India since 1974 and works with disaster
response related work at different levels
a UK Department for International Development (DFXD), which is the British Government
Department for International Development. It provides emergency assistance to flood
-affected
people in
India
@ European Union, which is the world's largest donor of hutnanitarian aid that comprises assistance,
relief and protection operations
0 United States Agency for International Development (USAID) that provides relief to disaster-
affected people in India and many'other developing countries in the world
0 World Bank's Disaster Management Facility that has been established to maintain disaster
prevention and mitigation initiatives in all the activities. World Bank is supporting studies for
improvement of coastal zone management that will cover aspects like vulnerability mapping,
remote sensing, resource assessment and land capabiIity assessment.
0 World Health Organisation (WHO), which provides humanitarian assistance through its
unit of Emergency and Humanitarian Action
e United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), which is involved in immediate
disaster relief, livelihood recovery and shelter protection
0 United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) that has a long -term presence in India with
a strong field
-based structure for protecting interests of women and children
0 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) or the UN Refngee
Agency that provides international protection to refugees and seeks permanent solution to
the problems of refugees
0 The International Labour Organisation (ILO) looks after protecting livelihood capabilities
of affected persons
The NGOs and other CSOs are
by nature non-profit making organisalions.
Soine are religious,
while others are non
-affiliated. However, they all have one thing in common
i.e., their aim is
alleviation of human suffering and promotion of development. The NGOs and other community-
based organisations mobilise the enthusiasm and commitment of volunteers for mitigation on the
one hand, and encourage developmental activities on the other. In the contemporary context,
,
the major concern underlying the relationship between human beings, natural resources and
disaster mitigation has been the exponential growth of human population, whereas resources
have been limited. Most of the
NGOsc_and the CSOs should thus have access to scjeiitific
information that particularly redefines the power of knowledge in terms of disasters and
environment management.

174. 194. Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
Earlier, CSOs were engaged in relief and charity. Now, the emphasis has shifted to development
and generation of livelihood options. The range of activities of the CSOs has assumed a new,
complexity in the form of advocacy for policy change, and assertion of basic rights for the
affected. The location of activity has moved from local to the national and the global. Since
structured university education hardly provides for the exposure and development of, slulls in
the areas of disaster mitigation and management, it becomes essential that the professional,
multi-disciplinary and specialised societies play their dominant .roles in continuing education,
upgrading quality of information on disaster management, and sustaining development through
the following activities:
Organising workshops, symposia, conventions etc., at the national, regional and local levels
r Publishing literature in the form of monographs, papers, conference proceedings, jou~nals etc.
e Conducting training progra~mes
..' .,
e Providing for libraries, reading rooms and resource centres
e Ensuring distance leasning facilities '
e Ensuring distribution of popular publicity material
e Creating public awareness through mass media reporting
e Holding technical and industrial exhrbitions
e Arranging for popular lectures by eminent experts
o Conducting regular classes for informal education and enhancement of qualifications
Awarding diplomas and certificates after prescribed examinations
o ono our in^ and recognising individual achievements
a Encouraging research and standardisation
e Qrganising functions on World Natural Hazards Mitigation Day, World Environment Day,
World Water Day,
World
Telecoin~nuiricatiol~ Day, World Health Day, Water Resources
Day etc., in order to focus discussions and activities
on systematically identified themes on
disaster management
!
8 Publishing rejoinders pointing out at the scientific facts against prejudiced newspaper articles
'i
Advising the governmental agencies through memorandums on the need of prospective
' planning for long -term disaster management and sustainable development
@ Participating in the disaster management related subject committees formed at various
levels Lo advise the government
e Imparting training and orientation on knowledge regarding disasters- their .nature, cause,
magnitude, response, management, mitigation etc., to the representatives of panchayats,
schools, colleges, civil society, self -help groups, youth clubs, women's groups etc.

175. Role of Information Dissemination
195
Systematic information dissemination is the key to disaster mitigation. Though it is a difficult
task to circulate unbiased and upgraded information at all times, efforts need to be made to
make the
infolmation dissemination process as genuine and planned as possible. Even in normal
situations, handling of information is not easy. Situation becomes worse in crisis such as
disasters. Systematic infohation management would require an organised system of collecting
the
data from
an
authentic source, processing the data
by
experts in the field, and circulating
the data in the form of information at the right time to the right target group. The role of the
media, the Internet, the
DISK.NET and the NGOs and the other CSOs is crucial in this process.
This Unit txamined some of these aspects in detail.
15.7
KEY
CONCEPTS
DISKNET
It
is
a National Natural Disaster Knowledge Network, which aims at creating government
-
.
citizens and public
-
private
-
people partnerships that have access to the necessary technical
know how and high quality information.
Information Management
Management of information in a sensitive and humane way can go
a
long way
in
disaster
mitigation' and management.
A
sy~tematic information management strategy weaves together
effective capacity building, efficient monitoring, competitiveness, adequate resources,
and
commensurate funding for smooth management of disasters.
Parastatal Organisations
It literally
means semi
-
autonomous or quasi
-
state institutions. These are
insti,iutions that are
wholly or partially owned by the State.
15.8
REFERENCES
AND
FURTHER,
READING
Bernstien,
A.B,
1986,
The
Emergency Public Relations Manual,
PASE,
Inc.,
N.J.
I
Galende,
V.M
et al.,
2004,
"
Disaster Mitigation in India: Planning Skills
and
Training Needs
"
in Seminar Proceedings of the
World Congress on Natural Disaster Mitigation
(WCONDM),
'
The Institution of Engineers, Delhi.
Goel, R.S, 2004,
"
Disaster Management and Sustainable Development: Role of NGOs and
Professional Societies
"
in Seminar Proceedings of WCONDM,
ibid.
Goyal,
N.K
and Jai Bhagwan, 2004,
"
Disaster
Knowledge Network" in Seminar Proceedings
of
WCONDM,
ibid.
Holton,
J.L, 1985,
The Electronic
Media
and Disasters
in
the
Hiiglz Techlaica'l Age,
Federal
Emergency Management Agency, Washington DC.
Lynch, S and
P.V.
Unnikrishnan, 2000,
"
A
Profile of Agencies Involved
In
Disaster
.Response"
in
S.
Parasuraman and P.V. Unnikrishnan (Eds.),
India
Disasters
Repart: ~bwards
a
Polioy
Initiative,
Oxford University Press, Delhi.
.
~

176. 196 Rehabilit~lltiow, Reconstruction and Recovery
McLuckie, Benjamin F,, 1970, Tlze Warning System in Disaster Situations: A Selective
Annlysis, Disaster Research Centre, University of Delaware, New York.
Nair, CNN, 2000, "The.Role of Internet", Iizdici Disasters Report, up. cit.
Perry, R.W, 1985, Conzprelzensive Einergeizcy Managerneizt: Evacuatirzg Threatened
Populations, JAI Press, Greenwich.
Prasad, M and G.K Pandey, 2004, "Natural Disaster Management", Seminar Proceedings of
WCONDM, op. cit.
Quilrantelli, E.L, 1984, Evacuation Belzuviozir arzd Problems: Findings and Implications
JCrom the Research Literature, Disaster Research Centre, University of Delaware, New York.
Scanlon, J. et ul., 1982, "Media Coverage of Disasters ", Emergency Plcrizning Digest, 7(4),
0ct.-Dec.
Sharma, V.K, 2000, NGO-Government Collaboration, India Disasters Report, opcit.
Singh, U.B and A.K. Singh, 2004, "Socio-economic Dimensions of Natural Disasters in India:
Suggested Strategies for Mitigation ", Seminar Proceedings of WCONDM, op. cit.
Trivedi, K.B, 2004, "Capacity Building, Education and Public Awareness in Disaster
Management
", Seminar Proceedings of WCONDM,
ibid.
Wengel; D, 1985, "Mass Media and Disasters", Prelinzinary Paper 98, Disaster Research
Centre, University of Delaware, New York.
15.9 ACTIVITIES
1) Go through the newspapers and ~l~agazines for write-ups on any recent disaster and nlake a notc
on the nature of information covered by them on the disaster. You nlay prepare your note i~nder
the categories 06
e Type of disaster
@ Statistics on loss of lives, property and other infrastructure
Irnlnediate relief
e Waning signals
e Do s and Don'ts
2) Select any two newspapers or lnagazitles and n~ake a co~nparative analysis of the infor~nation
provided by them with regard to a specific disaster under the calegoi-ies listed in Activity One.

177. UNIT 1.6 . PARTICIPATIVE REHABILITATION
PROCESS: SOME CASE STUDIES
Structure
16.0 Learning Outcome
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Linking Disasters to Development:
A Case of Community -led Disaster Management in
Nepal
16.3 Malpa Landslide
16.4 Latur Earthquake
16.5
Bhuj Earthqu'ake
16.6 Networking Teachers for Educational Rehabilitation in Kutch
16.7 Livelihood and Employlnent Restoration Programlne in Orissa
16.8 ECHO Disaster Preparedness Programme
1 6.9 Conclusion
16.10 Key Concepts
16.11 References and Further Reading
16.12 Activities
16.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
e Discuss the rehabilitation measures in some of the disaster hit areas of the country; and
Examine the role of community, CBOs, NGOs and inte~~lational organisalions in the area of
disaster nlanagement with respect to some specific Case Studies.
6 INTRODUCTION
As you all are aware, we have already examined the need for linking disasters to development
in our first few Units of this Course. We are familiar with the inlportance of house reconstruction
and physical rehabilitation in the aftermath of disasters. The initial Units
of this Course have
clearly brought out the
interlinkages between risk and vulnerability assessment in mitigating
disasters. The role of the community, NGOs and other national and international agencies has
also been discussed. We, thus, know for certain that participatory disaster rehabilitation is
an
integral part of social and psychological rehabilitation. We will now
discuss some Case Studies
in the following Sections of this Unit to further understand the methods of participatoiy
rehabilitation,
India is one of the world's most disaster -prone areas. Both natural and man-made disasters
frequent the country every year. Natural disasters such as floods, droughts, cyclones
and
earthquakes occur here with regular periodicity. The situation is compounded by communal
riots, conflicts, fires, epidemics, building collapse and
other man-made disasters. The Government '

178. 198 Rehabilitation, Reconstr~iction and Recovery
of India through its National Crisis Management Committee and the organisational set -up at the
state level has been rnakilig efforts to meet the exigencies as they arise. It is, however, another
matter that all these efforts and contingency plans concentrate on the post
-disaster situation,
especially just after disaster occurrence.
Generally, a half
-baked approach is adopted for preventing and mitigating the adverse impact
of natural disasters. We prepare ourselves for managing the aftermath of crisis rather than
planning towards prevention or mitigation of disasters. There is a need for
a fundamental
change in the national disaster management approach itself. The community has to be involved
in the planning and implementation of disaster management programmes. The Cases that are
dealt with in this Unit talk about the relief operations and participatory strategies in some
specific disasters. Some Cases talk about relief process; while others about the participatory
approach of the
NGOs, Community-based Organisations (CBOs), government and community
towards rehabilitation.
- --
16.2 LINKING DISASTERS TO DEVELOPMENT: A CASE
OF COMMUNITY - LED DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN
Nepal, like India is also a disaster prone country mainly due to its geology, sloppy terrain and
widespread poverty. During 1996
-2001, around 1700 people lost their lives in several disasters
such as avalanches, floods, landslides, fires, windstorm, hailstorms and earthquakes, while
around
2000 families were affected by these disasters. The loss in terms of productive properties
such as animals, agricultural land and crops etc., has also been overwhelming. Among the
major disasters, floods, landslides and epidemics are the most recurrent ones claiming several
lives annually. As seismic faults pass through the country, it renders Nepal highly vulnerable
to earthquakes too.
Despite the four decades of planned development efforts in Nepal (1950's
-
1990's), disaster
mitigation has remained awfully unplanned. The Natural Calamity Relief Act 1982 basically
gives priority to the post
-disaster activities and not so much
to9re-disaster ones. Due to lack
of appropriate
and suitable Disaster Management Act or Policy, the country 'does not
hgve any
cfmprehensive disaster management plan. Proper coordination within the government, and in
many cases, between the governmental and non-governmental agencies is always a challenge.
In Nepal, many a time, the development plans are not systematically prepared at the central
level. They are generally made without consulting the local communities or taking cognisance
of the felt needs of the target communities. Thus, development plans are unsustainable and
expensive. They also create negative implications for development activities. Even the
development initiatives in many areas of Nepal have created hazards such as breach of
irrigation channels, unplanned construction activity and development work in fragile areas, poor
housing plans etc., that could be disastrous.
Despite the heavy toll of disasters in Nepal, all the actors involved in disaster management and
development have been dealing with disaster situations in isolation. The country is loosing about
20 per cent of the National Gross Domestic Product due to disasters alone. Many development
activities have been suffering due to increased periodicity of natural disaster management in
the countr
y. The additional financial burden poses problems for the country. Thus, there is an
urgent need
of linking disasters to development in order to deal with disasters more systematically,
any rural communities are isolated due to several reasons like inaccessibility and locational
vulnerability etc. The communities have developed several indigenous mechanisms to manage

179. Participative Rehabilitntiorz Process: Some Case Studies 199
and cope with their impending problems. Whenever a particular disaster strikes, be it in rural
or urban areas, it is the local community that has to respond first. Such a situation
is more
pronounced in rural and remote areas of the country. The government has limited resources
to provide immediate relief and rescue at the time of the
disastkr. It is always the local
community that has to depend on its own resources and capability to manage any natural
disaster.
Realising this fact and the importance of community involvement in sustainable disaster
management, United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) has been involved in the
implementation of disaster management programme with the local
com~n~~nity in a few disaster
prone districts of the country. The selection of the district is mainly based on the criteria of:
i) Number of people killed in natural disasters
ii) Number of families affected; and
iii) Cultivated crop area damaged in the last 5 years.
Once the district is selected, further selection of the most disaster prone Village Development
Committees (VDCs) is entrusted to the District Disaster Management Committee led by the
Chairperson of the District Development Committee
(DDC). To select an
appropriate site/ community
within the selected VDC, a Geographical Information System (GIs) mapping and risk assessment
exercise is taken up to identify the parts of the community that are prone
to disasters
within the
VDCs. This information is provided to the local authority to facilitate them on the selection of the
work
-site and community. Once the
site/community is selected, the community is then geared to
form a responsible group to implement the activities effectively, mobilise the local community, and
generate local resources to impIement the activities as well as serve as a bridge between the community
and the project.
The following precautions are taken while forming such groups:
i) Equal representation of males
and females
ii) Equal representation of all political parties
iii) No membership to people outside the community; and
iv) Choosing trusted people of the community as members.
Once the grpup is formed, a four
-day training programme on the basic disaster related concepts
is conducted. After the completion of the training programme, the participants share the outcome
of the training programme with. their local community
merhbers. The members as participants
also discuss possible disaster mitigation/preparedness/management activities based on indigenous
knowledge, locally available material and the skills that participants learn during the training
programme to fight future eventualities. Once the community has falniliatised itself wiih such
activities; these are shared with the project personnel to discuss the time
-frame for the project
and the distribution of activities
among the local communities. The project is granted seed
money, which is deposited in a bank
in the name of the community, to be used for implementing
the project activities.
-
UNDP, Nepal has been trying to link disasters to development through a Pilot Project entitled
'Participatory Disaster Management Programme' (PDMP) in six districts (Bardiya, Chitwan,
1 Makwanpur, Sindhuli, Syangja and Tanatu) since 2001. The Programme is based on indigenous

180. 3
Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
knowledge and locally available materials that are issued by the local community to mitigate
natural disasters.
The activities are all designed by the localltarget community who know the problem better. The
impact of the Programme has been well-visualised in Chitwan District as compared to other
districts. The success df the Project in the District owes to the fact that UNDP had already
implemented a Project (1996-97) on 'Upgrading Disaster Management Capacity in Nepal',
before implementing the PDMP in 2001. Chitwan District is centrally located in southern flat
, plain areas of the country where floods are recurring phenomena causing heavy loss of life and
property annually. The VDCs namely Bhandara and Kathar have been selected by the District
Development Committee to implement the Project activities, as here the floods are the single
most threat to the entire VDC.
Therefore, the disaster mitigation activities in Bhandara VDC have been much more focused
on flood control/management through large -scale plantation, protection- of degraded forest,
zero-grazing in community forestry, proper drainage of excess water run off etc. The community
in Kathar VDC experienced that within a well -protected forest, the hamlets were completely
safe, whereas the hamlets under degraded forests were prone to be swept away by the same
magnitude of flash floods.
The Pilot Project community was much more enthusiastic to protect the degraded community
forestry through fencing, plantation and zero
-grazing. Within six months of zero -grazing
and
large-scale plantations, the degraded forest had a good coverage of vegetation. The community
decided to sell the abundant grass available in the protected community forest on the basis of
Y a
minimum monthly fee to the community people. Within a short period, the community mobilised
-$resources to buy more animals by doling out soft loans to the community members. Now
'*' community members have 50 additional buffaloes and cows producing about 300 litres of milk
every day.
The community has decided to sell the surplus milk to District Dairy Authority.
The selling of surplus grass
has enabled the community to instal biogas plants in each and
every house for domestic use. This is expected to reduce the drudgery
of women and thereby
improve their respiratory health. Ultimately, it will reduce the pressure on forests and result
in
improved environment. The majority of the community in the Project area in Kathar VDC is
that of 'Tharus', the indigenous people. With the financial assistance from the Inslitute of
Agriculture
and Animal Science, Rampur, the
Chitwan co~nlnunity in the Project area has been
able to construct
25
famiIy fishponds. This has reduced the fish catching practices at the
natural streams and rivers, and has improved the family nutrition levels.
The community in Kathar has also constructed
a picnic spot in the well -protected forests,
where people from the adjoining areas come to spend their weekends.
This has also enabled
the community to generate additional funds. The community is now also planning to
construct
a watchtower in the forest. This is how a disaster-torn community has been able to mitigate
the problem of floods and generate financial resources through different developmental activities.
Now, we will move on to yet another disaster recovery endeavour
in the small village of Malpa
in Uttaranchal, India.
16.3 MALPA LANDSLIDE
i
Malpa is a small village located approximately 46 km., north of Dharchula in Pithoragarh
I
District of Uttaranchal and is a staging camp for the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra. In 1998, it
had a population of only twenty people living in five houses. The village was located on the
I
:
Malpa nuliah flowing from west to east on the northern side of the village and meeting the
swift Kali River. Kumaon Vikas Mandal Nigaln had built a few huts to the south of the village

181. Participntive ~ehabilitntion Process: Same Case Stullies 20 1
to cater to the yatris and the hny had a prefabricated hut for use by patrols. On 17th August
1998, the 12th batch of
yatris who were to leave for
Budhi en route to Mansarovar were
asked to stay an extra day as maintenance work on the track was in progress.
At about 12.30 p.m on 18th August, a dust storm enveloped the area, which was followed soon
after by a massive Landslide, where a major portion of the near perpendicular hillside to the
west of Malpa village came cascading down, destroying everything in its wake and burying the
entire village under three to six metres of debris. Many boulders were bigger than the size of
) the houses in the villages. The main boulder slide measured 50 metres at the base, 100 metres '
in height, with more than 5000 cubic metres of debris.
The slide caused the Malpa nullalz to change course and wash away the remaining houses.
A major portion of the debris also fell into the Kali River forcing it to change course, which
washed away the track to the village. It is estimated that 210 persons were killed in the
Landslide. The only 10 survivors were the locals. The
PWD rest house and the ITBP
transit
camp were the only buildings to suffer minor damages. The rest of the buildings just collapsed.
The then Pithoragarh District Magistrate
(DM),
Lajpat Rai Yadav, sent a 'Most Urgent Fax'
message to Army Head Quarters' Central Command at Lucknow and Air Force's Head
Quarters at Allahabad for immediate assistance. He also personally requested the Commander
of my's brigade stationed at Pithoragarh, for all possible assistance. The State Government
(of the then Uttar Pradesh State), besides making the ritual political announcement of an ex gratin
grant of Rs. 100,000 to the next kith and kin of those killed and Rs. 50,000 to those injured
did nothing else.
However, soon after learning about the tragedy, one Junior Commissioned Officer
(JCO) and
five troops of
14 JAT regiment, located nearby at Chiyalik military outpost,
tnoved on foot and
reached Malpa by the late evening.
ITBP also dispatched an officer with 20 troops and a
doctor from
Gunji who also reached Malpa at the same time. Of the 10 survivors, nine escaped,
as their hut did not fall in the path of the landslide, while the 10th was rescued by the troops
of
14 JAT and ITBP soldiers, who braved the raging
nullah to reach the hotel where the last
survivor was found. The Brigade Commander at Pithoragarh reacted swiftly to the DM'S
request and took the following measures:
e Two columns of Kumaon scouts, each of approximately 75 troops led by an officer were dispatched
at 11 :00 a.m on
1 8th August from Dharchula by road up to Tawaghat from where they moved on
foot. They could not reach Malpa due to the landslide to its south, which had blocked the track
One column of approximately 65 troops from Channa (North of Pithoragarh) was asked to be
ready to be airlifted to Malpa, while another column was kept ready at Dharchula to move to
Malpa at
a short notice
e On 19th August, a team of 6 army doctors Was moved from Pithoragarh to Dharchula, to receive
casualities while the brigade commander also moved to Dharchuja and took control of rescue
camp. In the meanwhile, efforts were made to open the track to Malpa from the south
e On 20th August, after a makeshift helipad was constructed by the troops present at Malpa, one
army column was finally moved to Malpa in helicopters - a full sixty hours after the incident
e The southward assistance for the army was from the civil administration, which was
responsible for organising food packets for the rescue teams and labour, and polyphone
body bags for the deceased

182. 202 Rehabilitation., Reconstruction and Recovery
, 0 On 21st August, bad weather prevented rescue operations and every move by helicopters
After
20th August, relief work centred essentially around improvement of the track to cater to
the
yatris returning from
Mansarovar and the extrication of dead bodies many of which were in
an advanced stage of decay. The operations were hampered
by continuing landslides and bad
weather conditions
e The option of carrying out relief through Nepal was considered and ruled out due to the procedural
delays likely to occur and due to the long distances required to
be transited on foot or by mule
track
e The army engineers rapidly constructed the track including bridges, prepared the Malpa helipad
and removed large boulders to ease extrication of bodies, most of it by extensive improvisation
0 Between 24th Ad 29th August, 163 stranded yatris, 14 Kurnaon Mandal Was Nigarn (KMVN)
personnel, 20 ITBP personnel, and 10 injured personnel were evacuated by Mi 17 helicopters
from Malpa including
36 dead bodies
Though the
army played a significant role in crisis management, the following lessons can,
however, be learnt from this incident:
i) Basic knowledge about organisation and equipment of defence services is required
ii) Empathetic and sensitive response from civil adlninistration is needed
iii) Joint planning and decision -making for incident command system is required
iv) Contingency planning is required for disaster prone and fragile areas
v) Improved communication system is needed for timely response to the disaster;
and
vi) Proper equipment and arrangements are required to enable rescue team to rehabilitate the victims
and sufferers.
116.4 LATUR EARTHQUAKE .
The Latur Earthquake of September 1993 showed that in the rehabilitation phase, there were
two ways of dealing with' the crisis:
i) Building houses and giving them to the people; or
2) Supporting the people to rebuild their houses and their lives.
The transition from disasters to development is a three
-fold process. The first ripple is the
emergency or the relief period, characterised
by maximum resources and plentiful but short -
term players. People at this stage are treated as passive recipients of aid. The second ripple
is that of rehabilitation, involving needs assessment, creating or strengthening local capacities,
and designing programmes controlled and managed
by the people. The third ripple is that of
building
community capabilities into a fulcrum resource, spanning over the entire process of
rehabilitation to development. The emphasis on community -based disaster mitigation process
has to be the State's responsibility. In terms of modalities, specific programmes such as building
houses and restoring services can be managed locally. However,
large
infrastrugu~-e works or
policy changes require a critical mass of informed actors.

183. Participative Rehabilitation Process: Some Case Studies 203
The World Bank and several donors funded the large-scale state-led earthquake rehabilitation
project. Its major component, the repair and strengthening programme, which involved over
200,000 families, remains one of the largest community
-based post -disaster efforts in the
country till date. The state policy conceptualised it as an 'owner driven effort' with financial
and technical support. It provided assistance in cash and materials worth Rs. 17,000 to every
household, and an engineer to plan and supervise earthquake resistant construction. In over
500
villages, the
Swayam Sikshan Prayog (SSP) team moblised women's groups or Makila
Mandals to work as Sanvad Sahayaks or village assistants in the reconstruction programme.
Wherever, there was active participation by the communities, the efforts initiated new :
development processes and mobilised local resources. Women came out and participated in the
self
-help house construction programme. As village assistants, over
1000 women were trained
to supervise earthquake resistant construction. Women leaders also initiated Gram Sabhas and
' linked them with Gram Panchayat members to solve common problems of water, transport and
non
-availability of masons.
In the initial year of programme implementation, women's participation was reported to be
negligible. However, a fresh agenda was ushered into the programme to involve various actors
and also to form women's groups. It was a learning and empowerment strategy wherein
community groups would learn earthquake resistant building technologies and then educate
others through learning workshops. Their confidence grew as more information was made
available on 'how
y
to construct low cost houses, material pricing, transport and construction
practices.The most effective practices were developed around community participation in
monitoring quality construction; retrofitting houses, making collective efforts to buy materials,
volunteer labour etc.
Various activities, such as gram sabha meetings with women, village workshops on construction
training, house design and mapping of settlements, were designed to mobilise communities.
Village schoolteacher as well as college lecturers volunteered for the lok jagar (an information
campaign network of street plays, songs, skits that interconnected 13000 villages). 'Panchayat'
(literally, the creation of a walking path) was the name of disaster mitigation training that
concretised and strengthened the diversity of participants, officials, elected members and women's
groups. Training was provided to 10 contact persons in every village. Women's groups
demonstrated disaster management techniques, advised house
-owners, and solved many
.problems.
The involvement of women was ensured in the following areas:
i) Inforination dissemination
ii) Selection of beneficiaries
iii) Motivation of beneficiaries and formation of groups
iv) Monitoring schemes
v) Ensuring quality of services
vi) Feedback and grievance redressal; and
vii) Support and linkages.
Thus, as a liaison between government and people, women's groups monitored the quality of
earthquake construction in terms of its resistance levels and interface with administration, local

184. 204 Rehabilitation, Reco~zstruction and Recovery
self-government and technical agencies. Moreover, in every cluster, women were encouraged to
take part in rnelns (information fairs), which were made a part of village markets and religious
festivals.
In these fairs, thrift and credit as well as other development issues were discussed.
Every village had a
mahila nzandal, each with at least 10 members. They initiated social
awareness programmes and health camps and mobilised money for community centres. The
district administration used to make use of thein in campaigns for health, immunisation and
literacy. Malzila Mandals conducted the 'model gram sabhas'. Women's involvement spread
from activating all women l~ouseholds, and involving them in gram panchayats to solve problems
related to land cultivation and ownership.
Women showed a deep awareness of the logic of
construction material used in
~raditional house design and the need of cement to make it
disaster resistant.
The World Bank and the state government recognised participatiot~ and self-help as key concepts
in post
-disaster recovery. Accordingly, communities were actually created at the
district and
village levels, but the absence of institutional nlechanisrns to ensure or monitor participation
kept them inactive in the initial stages. However, today,
all communities are being actively nlobilised to organise the construction process.
16.5 BHU J EARTHQUAKE
We are all aware that a serious tragedy occurred in Gujarat on January 26, 2001 in the form
of a massive Earthquake measuring
6.9 on the
Ricl~tcr Scale. Extensive loss of life and damage
to property was caused in Kutch and many neighbouring districts. Nearly
17,000 persons lost
their lives and thousands were injured. About one
-lakh dwellings simply collapsed.
The number
of damaged houses was n~uch higher. The destruction caused by the Earthquake was widespread.
It showed that the buildings
in large cities and towns were not earthquake resistant. Standard
building designs were not adopted and safety
norms were simply flouted.
Many parts
of Gujarat and
most of the areas in the Kutch region fall in Zone 5 of seisinic
hazard categorisation (It means that these areas are totally earthquake prone), but a little or
1
no attempt had been made to introduce and implement building codes that would make the
existent structures earthquake resistant. Another weakness that came to light was that in the
impacted area, preparations for disaster education, mitigation or preparedness were simply wanting.
I
I
I
Caritas India undertook a major rehabilitation programme in Bhuj Taluka of Kutch District after
Gujarat Easthquake. About 31 25 families belonging to 14 villages were provided permanent
safe houses. The entire process of rehabilitalion was carried out in a process of triangular
partnership: People-Govenlment and NGOs. When the corporate sector is also involved, it is called
the PubIic-Private-People Partnership. The Gram Sabha mandated Casitas India to undertake the
i
reconstruction of their villages and panchayats. At the same time, the District was given the
powers of ratification. Only then, the construction of houses was undertaken. The constniction [
work took 3 years to finish. The Chief Minister, District Administration, Gujarat State Disaster
Mitigation Authority and Donor Parhers appreciated the speed and quality of construction of
housing. I
I
f
I11 fact, among the NGOs, Caritas India was nominated as the shelter coordination agency for i
the permanent housing process in the Gujarat Earthquake Rehabilitation Prograinme. Caritas
India also constructed 6 primary schools, 12 community centres and 3 village panchayat offices.
I
Besides, construction of 6 schools was completed in six villages. These schools were handed
over to local authority and arc now funclional. As a part of co~nmunity participation in the
B'

185. Participative Relzabilitatioiz Process: Some Case Stlrrlies 205
educational infrastructure, the villagers donated 8 fans and 16 tubelights to four villages. Now,
18 non
-formal classes have become operational in
fomteen villages where creative means are
used to educate children. About
1500 students, on an average, have been benefitted by the
classes.
Bal Samities have been
formed in six villages jointly with the Panchayat School to take care
of the creative education of the children. About 120 students have re
-enrolled in the schools
on the motivation of the
Bal Samities. Again, 9 classes are being lun in 9 villages where 450
women attend them regularly. School children of 14 villages are now motivated enough to
impart education to their parents. About 970 women are able to put their signatures and
250
women can read and write on the initiative of the children and adult education classes.
Caritas
India has also improved water supply system through construction of pump houses, pipelines
and establishment of village water and sanitation committees. Importantly,
122
Self-help Groups
(SHGs) have been formed in
14 villages, which
are involved i11 the area of thrift and credit.
The cumulative savings of these groups are reported to be Rs.
8.47 lakh, while Rs. 1.59
lakh
. have been routed as short -term loans.
Federations have been formed in 9 villages by the SHGs at the village level. These Federations
address various issues related to health, education and employment. These Federations have
resolved the local problems and mobilised community for voluntary labour to
a considerable
extent.
Caritas India has also organised orientation workshops and counselling for women for
handling women related issues on preventive and curative basis. Moreover, general health
camps have been conducted in 8 villages for prevention of common disease. Healtl~ camp for
Hepatitis B inoculation has been organised in two villages through community mobilisation.
Caritas India has provided livelihood to 1650 persons, wlnile 90 per cent of the beneficiaries
have been enabled to increase their income upto 50 per cent. The livelihood resloralion has
impacted on socio-economic life of the local people and the corn~nunities too have been enabled
to raise their living standards, social status and also sensitisation towards social causes. Thus,
the programme has brought out the linkages between relief, rehabilitation and developn~ent.
Caritas India has laid emphasis on the strategies of development and animation in emergency
interventions, leading to sustainable development. Let us now turn to the participatory
rehabilitation process in the Kutch region of Gujarat.
16.6 NETWORKING TEACHERS FOR EDUCATIONAL
REHABILITATION
IN KUTCH
SRISTI rehabilitation initiatives involve rehabilitation of school children who otherwise would
have migrated
from their region, as their schools were not functional and there was no evidence
of their opening soon. SRISTI took the challenge to initiate a project wit11 the school children
in the Earthquake
-affected areas. The problem of parents migrating in search of employment
and at the same time taking the children with them had left a large number of school going
children with no access to education.
The schools were not functional and many of them were simply damaged.
SRISTI took up the
task of controlling migration of school going children, with the
slim to stop all such migration.
One of the reasons for such migration was lack of interest show~l in the students by the
primary school teachers and inadequate use of innovative methods of teaching. SRISTI redised
this problem and through its Shodhyatra -"Sikshan Sodh Evam Shrarn Arpan Yatra" tried to
impress on the parents to send their children to schools.
A few President Award winner school teachers from across Gujarat volunteered to take the
initiative in introducing interesting 1 innovative methods of learning in students. One such

186. 206 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovely
teacher is Raman La1 Soni, who through his different and innovative approach to learning
engaged his students and actually motivated them to attend school. SRISTI helped in rebuilding
the schools and provided 'Gyan Kosh' - (books and stationary) besides other school material to
the students.
Sikshan Sodh Evam Shram Arpan Yatra
SRISTI's Shodhyafra VII, 'Sikshan Sodh Evam Shram Arpan Yatra', is an innovative mission
with a difference.
It has been a positive step in trying to rebuild the education process in
earthquake
-affected areas covering 14 villages of
Rapar Taluka in Kutch. Villages such as
Dabhuda, Sai, Pichhana, Naliya, Timba, Mevasa, Thoriyali, Kumbhariya, Khanpur, Gajuwadh,
Jethsari, Gajuwadh, Jethasari, Gongawadh, Govindpur, Badargadh and Sarasala witnessed the
construction of primary schools. Useful books for children and youth were donated to the
libraries of the schools.
There were several 'shramdaan' programmes for plantation of trees and construction of sheds
for animals. Schools also organised bio
-diversity forums and similar contests. Besides, distribution
of educational toys, pencils, books and rubbers was taken up in all the primary schools.
Meetings and discussions were held with the villagers to inculcate an interest towards education
amongst the children. The knowledge of local people regarding agriculture, veterinary practices,
development
of farm implements and other rural skills was also enhanced to some extent. This
Case Study shows that
a strong will -power and zeal
to.innovate and look for alternatives
always meet with success.
16.7 LIVELIHOOD AND EMPLOYMENT RESTORATION
PROGRAMME IN
ORISSA
The Cyclone that ravaged Orissa twice in October 1999, affected 14 most prosperous districts
of the state. The Cyclone affected over 15 million people in the state. While 10,000 people
were killed, nearly
90 per cent of the mud and thatch dwellings were decimated and over 6
million marginal and small farmers, landless agricultural workers, fisher folk and artisans were
rendered. workless; without any livelihood for at least six months to a year. The inundation by
saline water, with tidal waves rising to 15 metres at many places, left most of the drinking
water sources polluted and dysfunctional for days. About 350,000 cattle perished and the paddy
crops worth Rs. 1750 crore, spread over
24 lakh hectares, were destroyed in the wake of gales
with speed between 250
-350
kmph caused by the cyclone. Thousands of villages in the worst-
affected districts remained marooned for over two weeks.
The endless wait and the woefully inadequate distribution of relief proved fatal for some of the
most vulnerable survivors, who later died of starvation. The desperation elsewhere took an ugly
turn and many instances of food riots were reported in the press. Government's food
godowns
and relief supplies of NGOs were looted. These incidents restrained the social workers and
other civil society organisations from reaching out to the victims in the interior regions. Thus,
a large number of local and international NGOs, UN agencies, donors and government officials
met to coordinate emergency relief and rehabilitation work. The group, which had gained some
experience of disasters in Bangladesh and Andhra Pradesh, agreed upon some colnmon principles
of collaborative rehabilitation, which included a rights
-based approach, consultation between
communities and authorities, transparency and accountability, use of local skills
and resources,
and coverage of the
most vulnerable first.
In order to ensure coordination at the state level, three sub
-groups were convened by the
governinent; non-government facilitators were set up to coordinate rehabilitation under the

187. Participative Rehabilitation Process: Some Case Studies 207
categories of Livelihood, habitat and infrastructure. Oxfam supported by the European Union
launched a 'Livelihoods and Employment Restoration Programme' aimed to restore and protect
the nutritional status of identified vulnerable groups. The Programme involved targeting of
15,000 vulnerable households that were to be provided food for four months, integrating it with
the distribution of winter vegetables, seeds and tools, family survival kits and
10,000 blankets.
Provision of fishing nets to
1000 fishing families, and set of tools and materials to 1000 artisan
families completed this holistic approach towards improving the long
-term security of scheduled
castes and tribal families,
the elderly, sick, disabled, female headed households, landless labourers,
small farmers, and children targeted within these categories.
The Programme intended
to achieve a number of additional objectives:
i) Preservation of the traditional livelihoods of the affected population through the provision of
foodlcash for work
ji) Facilitation of the work of community -based rehabilitation and restoration activities, such as the
construction of community halls and reclamation of agricultural land;
and
iii) Provision of a model Food for Work Programme that is capable of reaching out to the most
vulnerable and marginalised, so that other larger scale programmes could themselves integrate
the vulnerability and equity perspectives into their functioning.
The Food for Livelihood Programme aims to provide some temporary work and nutritional
income to families. Rebuilding lives and reconstructing Orissa will take decades. One important
factor that both the European Union and the Oxfam, however, remain committed to addressing
in the longer term is the need for a systematic and comprehensive national and state level
disaster preparedness, management and mitigation strategies. Thus, the Programme has facilitated
local communities in improving their socio
-economic status through raising incomes and creating
agriculture
-based employment generation. Moreover, traditional livelihoods have been restored
to the local communities while community participation
in rehabilitation of Cyclone -affected
people has been ensured through
implenlentation of the said Programme in the state. .
16.8 ECHO DISASTER PREPAREDNESS PROGRAMME
The European Union is the donor of a little over SO per cent of official humanitarian aid to
countries outside the Union, making it the biggest of all such donors. Half of this is channeled
through the European Community Humanitatian Officer (ECHO), which was set up in 1992.
As the biggest single source of humanitarian aid in the world, ECHO has a responsibility to
raise public awareness of the issue at stake. Of the
1.6 billion Euros that the European Union
gave as aid in 1998,
ECHO'S share was almost half. Operating in partnership with NGOs and
specialised agencies of: the United Nations, namely United Nations High Comlnissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), United Nations Children's Fund and World Food Programme (UNICEF
and
WFP), as well as the Red Cross family, ECHO aid is channeled impartially to the victims,
regardless of race,
religioq or political affiliation.
- In 1994, keeping in view a long -term perspective to disaster management, ECHO launched a
Disaster Preparedness Programme. The focus was on three main types of activities: human
resource development, management and institutional strengthening; and community
-based pilot
projects. From
1996 onwards, in addition to its global approach, the Programme has come to
include an equally important regional approach component called 'Disaster Preparedness
-
ECHO'. It aims to .encourage coherence and
complementari@ of all regional, national and
community
-based disaster preparedness policies, programmes and projects.

188. 208 Rehabilitation, Reconstrlrction and Recover y
ECHO takes a practical gap -filling approacl~. ECHO's mandate covers:
i) General humanitarian aid for those affected by long running civil wars and ethnic disputes
ii) Emergency humanitarian aid for victims of nat~~ral disasters and civil wars
iii) Emerging food aid to those threatened by famine as a result of natural disasters and civil wars
iv)
Aid for refugees or displaced people to help the victims in rehabilitation; and v) Disaster preparedness programmes for natural catastrophes.
The European Cominission began to finance disaster relief and preparedness projects in India
in 1978, which are today worth more than
25 million Euros. The construction of cyclone and ilood shelters and other disaster preparedness structures in the coastal states of Andhra
Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, and West
Bengal have been the beginning points. Some
of the other activities include:
i) Disaster preparedness and mitigation training programme in Andhra Pradesh
ii) Community-level improved vulnerability and capacity analysis for disaster mitigation
iii) Rehabilitation, shelter and humanitarian aid for the flood -affected in West Bengal
iv) Water and sanitation for Tibetan refugees in Rabayling. In 1998, ECHO provided emergency aid
worth Euro 500,000 (Rs. 2.45 crores) to the flood -affected in northern India.
The assistance was channeled through the IFRC and Red Crescent Societies and distributed
by the Indian Red Cross. In 1998-99,
ECHO's focus was to provide emergency and rehabilitation
programmes for those affected
by the floods in Bihar, West Bengal,
Assam and U.P. The
Programme was implemented through the sustained efforts put
in by organisations such as Dan
Church Aid, Lutheran World Service,
Caritas India, German Agro -Action and their local partners.
In
1998-99 alone, ECHO committed relief
and rehabilitation funds worth Rs, 22 crores in West
Bengal, U.P, Assam, Bihar and Orissa.
16.9 CONCLUSION
A participatory approach to disaster management could nlake social and economic rehabilitation
s a lot more easy and viable if done in the true spirit of the word. In this Unit, we discussed
different Cases from India that underline the need and pertinence of involving the community,
local NGOs and CBOs in order to evolve a rehabilitation package that is holistic and inclusive.
The Unit also threw light on a Case Study from Nepal to understand the rehabilitation mechanism
in a place outside India. The lessons learnt through these Case Studies focus on:
i) Self-help;
ii) Community participation, iii) Indigenous models of disaster participation, iv) Education and
awareness,
v) Food for Work Programme; and vi) Sustainable development and
liveliliood options.
"I
16.10 KEY CONCEPTS
0
Bal Samiti
Bal Samities are multifaceted and multidimensional voluntary organisations at the national as
I
!
i
k

189. Participative Rehabilitation Process: Some Case Studies 209
well as state levels. They are working for the welfare and development of the children, youth
and women. Their major focus is on upliftment of the deprived sections. The object is to bring
about
qualitathe improvement in the living and working environment of rehabilitation colonies,
slums and ecoqomically backward areas.
SRISTI
It is a voluntary organisation, which is engaged in coordinating the available resburces in
disaster
-affected areas and
making them accessible to the victims of disasters. Its aim is to
make available structural engineering experts, HAM operators, communication equipment and
life saving drugs etc., to the disaster struck areas.
Vikas Mandal
Vikas
Mandals or Development Boards work at the village, block and dist~ict levels. They
come up for various developmental purposes, be it child welfare, education, promoti& of handicrafts,
health awareness, disaster rehabilitation, employment generation, tourism expansion etc.
6.11 REFERENCES AND
FURTHER READING
Anderson, Mary B, 1990, "Analysing the Costs and Benefits of Natural. Disaster Responses
in the Context ,of Development", World Bank's Working Paper on Environment.
Carter, Nick, 199 1, Disaster Management: A Disaster Marzager 's Handbobk, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
"Linking Disaster to Development: The Case of Community-led Disaster Management in Nepal ",
1999,
National Programme on Disaster
Marzagenlent, UNDP, Nepal.
Kanchan, Ajay and John Gwynn, 2000,
"The 1999 Super Cyclone in
Orissay', in S. Parasuraman
and P.V. Unnikrishnan (Eds.), India Disasters Report: Towards a Policy Initiative, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
;
Merladet, Jose Felix, 2000, "The European Community Humanitarian Office in India ", in S.
Parasuraman and P.V. Unnikrishnan (Eds.), Inclia Disasters Report: Towards a Policy Initiative
ibid.
Parasuraman,
S and P.V Unnikrishnan, 2000, "Community Participation in Latur", in S.
Parasuraman and P. Unnikrishnan (Eds.), India Disasters Report: Towards a Policy Initiative
,
ibid. , I
I
"Relief in Armed Forces in Disaster Management ", Training Prograrnme on Disaster
Management,
2002, Department of
public Administration, Lucknow University, Lucknow.
1
16.12 ACTIVITIES
,
1) Pen down any Case Study on participatoq rehabilitation that you have heard or read about in the
I
context of any of the recent disasters.
a 2) Pick up any Case Study from this Unit and make a list of the elements of relief and rehabilitation
involved
in it.

190. UNIT 17 ROLE OF VARIOUS AGENCIES IN I
RECOVERY MEASURES
Structure
17.0 Learning Outcome
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Role of Rural and Urban Local Bodies
17.3 Role of NGOs in the Recovery Process
17.3.1 Standardisation of Relief Response by Various Agencies
17.3.2
NGO Networking and Disaster Recovery
17.4 The Government-NGO Cooperation
17.5 Role of Communi ty
-based Organisations
17.5.1 Self-help Groups: Case of Pani Panchayats in Maharashtra
17.5.2 Advantages of Pani Panchayats
17.6 Conclusion
17.7 Key Concepts
17.8 References and Further Reading
17.9 Activities
17.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
e Highlight the role of local and urban bodies in disaster recovery
Discuss the role of NGOs in disaster recovery measures
I
~xplain the relitionship between the go~emment bodies and NOS in the area of disaster recovery; and
~nal~se the functions of Community -based Organisations and Self-help Groups in carrying out
long
-term recovery measures to combat the hazardous effects of'disasters.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
1 .
I.
Disaster recovery is a multidi~nensional field requiring coordinated inputs from a number of
agencies from different sectors. Disaster recovery is a comprehensive process, which includes
physical recovery, social recovery and economic recovery. Agencies from governmental sector
as well as NGOs play a major role in the recovery process. In recent years, the role
of the
private sector has also emerged as a key component. With specific reference to developing
economies with large population size like India, the role of community becomes very important
and Community-based Organisations also figure as important agencies in the disaster recovery
measures.
The
iss'ue of prime importance is related to the level of coordination required amongst the

191. 214 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
various agencies working towards the common goal of long -term recpvery. This Unit highlights
the role of governmental and non
-governmental agencies in disaster recovery measures.
ltbalso
discusses the functioning of Panchayati Raj Institutions, CBOs, NGOs and self -help groups in
disaster recovery and rehabilitation.
- 17.2 ROLE OF RURAL AND URBAN LOCAL BODIES ,
,
All types of communities have some vitally important assets when it comes to dealing with a
disaster situation. These include the traditional capability of reading disaster warning signs,
knowledge of safe and vulnerable areas at the local levels, experience and folklore regarding
the impact of disasters, methods of survival and an understanding of the local hierarchical and
extended family system. This traditional wisdom holds them in good stead when it comes to
withstanding disasters; it should be organised and utilised to the maximum extent. '
.
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) form the best platform for
institutionalising such activities since they are the grass roots level of governance, and hence
are in close proximity with the community. They are also the official instruments for governance
related action. In the light of the 73d and 74th Constitutional Amendments, PRIs and ULBs
have become even more critical as organisational role
-players in Community -based Disaster
Management (CBDM) about which we have mentioned is some of our Units of this Course.
I
I
The members of the local community can take the initiative in helping the external agencies.
in. the relief and rescue process. It has to be made clear that during and after the disaster,
inpediate action can help save lives. Thus, it is best if the local community does not merely
wait for
-the outside help to arrive. They can also spread the warning to areas likely to be
affected. External dependency could be similarly avoided
in evacuation process. Administration
of first aid makes
all the difference between life and death; maximum number of people from
vulnerable communities should have the basic knowledge of first aid techniques. The community
can also be entrusted with the task of preparing the basics required for rescue work. For
example, in flood situations, they can make boats out of empty drums, rafts could be made
fiom
fallen trees etc. Community members working together can, thus, minimiseethe impact of disasters.
Each community can form its own disaster ~repaiedness ham. It can respond immediately
when a disaster strikes its
area in order to reduce loss of lives, injury and damage. It can
consist of people from different sections of society, including members from the business' and trade,communities, social workers, government workers etc. They can help reduce the advei-se
impacyof disasters through spreading warnings of the impending disaster and evacuation,
extending. a klping hand to women, children, old and sick people, and assisting the affected
with the distribution of relief.
117.3 ROLE OF NGOs IN THE RECOVERY PROCESS
The Non-governmental Organisations have a major role to play in post -disaster recovery phase.
As has been
demofistrated in the aftermath of some disasters such as the Orissa Cyclone and
the Gujarat Earthquake, NGOs do -have a crucial presence in the disaster -affected regions.
Immediate response aspects usually handled by NGOs include food, shelter and clothing needs.
Possibly, the most prompt and well
-organised response to natural disasters in the country has
come from the religious organisations.
1nspired.voluntee~s from these organisations' are quick
to move directly to the village
and
,are able to meet the people's needs in a pre-trained capacity
of camaraderie.
Let us now look at some instances of NGO participation.
I
- -
A severe earthquake measuring 6.4 in magnitude on the Richter Scale struck the Marathwada I
1
r
b r

192. Role of Various Agencies in Recovery Measures 215
region of Maharashtra State, Village Killari, about forty kilometres south of Latur District*
Headquarters, near the boundary of Latur
-Osmanabad districts in the early morning hours of
30th September 1993. People woke up to intense vibrations and shaking of the earth. By
355
a.m, enormous damage had been caused - killing about 10,000 persons and destroying about
200,000 dwelling units in
13 districts along with a huge loss to public and private property. The
major cause of damage being the poorly constructed houses with locally available stones.
The response of the charitable and religious organisations was tremendous
- undertaking mass
feeding programmes and free distribution of essential items such as clothes and utensils etc.
Organising
comlnunity kitchens in villages following the Cyclone in Gujarat in 1998, Super
Cyclone in Orissa in 1999 and Earthquake in Gujarat in 2001, or organising 'langar' (Community
Kitchens) at the place of worship (usually located on higher ground) are just a few examples
of their laudable work.
The growing use of
HAM radio or amateur radio in facilitating
coinmunication of essential
information has also helped the functioning of NGOs in disaster
-affected areas.
An~atgur Radio
enthusiasts in the country, as we have read in Unit
4 of this Course, have been participating
in emergency relief operations very effectively. While they cannot possibly replace the first line
of communication provided by police and other government agencies, they are able to provide
backup
com~nunication and relevant information to relief agencies, which otherwise may not
have access to government information immediately. HAM radio network has been useful in
Maharashtra Earthquake (1991), and also more recently in Gujarat. More NGOs are now
developing skills in amateur radiophony, which is a useful tool for action during emergencies.
17.3.1 Standardisation of Relief Response by Various Agencies
Following a series of major natural disasters, namely Maharashtra Earthquake (1991), Chamoli
Earthquake (1999), Orissa Cyclone (1999), Bhuj Earthquake (2004), Andaman & Nicobar
Islands Tsunami (2004) and Muzzafarabad Earthquake (2005), there has been an overwhelming
response from all parts of the cpuntry with people rushing in to provide all sorts of relief aid.
Much of it has been of little use to the affected community either due to the nature
of
rqlief
material (perishable goods, unsuitable clothes etc.) or poorly organised relief material, which
makes collection and distribution difficult.
In response to these unwanted situations, there have been a number of initiatives for developing
standards and norms for relief material and relief distribution. One such initiative is the
"Sphere
Project
", which has developed the charted
and_ associated set of Minimum Standards of Relief.
The Sphere Project, a joint effort of many international NGOs, is now being actively disseminated
in 1ndia.In Orissa, a State Level Workshop on Strategic Planning in Rehabilitation and
Development held in Decpmber 1999 discussed, among other things, setting up of standards for
- Family Relief Kits that could answer basic questions such as - "How much per kit needs
to be given? when will it reach the people? etc." While many national and international NGOs,
which have traditionally been responding to disasters have developed standard kits, much
remains to be done
in majority of the cases, where unorganised and spontaneous relief flows
in after any major disaster.
-
I
In an attempt to develop standardised models and put them to use in the field, Sustainable
Environment and Ecological Development Society
(SEEDS), an
'~~0-workin~ in the area of
disaster' management and sustainable development carried out relief work in Village Eva1 in
Gujarat when the Earthquake struck in 2001. Relief kits were organised for, over
100 families.
Each
kit comprised about 20 kg. of dry rations (wheat flour, rice, lintels, bug&, salt, tea), 11-
piece utensil set, a bucket and a mug, 7 piece bedding set (floor mats, blankets/sheets), 22
pieces of clothing (men's, women's and children's), and candle and matchbox packs.

193. 216 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and' Recovery
The kit was distributed in an orderly manner through a system of 'roll a call' from the records
register of families maintained by the local NGO. Women members from families were called
one by one to collect their kits. At the end of the distribution, each family in the village bad
been covered. Some additional items such as children's clothes, biscuits and floor mats were
given to the village school headmaster for the use
by school children who had been forced to
attend the school in the open, as their school
"building had got destroyed in the Earthquake.
17.3.2
NGO Networking and Disaster Recovery n b
~ollowin~ the Super Cyclone in Orissa, 1999, at the behest of the UN House located in the
state capital of Bhuvaneshwar, a coordination mechanism between NGOs, UN organisaiions
and the state government was evolved. Representatives from the three sectors regularly met
to update each other on the relief and rehabilitation activities.
A unique venture like this
ensured that all relief material that reached the state was evenly distributed in all the affected
areas. During such meetings, participants could inform each other of the needs of the area they
were catering to.
These coordination meetings have led to the development of a number of programmes on
infrastructure, livelihood and habitat at the state level. Standard Family Relief Kits have also
been developed on the basis
of mutual, deliberations. NGO coordination and networking has
been found to be useful both in the case of Orissa Cylcone (1999) and Gujarat Earthquake
(2001). Such NGO networks are found to have better contacts at the grass roots level, which
ensures that a post
-disaster response is more evenly spread out. Also, by following a common
set of standards and norms, there is greater
-transparency in implementation.
Following the Orissa Cyclone, Orissa Disaster Mitigation Mission
(ODMM) was launched on
October
30, 1999 due to the efforts of a state -wide network of voluntary organisations in
Orissa called
SANHATI that took the lead in organising a get-together of interested voluntary
grganisations and individuals. The ODMM had among its partners and supporters some
established NGOs, Community
-based Organisations, National and International Development
Support Organisations. The initial concern was how and to what extent the organisations could
reach out to the people in the affected areas.
The preliminary objectives before
the mission we3e to:
i) Facilitate faster movement of relief to the remote, inaccessible and difficult areas
) Plan scientifically for the restoration of livelihood, habitat and social infrastructure in the affected
areas; and
iii) Prepare a disaster mitigation plan for the state:,
Relief work in Orissa was carried out under four major heads reflecting the Mission's primary
focus
- Food, Shelter, Health and Disposal of Carcasses. In Gujarat, an NGO network formed
during the Cyclone in 1998
- 'Abhiyan' became active once again after the January 2001
Earthquake. Currently, many corporate and international donor agencies are routing their
rehabilitation funds through this Consortium.
I
17.4
THUE GOVERNMENT-NGO COOPERATION
As we have read in our earlier Units of this Course, in August 1999, the Government of India! .
appointed h High Powered Committee (HPC) to look into the factors that needed to go into
the preparation of a Disaster Management Policy at the national level. Over
a span of 2 years,

194. Role of Various Agencies in Recovery Measures 217
HPC carried out a nationwide NGO consultation in which more than 600 NGOs participated.
The consuItations were coordinated by four nodal NGOs, which acted as regional coordinators.
An effort was made by the HPC.to address this problem by organising a nationwide network
of NGOs with an acronym VASUDEVA, which stands for 'Voluntary Agencies far Sustainable
Universal Development and Emergency Voluntary Action'. It was formed with the intention of
creating a bridge between the NGOs and the government sector as also within the NGOs
working in the field of disaster management in order to activate disaster management network.
The National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM, which has now been made an
autonomous institute called National Institute for Disaster Management) was identified as the
convener, while the four nodal NGOs, which had convened the four regional consultations,
were identified as respective conveners for the four regional networks of the country.
'VASUDEVA' was thus envisaged to ultimately become a people's movement for disaster
management. Its formation marks
a positive step
taken by the government, acknowledging the
important role played by the NGOs in responding to disasters, and government's efforts in
institutionalising networks through regional consultations.
In Orissa, the NGOs have implemented successful cyclone rehabilitation projects in the recent
past. The NGOs have supported livelihood initiatives within which the beneficiaries have been
trained and provided with support to establish vocations. Masons trained by the 'Gram Vikas'
an NGO, are able to find good work opportunities within the area. Non -conventional livelihood
options such as masonry in new construction techniques, cycle rental shops etc,, are being
made .available to beneficiaries and these appear to be having far more potential than the
conventional basket
-weaving and rice-pounding kind of options being adopted by other agencies.
New avenues create a new demand and besides finding space for themselves, they provide an
overall impetus to the economy. On the other hand, creating new self
-help groups practicing
the same traditional vocations merely increases competition with fellow artisans in
a market
with limited elasticity. The approach is innovative, as it first creates a demand, say for masons
+through promotion of permanent housing, and then services this demand through entrepreneurial
development.
P
*
Latur Earthquake brought together organisations that played a vital role in developmental
activities
in different parts of the country. These organisations came forward to help the
government in long
-term rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes comprising physical
development of villages, and socio
-economic support to the affected community. As many as
23,000 new houses in
49 villages were constructed on entirely new sites with the help of
NGOs. The organisations comprised religious and charitable agencies that in turn were provided
with financial infrastructure and research support by a number of private corporate houses,
public sector organisations, as well as research and development agencies.
17.5 ROLE OF COMMUNITY -BASED , ORGANISATIONS
..
In recent years, various formal and non -formal organisations have played an increasingly
important role in disaster reduction. Because of their significant links with grass roots,
development, these organisations often perform complementary roles with other established
organisations. The role of panchayats, schoolteachers, social welfare workers, women's groups,
and other socio
-cultural organisations in disaster
rgduction should, thus, not be underestimated.
Religious institutions and their structures have also been involved in number of ways. For
instance in Jamaica, Hurricane Committees are organised on aUparish basis. Immediately after
the impact of a disaster, many people look towards religious organisations for guidance, emotional -

195. 218 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
support and comfort. The 'coping abilities' ,of vulnerable communities are, many a time, linked
to their religious beliefs. The same phenomenon was observed in Punjab, particularly during the
floods of 1993, when 'gurudwaras' played a major role in relief and rehabilitation activities, and
served as temporary shelters too.
It is universally accepted that governments must have the main responsibility for managing
disasters.
It is one of the governmental tasks to ensure that the national resources, of which
the majority falls under governmental control, are utilised (before, during and after a disaster)
in the best
possible way. The organisational structures needed for managing disasters are best
founded on existing government structures. Creation of
ad
.hqc arrangements for disaster
purposes have proved to be ineffective. In this light, PRIs have a significant role to play, as
they bridge the gap .between the government Eft the higher levels, and the community as well
as the NGOs at the grass roots levels.
Local authorities and project staff are the implementers of the development programmes of the
government at the community level. It is this group that actually coordinates most of the
disaster reduction work. The national and regional planners also exercise a major influence on
the mitigation of disasters. But it is ultimately at the policy
-making level that the decisions are
taken on when and how the national disaster management programmes are to be developed.
These are the programmes that the NGO sector needs to be working with in order to arrive
at an integrated strategy for participatory disaster
manageme'nt.
17.5.1 Self-help Groups: Case of Pani Panchayats in Maharashtra
Maharashtra has been experiencing droughts for many years. The people in the region had
accepted it and even learnt lo live with it. But the spell has been broken now due to concerted
efforts. Fifty km from Pune is the village of Mahur, which though receives 500 mm of rain
every year on an average, had been forced to cope wit11 drought conditions. This was the
situation till 2003. The high run
-off
in this hilly region used to leave little water for cultivation.
The villagers depended on rainfed agriculture. The rate of migration was high with one member
of every family living in Mumbai.
But now, from an undeveloped, rocky, barren area, Mahur is showing signs of prosperity. The
village is now dotted with fields of lilies, tube roses and other flowers, chickpeas, custard apple
and maize. In 1971, the state government had built a minor irrigation dam in the village to store
rainwater. 'Tor ten years, we did not know how to make proper use of it,
" remarked
S~irang
Balu Gole, whose solo efforts transformed this tiny village. He had heard about a scheme,
which w~uld help people draw water through pumps. He mobilised some villagers to learn more
about it.
Funds were raised through 'Gram Gaurav Pratishthan', which was set up in 1974. The
government also provided some amount as subsidy and the remaining amount was raised by
the villagers, As a result, the 'Renukamata Upsa Jal Sinchan Prakalp' took off in 1981. Three
30 hp pumps were installed to draw water in the fields of
35 members who had
SO acres
between them, which was harnessed for irrigation. The scheme was unique. Water was not
' distributed randomly nor did the largest landowner ever get a lion's share. Instead, each
landowner was allowed to irrigate only
2 acres of land and water was distributed equally. One
trained person ensured that no one was denied his share. Now, more than two decades later, Srirang Gole looks back with pride as he says. "Earlier, I used to get only five quintals of Bajri,
now
I get
50. From floriculture alone, I make Rs. 10,000 a month. "
However, not all farmers have been equally successful. Some earn Rs, 2,000 to Rs. 2,500 a
month from floriculture, while others work for daily wages. But overall, the village seems to
have risen from its penury. Cropping patterns have changed for the better. Farmers now

196. Role of Various Agencies in Recovery Measures
cultivate short-term seasonal crops, which fetch better returns. Flowers and fruits are'the
favourites. The farmers also grow pulses and grains for their own sustenance.
17.5.2 Advantages of Pani Panchayats
The experiment in Mahur is one of the 50 such projects in Purandar, Ambegaon, Maval and
Phaltan Talukas of Pune where the principles of Pani Panchayat scheme are in force. Vilas .
Salunkhe, the brain behind the scheme and a mechanical engineer by profession once pointed
out that he had no connection with the villages or the problems of the poor, he had an urban
background. But in 1972, moved by the devastating drought in the state, he visited Purandar
Taluka where he saw nearly 40,000 people engaged in breaking stones as part of employment
guarantee schemes. As he could not fathom the connection between stone cutting and drought,
he approaqked the authorities in vain to find an explanation to this strange way of tackling the
drought. .
In 1974, he set up the 'Gram Gaurav Pratishthan' at Naigaon village in Purandar Taluka, which
was severely affected by drought. He realised that providing employment was one thing but
making the people self
-reliant was the, key issue.
kccording to him, the Pratishthan was the
first example of micro
- watershed development programme, and land and water management. In
Naigaon, annual rainfall fluctuates between 250 and
500 mrn, but most of it runs off in seasonal
streams. To prevent this, a percolation tank was built and the fields were lined with contour
bunds. For five years, Vilas Salunkhe experimented in water and soil conservation, designing
low
-cost community irrigation schemes, water regeneration and various other techniques to
improve production.
It was not easy to convince people who are generally sceptical and reluctant to share
water.
A number of social hurdles had to be overcome. Besides producing nearly 200 quintals of i
foodgrains, the farm in Naigaon generated employment for 15 persons. The whole area was. '
covered with hundreds of trees. However, once water was harvested, the question of its
management and distribution cropped up, In 1980, Vilas Salunkhe decided that apart from
micro
-watershed development, the economic needs of the village also had to be met. Various .experierices perthing to farm work in Naigaon proved that half an acre of irrigated land would
sustain one person and on this basis, each family could have
a maximum of 2.5 acres of ii-rigated land. Another concept, revolutionary at that time, was Vilas Salunlche's insistencq $a+t
;he community should contribute 20 per cent of the costs.
He evo~ved a few principles, the first being that water should be distributed to every villager,
regardless of his landholding. "Instead of saying 'land to the tiIler', people should say 'water
to the tiller'. It is water that should be distributed on a per capita basis ", he suggested.
Emphasis was placed on cultivating short
-term cash crops requiring less water for irrigation.
Even the landless must have access to water, so that the question of land distribution also
comes into the picture. According to Salunkhe, when equal rights are given to water sharing,
land will automatically be shared. He has
aLways felt that if such ideas could be incorporated
into planning; their replication would not be a problem.
.In 1981,' the Centre appointed a Committee headed by K.B. Shivaraman to oversee the
c development of backward areas. After visiting the area, under the Pani Panchayat Scheme, it
was felt that the scheme could help solve the problems of drought
-hit
Maharashtra by making
some minor policy changes, as social justice
and water distribution are the only ways of
ensuring a solution to the people's problems. Even the Planning Commission had
recommended
the incorporation of the Pani Panchayat Scheme in the 20-point Programme. But it needs more ,
than a mere recommendation to mdke a concept operative. It has to be a part of the national
strategies as well as community mind
-set.
.
-

197. 220 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
At present, 1600 families in 20 villages have benefited from the Pani Panchayat Scheme. Over
3,000 acres of land can now sustain 10,000 people. Most of these villages are in drought-
affected and even in high rainfall areas where seasonal migration is common. Now, because
of the availability of water, reverse migration is taking place, though on a small
-scale. Of the
1,200
big dams in the country, 687 are in Maharashtra. However, recurring droughts indicate
that these dams have not helped to mitigate the problem of water scarcity. Once the villagers
are self
- reliant, their energies turn to afforestation. In
Mahur, there are plans to plant trees
on
barren hillsides. This idea has caught on in most of the project areas. In terms of
sustahnability,
the scheme has proved that water management is the basis of economic growth beyond doubt.
The Pani Panchayat Model has attracted attention in some
parts of the country. Such as in
Bihar's Pdamau District, and some districts in Karnataka. Vilas Salunkhe observed that the
' replicability of the Project was tested in the tribal area of Yavatmal by convincing the people,
as the government had been spending crores of rupees under the tribal sub
-plan. In Yavatmal,
after the adoption
af the scheme, a woman who owns 40 acres can now earn Rs. 4000 a
month by renting it out to
20 farmers. Water is available, but it has to
be_harvested and
managed properly. Though there are schemes where volumetric water supply has been provided,
lack of community participation render them useless. Sharing water not only means using water
judiciously
but also making sure that everybody has a right to it.
17.6 CONCLUSION
The NGOs play a crucial role in disaster recovery. The NGO networking and the
CBOs'
initiative will go a long way in managing disaster recovery process. The most important aspect
requiring attention is the issue of coordinated response. Government agencies, NGOs, CBOs,
. Research and Academic Organisations and Private Organisations, all have different but mutually
complementary roles to play. However, there is a need for standardisation of relief activities
so that the beneficiaries are able to get uniform and fair assistance.
This can be best ensured by establishment of standards and networking of organisations. In
recent years, several efforts have been made to network recovery related organisations,
parti-cularly in the NGO sector. A lot would depend on the involvement of skilled and aware
communities in disaster recovery initiatives. This
Unit examined some of these crucial issues
'through Case Studies. The few success stories that
the Unit discussed need to be replicated
at other places in order to reap the benefits of innovative thinking, collective initiative and
strong
zeal.
17.7 KEY CONCEPTS
Relief Standards
In disaster management, the
governmel~tal, non-governmental and international organisations
follow certain benchmarks for relief aid. In order to maintain quality and quantity, the relief
measures have to adhere
to certain minimum relief standards that have. been set up keeping in view
the
nature, level, context and requirement of the calamity. These are called relief standards.
Community-based Organisations ,
I
Organisations that are locally controlled by the community as well as managed by it are called I
Community-based Organisations. These could take the form of self -help groups, Disaster Task I
I
Force, women's groups, neighbourhood schemes, local panchayats etc. These organisations
I
could seek financial or infrastructure support from the governmental or the non-governn~ental I
I
sectors, but are essentially self -governed.

198. Role of Various Agencies in Recovery Measures
Panchayati Raj Institutions
In 1952, on the recommendations of Balwant Rai Mehta Report, a three tier structure of
governance called Zilla Parishad, Panchayat Samiti and Gram Panchayat was implemented at
the district, block and village levels respectively. These three tiers of local governance have
collectively come to be known as Panchayati Raj Institutions. These institutions are a watershed
in the history of democratic decentralisation and participatory development
in India and have
got enough teeth in
terms of financial and structural autonomy with the implementation of the
73"' Constitutional Amendment Act 1992.
17.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Asian Developlnent Outlook, 1998, Asian Development Bank Annual Survey, Oxford University
Ress, New Delhi.
Asian Development Bank Report, 1991, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and Pacific ", ..bi&an
Development Bank (ADB), Manila.
Carter, W. Nick, 199 1, Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager 's Handbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
Gupta, Harsh
K, 2003, Disaster Management, University Press, Hyderabad.
Sahni,
Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Mitigation: Experiences
and Reflections,
Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni,
Pardeep and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Reduction in
South Asia,
Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
World Bank Reports
(1992-2003), Oxford University Press, Oxford.
17.9 ACTMTIES
1) Try to meet the local community leaders and government officials in any government office near
your place. Based on the information provided
by them, prepare a list of organisations that could
possibly play
a role in disaster assistance, should a disaster strike your locality.
2) Use the information gathered on the basis of Activity One to prepare a telephone
directow far
disaster assistance with all the accessible phone numbers of disaster management agencies and
concerned officials for the use of local residents.
3) Identify the hazards that your locality is prone to. Based on this, prepare a Table of possible
disasters that can strike your loc&ty, and enumerate recovery steps that will be required to
address each type of disaster.

199. Long-term Counter Disaster Planriing 253
The cross-sectoral integration, in the real sense, happens effectively at the local government
level. The block development office or the gram panchayat has to deal with all these issues.
Its just one life
- there is no water resources department, or agricultural department, food
distribution department
- it is all one. So, if we really want to promote cross -sectoral approach.
the linkages with
tht: local government are very important and need 'to be kept in view. Then
comes the question being raised sevlral times with regard to planning - Should it be participatory?
or should it be locally-based? If the communities are supposed to do everything, then what is
the role of regional planners? Regional planning
is not dead. There are blind spots that each
individual or community may have. We might work very effectively at the community level but
our actions have consequences for other levels of planning.
This could be explained
with an exalnple i.e., if the community decides to build a check dam
to protect itself against floods, the action taken at the local level will certainly have implications
upstream and down the stream. So, we still need regional planning bodies, mechanisms that
weave the worse ends together.
It has to be a combination of bottom -up and top -down planning.
In order to further understand this connection, let us now look at
some people-oriented efforts
in Gujarat.
211.6 PEOBLE-OR3[ENTED EXPERIMENTS IN GLTJAIRAT
As we know that on the fateful day of 26Ih January 2001, Gujarat state in western India was
hit by a powerful earthquake, The catastrophe claimed more than 13,000 lives and around
300,000 buildings were damaged. The earthquake recovery programme in Gujarat coordinated
by the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority undertook bold initiatives in the form of
people driven approaches. The community
-based disaster preparation experience in
Gujarat is
one of the biggest experiments carried out so far. It involved decisions
on whether we should
go in for owner
-driven construction or allot already constructed houses to the people. Looking
at the total devastation in which more than a
inillion houses were either damaged or demolished,
the recovery aid agencies had to reconstruct around
230 thousand houses, which was a big
number.
So what'needed to be done was
the big question. Many felt that giving financial assistance to
the people and making them construct their own houses involved a lot of risk; as what if they
took the money and still did not construct, or what if they constructed poorly, Another issue
was whether these villagers from far
-flung areas of Kutch,
Patan and interior Saurashtra
understood the concept of hazard resistant construction. The Kutch area is prone to earthquakes
as well as cyclones, so a kind of multi
-hazard construction needed to be brought about. The
issue was whether people would be able to do this on their own?
But
the government decided to allow people to construct their own houses. Looking at the
possibilities where things could go wrong, they evolved some checks and balances mecl~anisms.
-The first dealt with the issue about what if people took the money and still did not construct.
To address this problem, it was decided that the money should be released
in three iastalments.
It was decided to first give
mobilisation advance and, after the building comes to the plinth level,
release the second instalment, and when it comes
to lintel level, release the third instalment.
Simultaneously, the
governineilt decided to provide technical assistallce and supervision. They
hired Inore than 1600 engineers, trained them, and then these engineers were sent to the
villages. The engineers were given designated areas. It was decided that these engineers
,
would monitor the housing construction. At the plinth stage, if the engineers felt satisfied they
would give a certificate
of approval, the government would then release the second instalment.
If something went wrong, it was decided to evolve guidelines for corrective actions to be taken.

200. Relzabilitntion, Reconsf~;r(ction and Recovery
The house ov,rner would then take corrective actions and get back to the government for
inspecting the house again. It was then the second instalnlent of money would be released and
after that the third instalment.
Another issue was that what if somebody constructed and cane upto plinth level, took the
second instalrnent and went upt~ roof level, got the third instalment, and still did not construct
according
to the specifications - what should government then do? It only costs 10 to 15 per
cent
of the
total cost of construction in the rural areas to retrofit the house. So, to check
whether the houses were constructed according to the specifications, the governnlent also
introduced a third party quality audit, which meant 100 per cent inspection of the houses by
a third party. For this, it did not rely on government engineers. It appointed an independent
agency for third party audit.
The Government of
Gujarat has, thus, conducted the biggest experiment in training the
communities, the people and the masons. The experiment has proved to%e a success and can
now be replicated elsewhere. The local masons of that area did not know how to adhere to
disaster resistant construction, so they took
a massive programme through
NGOs, with the help
of independent agencies like National Council for Cement and
Building Material. They imparted
training to more than 27,000 masons and about
6000 engineers. As a result, if you now go to
any earthquake
-affected area in Gujarat, you will find that even the poor person has started
talking about retrofitting.
A high intensity of percolation of knowledge has taken place. This is a step towards long
-term
disaster
rnanage~nent capacity building. Many informative booklets have been printed and
distributed amongst the community. The results have been heartening.
A large number of
houses have been reconstructed and retrofitted by the community, NGOs and government in
close cooperation with each other.
21.7 CONCLUSION
In order to ensure long -term counter disaster planning at the national level, India's national
disaster management policy has been
moving towards a community-based and prevention1
preparedness orientation. This has strongly been felt both by the governnlent as, well as the
people, Crisis nianagement can no longer be the only way to Inanage disasters. Precious lives
and property are lost in natural disasters, and much more is spent on recovery and rehabilitation
than mitigation. Suitable policies are needed to incorporate this kind of paradigmatic shift into
the mainstream development. Community participation in long
-term counter disaster planning
plays a
vely important role. Besides going the community way, it is important to focus on how
to improve the delivery systems. Aspects of sustainability, quality management and upscaling
are critical in this respect. This Unit highlighted some of these issues.
21.8 KEY CONCEPTS
Local Capacity Building I
i
Building the capacity. of the co~nmunity aild local level elected representatives through training
&nd education on disaster preparedness, in order to equip then1 to face the wrath of disasters
through sustained self
-help and community participation.
Community-based
Sustainability I
It means building the capacity of the community to withstand disasters so that it could reap the
benefits of development initiative in affected areas over time. Sustainable eam~nunities are

201. Long-term Counter Disaster Planning 255
chose that have the capabilities and infrastructure to not only withstand present disaster situations,
but also cope with future calamities in an' effective manner.
Total
Quality Nlanageraaent
It is a management technique to bring about all -round quality in the structures and processes
of an organisational system. It is basically a diagnostic tool to identify the necessary elements
for a successful quality management approach, and to see how they fit together to accomplish
quality goals. Successful
TQM requires both behavioural and cultural changes. An effective
TQM system brings Organisational Management System and Humar~ Resource Management
System together with a behavioural hnd culthral commitment to customer quality.
211.9 mFEWENCES AND FURTHER READING
Carter, W. Nick, 1991, Disaster Managem.ent: A Disaster Manager's Haizdbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
-.
Gupta, Harsh K, 2003, Disaster Management, University Press, Hyderabad.
Uunzan Development Report, 1999, Oxford University Press, Oxford..
. Report of the Asian Developnzent Bank, 1991, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and Pacific ",
ADB, Manila.
Sahni,'Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disaster Mitigation: Experiences
and Reflections, Prentice
-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni,
Pardeep and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Reduction in
South Asia, Prentice -Hall of India, New Delhi.
231.10 ACTIVITIES
1) Enlist all planning activities that you can think of with regard to counter disaster management
planning.
Sort these out into short-term, medium -term and
long-term-measures.
2) For each counter disaster planning activity, identify the key role -players. Prepare two separate
lists, one of counter disaster planning activities that can be carried out
by community groups theillselves without any external assistance and the second list of those that can be carsied out
with some external assistance from govenimental, non-governmental and international. agencies.
3) Based on Activity Two, comment on the role of community in long -term counter disaster
management planning,

202. UNIT 118 MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF --.
REHABILITATION WORK
Structure
18.0 Learning Outcome
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Significance of Monitoring
and Evaluation
18.3 Guiding Principles of Monitoring and Evaluation
18.4 The Evaluation Criteria
18.5 Conclusion
18.6 Key Concepts
18.7 References and
Fullher Reading
18.8 Activities
18.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
.-
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
e Bring out the significance of monitoring and evaluatiol~
a Discuss the guiding principles of the monitoring and evaluation process; and
Examine the different types of evaluation criteria.
1 INTRODUCTION
An effective rehabilitation process is dependent on a systematic monitoring and evaluation
exercise. The parameters of evaluation must be ascertained at the time of formulation of
disaster management
plan itself. Disaster management plan should include the monitoring and
evaluation benchmarks. This Unit gives a broad overview of the monitoring and evaluation
activities at the post-disaster recovery phase. The major objective of the monitoring and
evaluation exercise is to determine if the post
-disaster activities and projects are able to adhere
to the
predetermined targets and parameters. The attempt of the exercise is to make the entire
process transparent, accountable and participatory. This Unit brings out the evaluation criteria
in some detail and examines the pertinence of monitoring and evaluation process in the light
of its guiding principles.
18.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF MONITORING AND EVALUATION
The basic objective of the monitoring exercise is to ensure that the project is proceeding as
originally intended. This is done using certain key indicators.
In case of a post -disaster
exkrcise,
monitoring could be undertaken to check if all the rehabilitation needs of the affected victims
are
being met. Evaluation of the project is more like a one-time exercise usually carried out
at the middle or the end of the project. In this case, it could be done to see if the victims for whom tbe rehabilitation exercise has been designed are satisfied with the project outcome,

203. Morzitoring and Evaluation of Rehabilitation Work 223
Evaluation is often done by some external staff or team to maintain impartiality in the process.
The main source of information for evaluation is the monitored data. However, monitoring and
evaluation (M & E) activities -should be as participatory as possible, and involve beneficiaries
as well as project implementers wherever appropriate. An effective M&E system provides a
base for a wider policy framework. At the project level too, monitoring and evaluation provides
a learning and accountability structure. This is particularly important since rehabilitation projects
unlike other developnlent projects are often unpredictable and need responsible actions due to
their sensitive nature.
For M&E to be carried out usefully, the rehabilitation exercise needs to be conceptualised into
a 'Comprehensive Framework'
- like a project tree/ flow chart etc. The comprehensive
framework allows programme managers and
participants' to monitor progress towards desired
results and outcome, as well as to provide the data needed to make informed decisions
regarding adjustmelits in the generation and allocation of resources.
A Comprehensive Framework consists of targeted results and indicators of achievements,
which can be separately summarised in an 'Objectives and Results Tree'. The Framework also
gives baseline data, critical assun~ptions and expected data sources. In addition to this critical
tool,
a 'Matrix' can help provide a summary of a project's progress along with indications of
'Regular Progress Reports', either quarterly or monthly or both. The Regular Progress Reports
would contain highlights of the progress of the project, along with annual workplans with
milestones; and. regular review and feedback of the project evaluation committee.
Concept of Monitoring: Meaning and Objectives
Basically, monitoring has
four maill functions:
0 Providing management information
e Supporting management in improving perfornlance
o Learning from experience; and
0 Acting as an accountability tool to all stakeholders of a project.
Monitoring is a continuous process throughout the duration of
the project. It is a technical
activity based on data collection and is essential in a rapidly changing situation. The purpose
of
-monitoring is to find out whether the programme is effective enough, and the manner in
which the strategies should be modified to
make sure that it is. To do this, it is necessary to
monitor the programme and projects, the .'process' (how it is carried out) and the 'impact'. The
'chan
ges
y
in the situation (including population movement), political changes, and the changes .
in factors affecting health, nutrition and socio -economic activities have to be monitored regularly.
Tasks Involved in Monitoring
A normal monitoring exercise would require preparing the following checklist:
Preparing and planning for the monitoring system: financial costs, human and material resources,
means of communication etc.
a Selecting and listing indicators
+ Defining methods of data collection

204. 224
Collecting data
Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
e Storing the data
e Analysing information
Reporting
a Drawing lessons from funding; and
e Reoqienting the project.
To a large extent, the Framework for monitoring is decided by the activities cmied out as part
of the rehabilitation exercise. Normally, in a post-earthquake rehabilitation project, monitoring
would entail listing
of indicators such as financial (amount of money spent compared to tasks
carried out), socio
-economic (progress of livelihood rehabilitation programme, health response
etc.) or physical (number
of houses built).
Indicator-based Approach for Creating a Monitoring Plan
The following is an example of a Matrix Tool to help. 'operationalise' the indicators while
monitoring. This Matrix Tool organises the monitoring plan into categories given in
the Table
below:
Table 18.1
Source: F. James Levinson, et
al,, 1988, Monitoring and Evaluation, Human Development Network,
World
Bank
Impact
Assumptions
Effect
Assumptiolis
Output
Assumptions
Activities
Use of Information Indicators
Person
in
Charge
Means of Verification
Source Reporting
System
Frequency
of Data
Collection
Decision
Making
Process
I

205. Mo~zitoring and Evaluation of Rehabilitation Work 225
183 GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF MONITORING AND
EVALUATION
As post-disaster activities are implemented, monitoring provides information on whether the
project results are being achieved. Information produced by monitoring will clearly indicate
whether the scope of the project should be modified or not. Monitoring focuses on minimal but key
information from critical areas in order to avoid unnecessary data collection and useless reports.
It includes all forms of communication (verbal, written, formal and informal) to create the
scope for cross
-checking information. It enhances the quality of actions of those involved
through learning and accountability. Receiving information creates an obligation to act on the
operational and strategic implications. The selection of what information to collect, or what
indicators to use, should be prepared on the basis of the initial needs assessment, and modified
according to the analysis
during the follow-up.
Nature of Indicators
'Indicators' are tools that are common to every stage of the project cycle and act as 'signals'
that show whether a standard has been attained. They provide
a way of measuring and
communicating the impact of programmes, as well as the processes or methods used. The
indicators may be qualitative or quantitative. Quantitative indicators are measurable and usually
involve numbers. Qualitative indicators are harder to
measure, as these attempt to describe
processes, behaviour or attitudes.
SMART, a tool to ascertain indicators, as shown in the Table below is an acronym for Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Time
-bound properties of indicators:
Table 18.2
Source: Lindea Mayoux, 2002, "What do we want to know? Selecting Indicators ", EDIAIS,
htpp:/
/WWW. enterprise-impact.orc.uk.
Properties
Specific
Measurable and
Unambiguous
Attainable and Sensitive
Relevant and Easy
to Collect
Time
-bound
Concept of Evaluation: Meaning and Objectives
Definition
Indicators should reflect the changes that the project intends to carry
out, avoiding measures that are largely subject to external influences
Indicators must be precisely defined so that their measurement
and interpretation are unambiguous. Indicators should give objective
and not subjective data
- that is, they should be independent of
who
is collecting the data.
1ndiGtors should be comparable across
groups and projects, thus allowing changes to be compared and
aggregated
Indicators should be achievable by the project and therefore sensitive
to the changes the project wishes to make
It
must be feasible to collect chosen indicators within a
reasonable cost
and these should be relevant to the project in
question
-
Indicators should describe by when a certain change is expected
Evaluation, on the other hand, is a specialised activity in itself, usually carried out by people
external to the project. It can occur during the implementation of the project or at the end of

206. 226 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
it, or even a few years after the project has been completed. It draws conclusions about
whether the right job has been done well as per the prescribed norms or not. Evaluation looks
at the impact of the project and the appropriateness of the action. In fact, both
M
& E help
in collecting information to improve the projects after they have been implemented.
These M&E activities can often merge and are a part of the continuous process of revaluation
of the needs
and appropriateness of responses to the needs of the disaster -affected victims.'
Evaluation should be able to convey whether the project is doing the right thing, and deduce
lessons for future work.
A systematic evaluation exercise must answer questions like - Was the
project design sound? How can it be improved? What were the unintended consequences of
the
prqject? Djd the project cause the observed change? There are many reasons, which make
evaluation important. These are:
o Humanitarian operations are becoming more complex and more frequent. The scale of humanitarian
assistance has increased dr'matically over the past decade, reaching upto 10 per cent of official
aid in 1994
i Evaluation of humanitarian aid is the need of the hour
e, The effectiveness of relief operations is crucial for beneficiaries
o Humanitarian operations are characterised by turbulence, uncertainty, insecurity, .political
insensitivity
and inultiple beneficiary groups, implementing actors and funding agencies. At the
operating level, the focus on
itmediate needs and tasks distracts attention from the broader and
long
-term perspective
Humanitarian agencies have short institutional memories. Personnel turnover
is
extre~nely n~pid
and the majority of field workers are young with relatively little field experience
For these reasons, it is essential that a systematic monitoring system is in place. Although
monitoring and evaluation are different processes, there are times when they merge, specifically
in emergencies. Evaluation can increase accou~~tability to the:
i) Donors in order to meet their demands pertaining to resources being used effectively, efficiently
and in accorddnce with agreed objectives
ii) Donors with respect to the organisations they fund and work with; and
iii) People affected by disaster, the ones in whose name these organisations do their work.
18.4 THE EVALUATION CRITERIA
The evaluation should be based on pre -defined criteria in order to obtain a precise analysis.
These are:
Effectiveness: How far has the project or programme been able to achieve objectives?
1
e Progress: Has the project achieved the original objectives, or have these objectives changed?
i
a Effjciency: Does the programme use the most economical resources to achieve its objectives?
I
Relevance: What is the value of the action in relation to other priority needs, issues and efforts? I
I
I
I
I

207. Monitoring and Evaluation of Rehabilitation Work . , 227
0 Sustainability: Is the activity and its impact likely to continue when external support is withdrawn,
and can it be replicated or adapted?
' @ Connectedness: Do the activities designed for short-term emergency take longer-tern problems
into account?
0 Impact: What has been the impact of the project on the target population or the country in
general, intended or unintended, positive or negative, both in the short and long
-term period?
Impact in relation to emergency
response is generally seen as being both about saving lives in the
. immediate term i.e., significant change, and also about achieving long -term goals, i.e.,
developmental change.
Let us now have a look at the factors that are crucial to an evaluation exercise and need to
be kept in view for effective evaluation. These are:
i) Modification of Disaster Response
The evaluation results have to be utilised properly. This means that there is a need to reach
a consensus on:
Systematic decision-making process
o Consideration of the monitoring and evaluation results by the operational team and stakeholders; and
0 Financial capacity analysis and communication with donors.
ii) Writing' Terms of Reference (TOR) for an Evaluation Exercise
. '
The TOR for an evaluation should cover: the context, purpose and objectives of the activity,
work, project or programme to be evaluated:
0 Objectives: Major issues to be addressed, the focus of evaluation, the questions to be answered
e Methods: Field visits, review of documentary material, data-collection, interviews, workshops
0 Timetable: Schedule for the major activities pertaining to evaluation and its completion date
'
0 Products: The products required from the evaluation exercise (report, workshop), who is
responsible for producing them, who will present them, who the reports are for etc.
Evaluation Team: The personal specifications of each
team member, their nuinher and the ideal
combination of skills and experience at the team level
e Budget and Logistics: Details of the main expenses 'and logistical support being offered; and
Use of Information: Extent of confidentiality and ownership of the report.
iii) Objectives and Users of Evaluation
An evaluation exercise is expected to achieve the following objectives:
0 Providing management with information on the degree of success of the initiative following one
year's implementation
o Analysing the responses of the staff by providing them with an opportunity to be the key informants;
and

208. 228 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
e Enabling the evaluation exercise to contribute to the development of performance management
initiatives in the future.
,iv) Scope and Focus of the Evaluation Exercise
Specifically, an evaluation exercise aims to assess the following questions:
e Relevance of the rehabilitation process
e 'internal" relevance of the initiative in the context of organisational roles, responsibilities,
expectations and connectivity
e Effectiveness of the implementation process including a quality overview and analysis of supporting
documentation and resource material
e Adequacy of utilisation of staff and management for setting up of objectives towards improving
results orientation
a Utility of implementation process in terms of application, deliverables and levels of compliance
e Analyses of key constraints and challenges directly and indirectly linked to the initiative
e Degree of staff understanding and satisfaction with the initiative, and its accompanying process
and responsibilities at all the levels
6 Extent to which the initiative has achieved its objectives
e Suitability of monitoring indicators for the measurement of impact in the Euture
' #
e Availability of the factors that will enhance the effectiveness of the initiative; and
a Efficiency of the initiative in terms of costs, inputs and activities associated with its implementation.
v)
Evaluation Questions
The
pkrtinent evaluation questions relate to the extent of the relevance, efficiency, effectiveness
and sustainability of an evaluation exercise:
Relevance of activities carried out as part of the rehabilitation exercise can be ascertained by
addressing the following questions:
a Are the objectives in keeping with the project's needs and priorities
e Are the objectives in keeping with international trends, standards and guidelines
e Should the direction of the exercise be changed; and
e Should the ongoing activities be continued or changed.
1
Eflciency of activities could be addressed by keeping in view the following questions:
i
.. . I
a To what degree have outputs been delivered as agreed; and
i;
11
0 Could it have been done in a better, cheaper or manner,

209. ,_-,-
Monitoring and Evaluation of Rehabilitation Work
1
Likewise, the efectiveness of activities could be achieved by answering the following questions:
I I To what extent have agreed objectives been reached; and
I
9 Have the activities been adequately supported to realise the agreed objectives.
Impact of activities could
be determined by looking into the positive
and negative effects of
activities and seeing to it that the positive effects outweigh the negative effects.
I I
Sustainability of activities would come about if we address queries such as:
To what extent does the positive impact justify the investments
8 Are the involved parties willing to keep the project going on its own; and
I I
e Have viable exit strategies been formulated.
The evaluation report should highlight the causes and explain the reasons for success or failure,
and contribute towards
making the activities more relevant, effective, efficient and sustainable,
as well as bring out the lessons learned. I I
vi) Methodology of Evaluation
I I
e A critical review of documented .material including previous evaluation reports
a An assessment of the degree to which recommendations from previous exercises have been
agreed upon
and implemented. Identification of unanticipated constraints to their implementation
Interviews and/or other approaches to a sample group of past and
present programme beneficiaries
selected on the basis of agreed criteria
Interviews andlor workshops with Headquarters and regional staff, as well as with the programme
team
I I
0 Field visits to programme areas
Interviews with other key stakeholders - Government, NGOs, UN Representatives, Community
Groups etc.
18.5 CONCLUSION , .
Monitoring and evaluation process should be participatory and involve beneficiaries, as well as
project
irnplementers wherever appropriate and possible at all the crucial stages of the disaster
management cycle. Monitoring and evaluation activities can be sensitive
in certain situations.
The involvement of partners as well as selection
and training of monitoring teams should
be
I
done carefully. Monitoring provides the necessary information to link all the crucial stages of
the project cycle. Though monitoring and evaluation are distinct activities with specific functions
to perform,
they often merge and complement each other.
!
An effective monitoring and evaluation system provides a baseline for a wider project or joint
evaluation, coordination and learning processes. This 'can be useful in emergency situations
where staff turnover is high and creation of institutional memory is difficult. An effective
'
monitoring and evaluation system is a fundamental tool for accountability. This Unit raised
i
some crucial queries, to which systematic answers are needed. The objective is to ensure

210. 230 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
effective and sound monitoring and evaluation exercise with respect to disastef rehabilitation
projects. This Unit, therefore, highlighted the conceptual under
pinnings of a monitoring and
evaluation process. The evaluative constraints in the entire monitoring
and evaluation exercise
were also
-- brought out.
18.6 KEY CONCEPTS
Performance Indicators
These indicators could be quantitative as well as qualitative. .These are the definite parameters
or standards against which the performance of
a project or programme on disaster management
or any other area is evaluated.
Terms of Reference (TOR)
Every
programme or project has certain Terms of Reference, which need to be adhered to
during execution. These Terms of Reference include the Objectives and Scope of the Programme,
Area
of Work, Programme of Work, List of Work Items, Costs Involved etc.
18.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Asian Development Bank Report, 1991, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and Pacific ", ADB,
Manila.,
Dabelstein, Niels, 1996,
"Evaluating the International Humanitarian System ", Disasters,
Volume
""20, No. 4
Frances, Rubin, 1998, Basic Guide to Evaluation for Development Workers, Oxfam.
Sahni, pardeep et al. (Eds.), 2001, Disnster Mitigation: Experiences and Reflections, Prentice-
Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep ahd Madhavi Malagoda Ariyabandu (Eds.),. 2003, Disaster Risk.Reduction in'
South Asia, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi,
Smith, Keith, 1996 (2nd Edition),
Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing
Disastel; Routledge, London.
1) Enlist the possible objectives of an earthquake rehabilitation programme. Also prepare a list of
appropriate indicators that may inform a decision maker on. whether each and every objective of
the project has been achieved at the end of th.e programme or not. ,
l'
I
2) Try to go through the newspaper clippings or other sources of .informatiorr' (such as books, t
magazines, journals etc.) on the rehabilitation programme carried out in Gujarat after the Bhuj
Earthquake of 2001
or
Muzzfarabad Earthquake of 2005. Repare a list of evaluation indicators
I 1
or criteria that you feel could improve the rehabilitation process in the affected area. 1
E
Y
I
I
I

211. UNIT 19 CONSTRAINTS IN MONITORING AND
EVALUATION
Structure
19.0 Learning Outcome
1 9.1 Introduction
19.2 Reasons for Inadequate Monitoring and Evaluation
193 Constraints in Monitoring and Evaluation
19.4 Types of Data Collection
19.5 Conclusion
19.6 Key Concept
19.7 References and .Further Reading
19.8 Activities
19.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
Examine the reasons for lack of monitoring and evaluation
Bring out the constraints in monitoring and evaluation; and
e Throw light on the types of data collection.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
Monitoring and evaluation or M&E, as we read in the previous Unit, are challengiilg exercises
because they have
a dual purpose of achieving both know -how on disaster planning and
accountability to all the stakeholders. Moreover, balancing the two agendas is
problelnatic and
needs to be looked into. This
Unit highlights the process of
M&E that is subtle and constrained
to a great extent.
It has
many dimensions, which may not always be easy to define or assess.
Objectivity and verification
are critical components of the M&E process and these
form the
backbone
of methodologies used for achievement of goals. We need to understand these
underlying principles and constraints
to be able to prepare a sound monitoring and evaluation
plan. This
Unit explains some of these issues.
I
19.2. REASONS FOR INADEQUATE MONITORING AND
EVALUATION
The reasons for lack of monitoring and evaluation many a time emanate froin the mindset of
the project personnel rather than any organisational procedures. Often people come up with all
sorts of reasons as to
why their project is not of the kind
that is suitable for regular monitoring
l
or evaluation. When a single reason is not enough, they try to give two or more; for example,
"our project is different and the costs are too high". However, one must be careful that the
multiple reasons given do not contradict each other;
for instance, "we are constantly evaluating"
and at the same time "it is impossible to evaluate".
.-.
. .. - . -

212. 232 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
Reasons that people often cite include excuses such as: "our project is different, and thus
evaluation would cost too much, it would take a lot of time, the projectlactivity is too limited,
it doesn't figure in the work plan, it is a new concept, the governmentforganisation wouldn't
like it, there are no funds, an evaluation isn't necessary, it is too theoretical an exercise,
or it
is not realistic
".
Many other pleas include:
"it is none of our business; it works, so why change it? we are not
ready for evaluation yet, it is not included in the budget,, there is a new resident representative/
government representativelcounterpart, the resident representative/counterpart has left, the
director/counterpart has not been appointed yet, the counterpart's personnel are still in training/
on fellowship, there must be some ulterior motive behind the M &E exercise, evaluation might
work in any other organisation (region / country I technical domain), but it will never work here,
it would not be useful, and most of all
"it is a trap!".
Other reasons that are given are: "think of all the hassle that evaluation would cause, it is
impossible to do it with objectivity, change upsets things too much, there are no problems, some
kind of evaluation has already taken place, there has been a government reshuffle, financial
havoc has delayed our schedule, the accounts have just been checked, it is a pilot project, it
is
a demonstration project, it is an experimental project ". Some more reasons could be: "The
project is too new, the project is almost over, the equipment has not arrived yet, the equipment
has not been installed yet, the institutional framework has not been worked
out yet, the
government has not given its contribution yet, the project is not ready for evaluation yet, the
project document is too vague, let the Inspection Unit take care of it, outsiders will not '
understand the complexities, another donor agency might want to evaluate us at the same time".
The list of reasons for not monitoring or evaluating is therefore endless. The list given in the
. aforementioned paragraphs is a practical list that is put up to keep all M &E personnel in the
I
I
'field at bay. The biggest barrier, therefore, for the evaluation team is to overcome the reluctance
on
part of the project management personnel to have an open mind to
M&E, The M&E
exercise is seen as a threat to their independent and free functioning and is often regarded ;IS
detrimental to the free spirit of field projects.
19.3 CONSTRAINTS IN MONITORING AND EVALUATION
I
The.above mentioned reasons could be termed as constraints in M&E process, but to understand
the constraints or problems more clearly, we will deal with them point
-wise in this Section.
The
best way of mainstreaming M&E is to link it with project design. The issue is how to improve
diagnosis, situation analysis and link it better with project design in the fom of an approach.
which would be both participatory and effective. Finding solutions to this dilemma will go a long
way in improving the quality of the operations, as it is at this crucial moment that pan of the
quality of work
is pre-established. Some of the problems confronted in this process could be:
i) Ambiguity of Process and Impact Indicators .
Monitoring uses indicators to measure
the.progress of the project and its adherence to original
intentions.
The validity of indicators needs to be continually questioned,
as most emergencies
are dynamic and continuously changing. Besides, indicators can be of various types: 'process'
indicators and 'impact' indicators. Process indicators reflect the progress along
the
time
methodology benchmarks, and are a reflection of how things are progressing and how well they
are being managed as per
the time schedule. Impact indicators, on the other hand, are reflective
of what type of change
the project intervention is finally able to bring about in the situation that
' it is meant to address. Often there is a lack of clarity on where a specific indicator fits into

213. Constraints in ~o;zitorin~ and Evaluatio?z
and which of the indicators would amount to overlapping.
.
ii) Overdo. .. the Usual Problem
The most common problem faced by monitoring and evaluation teams arises due to stretching
the process too far and making it too complex. Developing M & E indicators can be a never-
ending process. A number of indicators or benchmarks can be thought of for each co~nponent
of the project process and impact. The list has a tendency of becoming so long that the process
could take an overbearing precedence over the actual work itself. This is something that
project team has to carefully watch out for. It needs to have a small number of clearly stated
indicators. The best way of having a small number of indicators is to look for those that are
reflective of a larger number of primary indicators.
iii) Universal Approach to Evaluation
It is crucial that organisations take up the responsibility for the quality of their activities or the
lack of it. Yet, this should
be done in perspective with the responsibility of the other actors
involved in
a given situation. Therefore, in view of the dependence of most humanitarian
agencies on their environment (political, military, media, financial etc.),
it is often difficult to
review and adjudge. The quality of the humanitarian action depends largely on the adequacy,
specialty and context of the strategy used. Therefore, a universal approach would have only
a limited operational value.
I
iv) Inadequate Management of Data and Information
Once the indicators have been decided and the exercise initiated, we are faced with constraints
in managing the data and information available. These are primarily due to:
.
! Low Priority to Information Systems
I
Persons who carry out data collection are frequently required to take up this role as an
additional task, to be worked in and around the more 'important' service
-oriented tasks of the
project actions.
0 Involvement Limited to Information Collection
Many staff members do not understand the link between collection of information, and contribution
of 'he information to their work. This problem is most common when staff members do not
participate in either the planning for information gathering or the analyses of the data collected.
e Poor Feedback td the Data Collector
Failure of the field staff to gef feedback on the information they have collected contributes to
low morale amongst the team -members. They begin to follow the perception that this activity
is not as important as other duties, which are more regularly. supervised andlor assessed for
job ~erformance. Failure to garner feedback from the community means that the field staff
cannot recognise the value of the exercise. This breeds reluctance or resentment toward any
future repetitions.
Quantitative Bias
A frequent complaint by project staff and other information users is the quantitative bias of
project information systems. There is undue emphasis on statistical data evaluation tecl~niques.
,

214. 234 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
e Inadequate Human Resources
I
The available staff may be unqualified or under -qualified to perform the ta;sks related to data
collection and information management. This may be because there is relatively little opportunity
for practical learning in this field. Coupled with this issue is staff apprehension about the
difficulty of monitoring and evaluation, as well as the constraints in analyses and interpretation
of findings. This is made worse by the lack of common agreement on consensus about standards
and methods among professionals.
19.4 TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION
*
As we have read in our earlier Units, there are two types of data generally used for evaluation: ,
i) Qualitative Data
ii) Quantitative Data
Qualitative Data
,.,...
In the context of disaster management, the qualitative data describe the contours of situations,
events and people, their extent of participation, the degree of interactions, the nature of observed
behaviour of people, and the complexion of direct responses from affected people or media.
Information or data can also flow from official/non-official documents or reports, state memoranda,
correspondence between district
-state-central governments, official records and case studies.
The qualitative data mainly focus on the signs and symbols that decode the realities seen by
the target population. For instance, during any rehabilitation programme, in case a number of
:r
persons respond in the same manner, the investigator will become more cautious and will also
seek to examine the context and manner
in which they have responded or spoken. An attempt
will be made to see if they
all meant the same thing. Both verbal and non -verbal behaviour
are examined in qualitative studies in order to understand the views, attitudes and perspectives
of the respondents. The qualitative method
is restorative and there is an ongoing opportunity
to revise the interview or observation records as the study progresses so that new facts can
be brought into the picture.
Quantitative Data
*
Quantitative data can be collected in the following ways:
a In-depth interviews with individual respondents. The flow of ideas is more frequent in such
conversations
8 Group interviews such as (a) community meetings; and (b) focused group discussions after
. sufficient natice and advertisement can be made for ensuring good attendance. In such meetings,
two to three interviewers
are better than a single investigator, Focused group discussions are
good with a small number of invited participants. The interviewer should just introduce the subject
and initiate the discussion
and keep it focused on the desired topic as often as possible. This type
of 'discussion could also deviate from the main topic at
times
Third method is participants' observation. This involves direct and extensive observation of an
activity, behaviour or relationship, Participants' cibservation can also include qualitative interviews
with the informants I

215. Constraints in Monitoring and Evaluation
The quantitative data is normally gathered through structured surveya,'with a set of questionnaires
administered to a sample of respondents at one particular time or at various time intervals. In
this type of method, reiteration is not common.
The investigator is usually not expected to ask
additional questions even if it is felt that these questions could be useful in the project review.
Nor can the investigator discard
an interview even if the respondent does give candid answers.
The advantage of the structured surveys are that the interview mode and construction of
questions can be standardised on the basis of experience so that bias introduced by either the
enumerator's style or the respondent's misunderstanding is well
-controlled.
This type of survey can be used to compare the standard of living of the target group population
before and after the disaster or to see the nutritional status of the population etc. The quantitative
data
is often obtainable from the records of the project agencies and other institutions. The
staiistical officer at the district or state level may have extensive data on his files, =which can
be recorded, aggregated, disaggregated and reanalysed for diagnostic studies and impact evaluation.
Most of the projects, whether pertaining to development activity or disaster management
require quantitative as well as qualitative data. Both types of data have their strengths and
weaknesses. Choosing the right and appropriate method for monitoring should be the responsibility
of the monitoring staff.
19.5 CONCLUSION
The basic objective of a monitoring and evaluation exercise is to ensure whether the project
is proceeding as originally intended. This is done using indicators. In case of a post-disaster
exercise,
M&E could strive to check if
all the rehabilitation needs of the affected,victims have
been met or not. However, the process faces a number of constraints that range from reluctance
of project teams to expose themselves to evaluation, inability in understanding the process, and
the impact indicators underlying M&E, difficulties in collicting data, as well as managing the
complexity and extent of the process.
The most common constraint relates to keeping the
objectivity of the process intact. This Unit discussed some of the important aspects of
M&E,
It threw light on the interrelationship between monitoring, evaluation and project design, and
examined
the reasons for inadequate monitoring and evaluation process.
19.6 KEY CONCEPT
Process Methodology
It is a holistic and an integrated approach to the study and development of a system. We can
term it as
a standard quality
me,thodology used for studying the activities in a process. The
structures and behaviour are always crucial to a system. The appropriate methodology to the
study df processes in a system is to look at all the objects, functions, structures and behaviour
attached to
them in an integrated. manner.
19.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Barton, Tom, 1997, Guidelines to Monitoring
arad evaluation,^ CARE, Uganda.
Dabelstein, Niels, 1996, "Evaluating the International Humanitarian System ", Disaqters, Volume
20, No. 4.
1
hances, Rubin, 1998, A Basic Guide to Evaluation for Development Workers, Oxfam.
i
..-

216. 236 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
IGNOU Certificate Programme in Disaster Management (CDM -02) Disaster Management:
Methods and Techniques, Block
7.
Report of Asian Development Bank, 1991,
:'Disaster Mitigation in Asia and Pacific ",. ADB,
Manila.
a
Sahni, Pardeep et al. (Eds.), 2001, Disaster Mitigation: Experiences and Reflections, Prentice-
Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi Malagoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Reduction in
South Asia,
Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
, Smith, Keith, 1996 (2nd Edition), Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing ~isastel;' Routledge, London.
19.8 ACTIVITIES
,1) Prepare a Est of all possible indicators that you can think of for an earthquake rehabilitation
J
programme evaluation. Sort out the list into two parts (i) Indicators that address processes or
methodologies,
and
(ii) indicators that address impact or outcome.
<- ,
. U
2) Browse the Internet and make a list of websites that deal with:""monitoring and evaluation of
disaster management projects.

217. UNIT
20
LONG
-
TERM
RECOVERY
I
Structure
I
I
20.0 Learning Outcome
I
1
20.1 Introduction
!
20.2 Incorporating Local Needs in the Rehabilitation Process
20.3 Translating Local Needs into Action: Preparation of a
Local Community Plan
I
20.4 Joint Action Planning and
Implementatioil
i
20.5 Conclusion
I
20.6 Key Concepts
I
20.7 References and Further Reading
1
20.8
Activities
I
I
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
I
e
Discuss
the
long
-
term recovery process
1 r
Throw light on the need to incorporate local needs in the process of rehabilitation
I 0
Understand the importance of a Local Community Plan; and
e
Examine the pertinence of participatory and sustainable development approach to rehabilitation.
.20.1
INTRODUCTION
The need for a model approach to long
-
term recovery through community
-
based rehabilitation
and mitigation has become significant
in
the present context more than ever before. Reasons
contributing to this type of development are many. This Unit looks at the components that
ensure long
-
term recovery through basing the recovery capacity in the community's own realm,
and also examining the rehabilitation process
in
a developmental framework. It is important to
pay adequate attention to the socio
-
cultural and economic aspects of recovery, which are
usually superseded by the physical ones. The Unit also deals with this very important aspect
of long
-
term recovery.
F
f
20.2
INCORPORATING
LOCAL
NEEDS
IN
TNE
REHABILITATION
PROCESS
Disasters in recent decades are causing more deaths than ever before. Since
1947,
more
than
half a million lives have been lost due to earthquakes alone. Worse still, the same areas are
getting affected by disasters over
and
over again. Yet, the relief and rehabilitation carried out
following a disaster does little to protect the communities against the subsequent catastrophes.
In areas, which are vulnerable to recurrent disasters, an irresponsible approach of not learning
from past mistakes has led to a vicious disaster
-
poverty cycle. The main factors behind this
type of development are:

218. 23 8 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
e Limited education and awareness among the stakeholders
@ Lack of confidence in disaster -resistant practices such as house construction
Ongoing reconstruction efforts are largely
ad
hoe, which means there is no strategic framework
for planning and coordination; and
9 Disaster rehabilitation is not linked to development or mitigation.
These factors coupled with lack of disaster preparedness and mitigation infrastructure, poor
information dissemination and inappropriate measures of accountability have aggravated the
problems of long
-term recovery. Attempts are being made to develop disaster management models
that can effectively reduce the risk, but ensuring their sustainability is a rather difficult exercise.
Largely, the experience shows that most 'models' exist, as long as there is an external support
to the local community. The initiative fails soon after the external assistance is withdrawn.
Ultimately, this results in increased vulnerability of the community that sometimes surpasses the
previous levels.
It has also been felt that increased coordination and capacity building among
aid agencies, long-term planning and a greater understanding of the
participato~y recovery and
rehabilitation issues could potentially improve
the post-disaster process at the community level.
Let us once again have a look at this process:
e The Process of Rehabilitation
The process of rehabilitation is based on concerns related to the community's needs in the
aftermath of the disaster, and the necessity to increase the capacity of the community in order
to make them independent and resilient enough to face future disasters. Experience shows that
in any disaster situation, especially earthquakes, the individuals in the community themselves
are the best disaster managers. Rehabilitation should therefore also be an effective mitigation
exercise.
As we have read in our first Unit of the Course, an ideal process in the post-disaster scenario
needs to link immediate recovery to developmental goals. ~roadl~; the process may adhere to
the following three stages:
e In thefirst stage, an overall plan defines the principles and the aims of the rehabilitation exercise
e The second stage is carried out jointly with the community with a two-way flow between the aid
agency and the individual household
@ The third stage is the exit stage for the aid agency after it ensures sustainability of its interventions,
while the community prepares itself to integrate with mainstream development.
A diagrammatic depiction of the process is given below:

219. Long
-
term
Recovery
Diagram
20.1
Establishing
Principles
of
Rehabilitation
STAGE
I
STAGE
I1
STAGE
I11
Source:
Sheila Wirz, and Thomas Mayer,
2002,
"
Evaluation
of
Community
-
based Rehabilitation
Programmes:
A
Search for Appropriate Indicators
"
,
Z~zternational
Journal
qf
Rehabilitation
Research,
25(3):
163
-
171, September.
e
Principles Underlying
Planning
for
Rehabilitation
The project team would have to set itself basic principles of planning for rehabilitation intervention.
.
The intervention has to be participatory in which the involvement of
the community increases
gradually. The prograinme has to be flexible with enough buffers for time and resources
created in the overall project schedule. Intervention should follow minimum standards on quality
of benefits for the community. These are usually available with the local governments or
internationally available conventions.
Rehabilitation is not just
a
short
-
term, gap
-
filling exercise. In most cases, the community faces
the
threat of recurrent disasters and therefore rehabilitation should
aimat reducing its vulnerability.
This would imply building the assets of the community, providing livelihood secmity, constructing
disaster resistant houses, and erecting an infrastructure that potentially improves the quality of
life of the community to a level better than what was available before the disaster.
Rehabilitation should
be
empowering. The aid agency would not, and should not
remain
with
the community forever.
In
such a case, the people of the community, who are the first
responders, should be sufficiently equipped to cater to their immediate needs.
A
well
-
planned
rehabilitation exercise
call significantly increase the capacity of the community towards
a
more
effective response. Social, economic and psychological aspects are an integral part
of
the
rehabilitation programme. It is to beunderstood that the proper rehabilitation is
not
only confined
to building of earthquake resistant houses, but also the restoration of livelihood and normal life
with sustainable economic activities.
Rehabilitation should also incorporate the local cultural aspects and
try
to inculcate safe
construction culture in the community. The rehabilitation programme should try to establish a
strong bond within the
com~nunity and also between the different stakeholders.
A
successful
rehabilitation programme should
be
fo~mulated and run
by
the local community as per their
needs and resources.
It
should be owned by the local community for future sustainability.
"
Livelihood
"
cannot be ensured
by
mere provision of safe housing and creation
of
jobs with

220. 240 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction .and Recovery
suitable income. A livelihood package would need to include issues such as welfare, health
care, medical service, educational facilities, labour security, disaster prevention etc., in good
balance. The success of the rehabilitation exercise would be adjudged by the degree to which
actions are replicated by the community without intervention from the aid agency. Inputs on
capacity
- building are therefore important. Additionally, the project team needs to ensure that
conditions would continue to exist for easy replication. If building or other material introduced
by the aid agency is not normally available locally; replication becomes difficult.
An overall plan may be evolved by incorporating these principles. Such a plan would have three
important components or parts. While the first part may be defined at the beginning of the
project by the project team, the second and third parts can only be implemented after intensive
dialogue with the community. The three plans at three levels would be: The Strategic Plan, The
Local Community Plan and the Action Plan:
.
i) The Strategic Plan: In the first part, the project team based on past experience and available
research would draw a broad framework of rehabilitation
- the mission, aims and objectives.
ii) The Local Community Plan: In the second part, the project team actively consults the community,
as well as the local government so that implementing strategies are culturally and environmentally
compliant, acceptable to
the targeted community and within the framework and guidelines laid
down by the local government. iii) The Action Plan: In the third part, the project team devises specific action plans for various
components of the project, which are primarily based on local needs and existing capacities.
0 Project Team: Composition and Dynamics
The role of the project team is to facilitate the reconstruction process. The composition of the
team is therefore very important. Getting appropriate staff members having suitable motivation
and skills is cjifficult. However, suitable training and encouragement can help. Establishing good
relationship with the community is fo'remost for the project team; imparting skills and knowledge
come next.
The project team should have an attitude of helping the community so that they can help
themselves. Maintaining professional apd ethical standards while performing amidst the community
earns respect and trust. The skills of the project team lie in being able to translate their
community knowledge into an acceptable practice of the.community. Besides, the team will
have to ensure transparency in their financial accounting system and working methods. This
helps in establishing credibility for the team.
m Recognising Local Needs for Rehabilitation I
The basic needs of the community are always the same - food, clothing and shelter. Each type
of disaster raises specific rehabilitation needs. For instance, floods may wash away all the
belongings
- of a house, but an earthquake may not do as much damage to household assets if
it is of low intensity. Ethnic and regional differences create further complexities in the provision
of basic needs. Recent examples show that food, clothing and shelter needs of the community
are met through 'standard' approaches, where the aid agency decides what is best for the
community. Ground experiences, however, reveal that cultural acceptance of external aid is as
important as the aid itself and is, many a time, not met by the aid agencies.
Local needs would
be determined by interacting with the community - the best way of doing
so is through dialogue, demonstration and training. Knowing local needs is therefore important.
Carrying out relief operations immediately after the disaster provides a window to peep into

221. Long
-
term
Recovery
24
1
the community's lifestyles, habits and
custonls. This can be further su
pp
orted by a face
-
to
-
face
interaction with the
coinmunity, especially women and weaker sections.
Use of graphic material and practical demonstrations dissolves possible language barriers and
increases the scope for community feedback. Damage assessment
-
dialogue
wotlld need to be
accompanied by detailed damage assessment survey. Sometimes, the government agencies
might carry out an 'official' damage assessment, which would serve
as
a
reliable data source,
especially since it minimises disputes arising out of counter
clairns. However, in the absence
of the same, documenting each damaged house is necessary. Local needs would then need to
be matched with available options
to
arrive at the best fit. While developing options, cost and
long
-
term sustainability are important
criteria. Climatic conditions, cost and cultural adaptability
are other considerations.
Developing options should be done through extensive research and analysis. If rehabilitation is
primarily focused on shelter, then the use of available technology, material and trained manpower
on a longer
-
term would need to be assessed before suitable options are developed. The
conlmunity should be able to replicate houses using the same material and technology that is
locally available.
1
PWPARATION
OF
A
LOCAL
COMMLTNITY
PLAN
I
Interacting with the community throws up
inany new ideas. Also, the options developed by the
project team have to be reexamined in the light of community preferences, The framework of
action in the field supported by community preferences defines a 'Local Comn~unity Plan'.
A
Local Community Plan would have two components:
@
Framework
and
Process
of
Implementation:
The Plan would outline the mechanism by
which the actions would be implemented at the community level. The mechanism would have to
adapt to the
local government structure at the community level. Also, the mechanism would
define the action modes and the roles played
by
different
stakeholders. Government guidelines
l
and policies would have to be recognised and interpreted in the Local Plan.
Community
Capacity Building:
The Plan would need to outline the existing capacity of the
stakeholders and suggest ways of improving them so that the proposed actions
are implemented
within the laid down mechanism.
I
The 'Local Community Plan' would clearly identify targets that could be achieved, and also
the tentative time
-
frame for achieving them. Three pertinent steps could be taken recourse to:
i)
Involving the
Government
Ideally,
in
a democratic system, the government and the
comnlunity are directly accountable
to each other, the community through its right to vote chooses the government it desires and
the elected members are directly responsible for fulfilling all the needs sf the community that
elects them. The role of NGOs
in
such a relationship should
be
to strengthen this link and not
weaken it. Involving the government in the rehabilitation process at the very beginning is
crucial.
Firstly,
the government itself formulates guidelines for rehabilitation Lo ensure uniform
distribution of resources. The rehabilitation exercise
for
the community should fall within Lhe
formulated government guidelines.
Secondly,
the government and the
comrnunity are going to
be where they are forever; the help
of
the project team representing the aid agency
also is

222. 242 Rehabilitation, Reconvtr~~ction and Recovery
. not permartent. Bringing the government and pespie face-to-face with each other would ensure
the communit~r's acceptance of the aid agency. It will also lead to due recognition of the
pr~visions made in the plan.
Winning the trust of the community with whom the aid agency would work is critical for a joint
ownership of the process. Unlike the planned programme driven developlnent initiatives, a
rehabilitation exercise has to
be executed in the shortest possible time. Getting full community *;upport in such a short time is difficult. The project team will need to make definite positive
moves to win their trust, Usually a 'resolution' by the community leaders is sought; however,
all communities do not have 'a strong leadership, Weak leadership causes frictions within the
commu~nity and can potentially stall the rehabilitation process.
Initial moves to gain community's trust can also be made by setting good examples by way of
the project tear11 - where the comnlunity, as it is observed, gets to see, feel and touch the
proposed inteiventions befoie finally accepting the aid agency. A house as a "gift" to the
neediest person of the village, or a 'community asset' to the most vulnerable yillage are some
0; the confidence-building measures. Building the co~~~n~unity assets also helps in assessing
practical realities while implementing the project. Items such as ~naterial and technology costs,
availability
of manpower etc., are important factors in the successful execution of a project.
Inadequate attention to capacity building cbuld
jeopardise any rehabilitation exercise. From,
counselling People who have just experienced the trauma of a disaster to empowering the111 so
that they can adequately take care of their own needs in case of any future disasters is one
of the wide spectrum of activities, that are included in capacity building. If disaster resistant
building technology is introduced, then its replication would need to be based on the training
levels of local masons. The house owners will have to be influenced to such an extent that they
themselves demand safe houses without compromising on qiality of construction.
Social mobilisation towards addressing issues related to the personal development and betterment
of the comnunity on the whole requires specialised inputs. For activities to be sustainable,
strengthening existing democratic stmctures, as against creating new ones, would reap positive
benefits. Training
in leadership is also important. A social calendar of activities ensures that
a goad relationship amongst
the members of the community is sustained within the realm of
the community itself. It nncans that it is a lifelopg asset for the community.
20.4 JOWT ACTION PLANNING AND IIMPLEMENTATIBN
Rebuilding homes and lives after a disaster extends beyond mere physical activity on the part
of the households. As the reconstruction process rebuilds their lives, they would look for an
opportunity to get closer to the victims' long cherished dreams, while burying the past. The
. pojkct team should strive to stronghen their dreams and not replace them by their own. The
rehabilitation exercise will show best results when the action is carried out jointly by the
co~nmunity and the project team.
At this stage, along with capacity building, a few specific action plans for each area of
intervention need to be drawn om, There could be a housing reconstruction action plan, a house
retrofitting action plan,
a livelihood action plan, a social action plan and so on. These plans
would be
putinto action immediately. It goes without saying that these plans need to be jointly
implemented by. the community, the householders and the project team.
-- -

223. Long
-
term
Recovery
243
To prepare and
actualise the specific action plans, one
-
on
-
one dialogue with individual household
helps. For this, the project team has to make itself available and amenable
to
all
the
individual
needs and priorities.
A
previously set ceiling on the expenditure per household with flexibility
in design and construction works best both for the community as well as project management
team.
Whenever work
-
sharing is Involved, role clarification and transparency are absolutely necessary.
These have to be clarified
in
the
action plans in the form of benchmarks. Work should be
clearly divided, the project team and the householder should play clearly defined roles, and uhe
choice of decisions should largely rest on the householders. However, the project team is
responsible for overall quality. Transparency in
the
entire process helps sustain trust. Usually,
this can be done by maintaining clear records for the comn~unity as a whole and for individual
households. These should be accessible to
my
member of the
co-mnity.
,I
The efforts initiated by the aid agency need to be
sustainahle. These should last long after the
interventions are over and the aid agency has withdrawn. In effect, intervention should be
designed to ensure that the community is able to take care of
its
development needs and is
resilient enough to cope with all future disasters. For intervention to be sustainable, capacity
building and strengthening, as well as building local institutional mechanisms are absolutely necessary,
Additionally, local institutions should have adequate capacity and
a
fixed source of
income
to
be able to exist and
carry
out their programmes, Rehabilitation actions are sustainable if the
individuals in the community
are
empowered to understand their rights, and own the project of
which they are an
integral
part.
Let us have a look at the checklist required for different lines
of action in the rehabilitation process:
.
Checklist
for
Action
Structures
at
Cormnunity
Established Standards
Rehabilitation should Damage Social Mobilisation
I
aim
at Reducing Assessment
VUlnerability
Preparing Social Calendar
to Promote for Disaster Matiage~nent
Empowerment
Rehabilitation
should
Preparation of
I
Joint Action
be Flexible Local Plans
Local Institutional
Strengthening
Integrating with
the Government
Development
Scheme>
Creating
Assets
for
Security
Ensuring Means for
Continuous Capacity
Building Process
providing
New
Opportunities for
Growth
Outlining' the
Parameters of Social
and
Economic
Equity
i
Ensuring
Deinocraiic
and Flexible Planning

224. 244 Rei~nbilitation, Reconsauction and Recovery
Mechanism for Joint
Action
with the
of
Ongoiilg Construction
Role Clarification and Following Transparent
Establish Team
Source:
Shiela Wirz and Thomas Mnyer, 2002 "Evaluation of Community-based Rehabilitation Programme:
A Search for Appropriate bidicators", Iizternatiortal Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 25(3): 163-171,
September.
20.5 CONCLUSION
The process of rehabilitation is based on the concerns related to community's needs in the
aftermath
of the disaster. It aims
at increasing the capacity of the community in order to inake
it independent and resilient enough to face any future disasters. An ideal process in the post-
disaster scenario needs to link immediate recovery to development. Broadly, the process may
follow three stages:
In the first stage, an overall plan defines
the principles and the aim of the
rehabilitation exercise. The second stage is canted out jointly with the help of the community.
The focus being on a two
-way flow between the aid agency and the individual household. The
third stage is
the exit stage for the aid agency after it ensures the
sustainability of its interventions,
while the community prepares itself to integrate with the mainstream development process.
This Unit discussed all these critical factors in the rehabilitation process.
Any eco~lomic activity, which can accrue benefits over time, without jeopordising the long-term .
interests of, the present and future generations.

225. Long-term Recovery
1
Long-term Rehabilitation
I
Rehabilitation work is the work that is carried out on a sustained basis. Long-tern1 rehabilitation
I
activities accrue prolonged advantages by making the communities self -sufficient and resilient
enough to face future disasters.
I
Local Action Planning
Planning at the local level involving grass roots level plans, participatory decision -making and
community capacity building.
20.7
3REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Sahni, Pardeep et al. (Eds.), 2001, Disaster &Iilitigatiorz: Experiences and ReJirectiuns, Prentice-
Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Red~rction in
South Asiu, Prentice-Hail of India, New Delhi.
Smith, Keith,
1996 (2nd Edition), Environmental
Hamrds: Assessing Risk lund Reducing
Disastei; Routledge, London.
20.8 ACTIVITIES
I Try to obtain a copy of your city or district developn~ent plan and identi9 those developmental
t
. programmes or schemes that could include long -term disaster management components.
2) Based on Activity One, discuss the ways through which these programmes can be turned into
long
-term recovery process in a post -disaster situation.
3) Again based on Activity One,
aIso try to prepare a checklist of long -term recovery-tasks for the
use .of disaster management 'planners.

226. UNIT 21 LONG-TERM COUNTER DISASTER
PLANNING
2 1.0 Learning Outcome
2 1.1 Introduction
21.2 Long-term Planning: Approach and Direction
2 1.3 Long-term Community-based Counter Disaster Planning
21.4 Issues in Sustainability
21.5 Integration of Policy Issues in Community-based Disaster Management
2 1.6
People-orien ted Experiments in Gujarat
21.7 Conclusion
21.8 Key Concepts
21.9 References
arid Further Readiag
21.10 Activities
21.0 LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
e Throw light on the approach and direction of long -term planning
r Discuss the goals of long -term Community-based Counter Disaster Planning
@ Examine the different issues involved in ensuring sustainability; and
@ Analyse the policy issues underlying Community-based Disaster Management by throwing light
on the experiments in Gujarat.
211.1 INTRODUCTION
Long-term counter disaster planning has to be based at the co~nlnunity level, as that is the only
way of ensuring wide application and sustainability over time. A number of Community-based
Disaster Management (CBDM) projects are coming up in different parts of the world. Some
of these have worked very well, while others represent good examples towards making of
success stories. Almost in all such cases, the successes have been driven by outside players.
While there is a growing body of knowledge on CBDM, the successful cases barely scratch
the surface of the actual needs
and problems of the vulnerable communities. This Unit looks
at the issues underlying community vulnerability, and the means of using
CBDM as a sustainable
long-term counter disaster planning tool.
In order to make long
-term community-based counter disaster planning an accepted and
recognised process
in disaster
management, systematic intervention is needed in three broad
areas:

227. Loizg-term Counter Disaster Plnrzriirtg
i) Cooperation and Capacity Building
Experience shows that disaster management being multi-disciplis~ary in naturc reqenirrs wide-
ranging inputs from governmental bodies. non -governmental organisations, international agetacies,
universities and other specialised institutions. Recent examples of a positive cooperatiara Pk:.-vecn
agencies in 'India and elsewhere in Asia have led to remarkable resules. Coopera~il ltas
yielded not just better results for the community but has also enabled institutions to further wild
on their own capacities, based on the experier~ce and expertise of the organisalions they have
partnered with. Cooperation and capacity building among various stakeholders working at the
grass roots would provide the most effective enabling ~nechinism for successf~d execution of
any policy that is formulated.
ii) Susltainitlbillty and Upscaling
There have now been far too many good practices that have taken place in the disaster
vulnerable regions
of the world. However, most of these good p
r
actices have remained .confined
to their local communities only. Their potential in influencing
attempts to reduce vulnerability
in other parts of the world is enonnous and needs to be tapped, especially since regiohs that
face similar threat of disasters have almost similar vulnerabilities and capacities.
Lately, various documentation attempts by the International Agencies including the United
Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN-ISDR) have brought these practices
to the global centre-stage. However, this is not enough. In arder to replicate good practices
widely, identification of factors that can make such practice$ sustainable and scaleable itre
necessary. A discussion on sustainability and upscaling of good practices from various communities
of Asia and other parts
of the world should
form the core of a disaster inanagemel-nt policy
framework.
iii) Integration sf Policy Issues
In large countries such as India, recent disasters have strengthened the need to define a
national disaster management policy in the country. Existing developmental poiicies are also
being reexamined to incorporate disaster prevention and preparedness in the policy framework.
Howeyer, there has been a limited debate on the content and thrust of these policy initiatives.
The crucial question
that needs to be addressed is: How would the public policy enable the
transfer of good practices and research to the most vulnerable
cornmm~ities? Incorporating
grass roots experiences and indigenous initiatives into the developmental policies could provide,
real substance to the disaster management policy.
211.3 LONG-TE COMMUNITY -BASED COUNTER
DISASTER PLANNING
India's national disaster management policy has been moving towards a community-hased
preparedness orientation. This change has been strongly perceived and put forth hoth by the
government as well as the people. Crisis management can no longer be the only way out.
Precious lives and property are lost in disasters, and much more is spent fin recovery and
rehabilitation. The costs of management can come down enormously if more resources go into
the mitigation phase of disaster management. Suitable policies are needed to incoq7orate this
type of paradigm shift ill mainstream develo pment process. An important consideratiotl, wI~ilc
promoting community level activities, would be to address the huge gap between academic
knowledge and practical information for the decision makers
and ordinary people. The growth of technology in this context should be aimed at develyping our socie~ies in such a way that

228. Ip
i
4 248 Rehabilitation, Reconstructiorz and Recovery
Id
this gap between the theory and practice is reduced. Some pertinent factors in this context
need to be kept in
view:
i) The Developmental Approach
rr~'xcas aisa ho jo aafat se bachnye; Vika,~ aisa na ho ,jo aafat ban jaaye" (Quite aptly
observed
-it means that development should be such which prevents disasters, and not something
that itself becomes
disastrbus). Disaster management has to be mainstreamed wit11 development
process.
In India, a beginning has been made, as a new and special chapter on "Disaster
Management Moving towards Safe Development
" has been
included in the Tenth Five Year
National Plan Document. It has been pipared by the Planning Colnmission and it is expected
that the 12th Finance Commission of the Government of India too would address long-term
issues of disaster prevention, mitigation, reduction and preparedness. This needs to be done
through institutional system of funding and systematic financial arrangements at the national
levels, as well as their adequate linkages and devolution withlto the states and districts.
ii)
Cooperation and Capacity Building
For developing cooperation and capacity building at the
community level, the foremost task is
to understand the meaning of corn~nunity and cooperation. The concept of conmunity varies
fi-om one village to the other. For some, even within a village, there are different types of
communities, based on religious, caste or cultural factors. Cooperation among different
stakeholders starts from preparedness, initigation, prevention, moving on to reconstruction,
rehabilitation and response and then there are bigger cycles, which lead to overall development.
There are different types of stakeholders involved in the entire disaster m~nagement process
starting from the NGOs, the government bodies at different lcvels (national, local, distxict or
panchayats), international organisations and the academicianslresearchers with the people at
the core.
However, there is one thing that is certain, that the cainmunity is a unit of the society that has
been living in an area for a long time and has been experiencing shared norms, values, custolns
and traditions. We have already explained the broad meaning of community in our earlier Units
of this Course. Suffice is to say over here that the word cooperation means synergy of
different organisations dr agencies to achieve a single goal, which can be theme-based, project-
based, item
-based or area -based. An interactive picture of different agencies
i~lvolved in
disaster management is given in Figure 21.1:

229. '~on~-term Counter Disaster Planning
Figure 21.1 Disaster Management Cycle and Development
Source : Adapted from Green Paper on Disaster Management, Ministry for Provincial Affairs and
Constitutional Development, Government of South Africa, February
1998.
iii) ~isk Management
While looking at risk management, there are three different stages of managing risks: risk
perception, risk assessment and' risk mitigation. In Community
-based Disaster Management
(CBDM), risk perception
is very important at all levels
i.e., the local residents, the NGOs, the
government and the donors should have a clear perception of the risk. It lrelps in increasing
the awareness and education about the possible threat of risk. Risk assessment is more of a
technical word and is generally the responsibility of the technical personnel or professionals to
quantify the risk in an area or a community, which aids in mapping its vulnerability.
The last step is of risk mitigation, which focuses on policy level decision making, and
is
generally a collective
-effort. The community, government and NGOs have a collective
responsibility and need collective efforts, whjch ultilnately lead to cooperation and capacity
building. This concept is universally applicable since it is non
-scaleable and can be
used at the
community, village, district or even national policy levels. The entire process results in capagity
building, institution building and confidence building at the local levels, as depicted in Figure 21.2

230. Rehabilitation, Recot~stvuction and Recovey.
Figure 28.2 Risk Management
Planning
In order to recapitulate, we can say that the risk management approach is followed at different
stages, starting from establishing
a context or an idea of risk perception, which includes
identification of the
local needs and priorities as well as generation of education and awareness.
This is followed
by risk assessment and evaluation based on the vulnerability levels
of the
community. The entire process is geared towards risk reduction and mitigation that involves
consultation and communication with all the s~akeholders. The overall objective is to include
risk managcinent in development planning, implc~nentation and stratcgic decision making.
iv) Total Quality Management
Apart from this, we need constant monitoring and review mechanism in place to measure the
progress made in context of long
-term counter disaster planning.
This is a rather simplified way
of thinking what we call Total Quality Management or TQM. In thc field of crisis management,
TQM was incorporated by Japanese Automobile Companies like Toyota, Nissan etc. Thew
companies incorporated TQM in their decision making channels way .back in the 1960s, Tlxcy
tried to understand that to ensure quality control of automobiles, four crucial steps were
needed, namely: Plan, Do, Check and
Act.
Tlierefdre, we need to now address issues pertaining to risk management approach and TQM
to determine how they can be made a part of disaster reduction or managenlent. Profession:~ls
and governme~lts at various levels usilally do the plallnirrg part. of disaster management. Then
the implementation or the 'do part' is done by the government, entrepreneurs and the civil
society organisations, while the 'check part' -- is .carried out on accouilt of the professionals'
and civil society's initiatives. Lastly,
the
gosernn~ent is concet~led with the 'action part' of
quality control.
21.4 ISSUES IN
SUSTAINABHLITTr'
Sustainability leads to the assumption that there are many on-going ~ctivities in the area of
capacity building, cooperation and con~munity participation in disaster managernelit that ccnld
I
be streamlined and utilised to the maximum. If we have been following Community -based
I
Disaster Management (CBDM), which was first introduced in 1995-96, the question, which
I
i
emerges is: how are we to sustain these efforts or achieven~ents. There are many examples
. that could lead to effective CBDM. However, the question that still remains is: If the external
intervention, in the form of outside help, is phased out then what would be left at the comrriuniiy
level. Thus, the issue of sustainability is of prime importance.
I
,

231. Long-term Counrer Disaster Planning 25 1
It has been already stated, time and again, that sustairzability is not a stand-alone issue, but is
related to our ability to put together good policy framework and capacity building efforts. Our
focus is on three important issues, namely:
i) The level of comnlunity cohesian and factors that contribute to community cohesion
ii) The level of coltununity participation and factors that contribute to community participation; and
iii) The extent of the contribution of this cohesion and participation t~ the inlpact of the project of
CBDM on the community. Sustainability has to be integrated with policy as well as capacity
building initiatives. It is figuratively presented below:
Agure 21.3: S~astainability: A Cross-cutting Issue
21.5 IIVTEGWTIQN OF POLICY XSSUES IN COMMUNITY -
BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT
The most important starting point of long -term comnlunity-based counter disaster planning is
the indigenous coping capability of the community. I11 disaster management, as we have mentioned
before in this Unit, we need to deal with the risk element thoroughly. It is important
to
understand the whole notion of risk and risk reduction, the way the disaster risk
accclmulates
in the society, the manner in which the society deals with the risk and the way the process
of acculnulation of risk is changing. Other questions that are crucial relate to the ilature of
policy level iinplications, and the growing relevance of disaster management. The work that is
being done in the area of disaster management is closely linked with issues of governance,
programme design and policy design.
Popularly, disaster risk is a conditian, which implies the interaction of risk factors in time and
space at different points, based on hazard and vulnerability levels. So in any disaster, as we
have read in Unit 5 of this Course, the damage losses that we see pertain to damages not only
to the physical
- structures, but also to the already
vul~lerable social, economic and political
systems in a particular situation.
Thus, Hazard' Vulnerability
= Disaster Risk
More than a decade ago, the literature published on disaster
managelnent presented a much
overused and abused equation of hazard vulnerability, but
now we have improvised the
conceptualisation.
Some researchers have added the factor of exposure to hazards to it. The
essential problem pertains to the way we treat management
of hazards and risks, where to a

232. 252 Rehabilitation, Reroiistruction and Recovery
great extent, hazards are taker] as constants, like earthquake is an earthquake, floods are just
floods and we merely treat vulnerabilities. However, nothing is done about social vulnerability
and its impact on natural hazards as such.
0
Most hazards are now beconling socio-natural hazards except perhaps the earthquakes. For
instance in Kalimanthan in Indonesia, a rainfall like
125 mm within a span of 24 hours was a nonnal thing. It never made headlines, flow 100 mm rainfall causes big flooding there. So there
is something really wrong with the way development has talcen place over thew. The development
process seems
to have exasperated the impact of the same old natural phenomenon. So floods
in this case are no longer a social thing; they have turned socio
-natural. This is the shift
that
is taking place.
The whole approach to disaster management assumes that a lot call bc done at the co~n~nunity
level in terms of treating viilnerability to hazards. But in this globalisation context, what is being
witnessed
is that increase in
risk factors is also because of actions talcen in some other places
of the globe. For instance, global warming is the result of emission of chloro-fluoro-carbons into
the atmosphere
by both
deseloped and developing countries. In this sense, the famous social
scientist Dr. Michliel Blanch has observed, "Every body lives down the streams these days ".
We are all affected
by actions taken somewhere else. The whole debate on global climate,
thus, needs to be revisited.
A change in climate at one place
of the world has its consequences for some remote place
in another part of the world. So much so that we have started looking for solutions to the global
problems at the grass roots levels. The interlinkages between the local and the global beccln~e
very important and it is within this context that the whole debate of CBDM really needs to be ,
located. The rationale for this linkage is that the comrnunitics do not just face disaster lisks,
the risk element is an everyday process. They actually play off one risk scenario agairrs~ ihe
other.
"As a poor person,
T nlay not be bothered about a flood which might happen next season, my
first risk relates to my next square meal - how do I secure that". When we start talking about
the whole range of developmental issues, whether we like it or not, in most cases,
the government
is the eminent domain. A lot of work really happens because
the government has the
Constitutiorial
and legal policy backing to do it. It has a capacity to generate the revenue, so on and so forth.
So
if we really want to situate the whole issue of disaster risk
managemcat in the right
perspective then it has to be placed firmly within the development context. This is the rationale
for linking it up with the local govertiment.
Another point, which keeps cropping up in the context of disaster risk management relates to
fixation of responsibility for managing disasters. The problem
is not
just with the disaster
managers, the onus is on with everybody and most of the problems. when they are analysed,
lie with tbe institutions. It is believed that they tend to work very sectorally. Personnel wsrlcir~g
on environment issues, e.g., in environment departments are totally different from those working
in disaster management departments even when the issues are quite closely interlinked. For
example, inIndonesia, the forest fire issues are being dealt with by two Ministries i.e., Mirlistry
of Environment and Minist~y of Forestry.
In
1998, people working in food
productioil/crop production directoratc in Ind~nesia, were
totally different from people managing the food logistics. So while one department preczst a
higher production for the next season:
the
other department actually planncd for the imports
based on the figures of the last season. But when we start looking at this aspect within the:
issues of governance at the local level,
it is the same entity.

233. Long-term Counter Disaster Planriing 253
The cross-sectoral integration, in the real sense, happens effectively at the local government
level. The block development office or the gram panchayat has to deal with all these issues.
Its just one life
- there is no water resources department, or agricultural department, food
distribution department
- it is all one. So, if we really want to promote cross -sectoral approach.
the linkages with
tht: local government are very important and need 'to be kept in view. Then
comes the question being raised sevlral times with regard to planning - Should it be participatory?
or should it be locally-based? If the communities are supposed to do everything, then what is
the role of regional planners? Regional planning
is not dead. There are blind spots that each
individual or community may have. We might work very effectively at the community level but
our actions have consequences for other levels of planning.
This could be explained
with an exalnple i.e., if the community decides to build a check dam
to protect itself against floods, the action taken at the local level will certainly have implications
upstream and down the stream. So, we still need regional planning bodies, mechanisms that
weave the worse ends together.
It has to be a combination of bottom -up and top -down planning.
In order to further understand this connection, let us now look at
some people-oriented efforts
in Gujarat.
211.6 PEOBLE-OR3[ENTED EXPERIMENTS IN GLTJAIRAT
As we know that on the fateful day of 26Ih January 2001, Gujarat state in western India was
hit by a powerful earthquake, The catastrophe claimed more than 13,000 lives and around
300,000 buildings were damaged. The earthquake recovery programme in Gujarat coordinated
by the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority undertook bold initiatives in the form of
people driven approaches. The community
-based disaster preparation experience in
Gujarat is
one of the biggest experiments carried out so far. It involved decisions
on whether we should
go in for owner
-driven construction or allot already constructed houses to the people. Looking
at the total devastation in which more than a
inillion houses were either damaged or demolished,
the recovery aid agencies had to reconstruct around
230 thousand houses, which was a big
number.
So what'needed to be done was
the big question. Many felt that giving financial assistance to
the people and making them construct their own houses involved a lot of risk; as what if they
took the money and still did not construct, or what if they constructed poorly, Another issue
was whether these villagers from far
-flung areas of Kutch,
Patan and interior Saurashtra
understood the concept of hazard resistant construction. The Kutch area is prone to earthquakes
as well as cyclones, so a kind of multi
-hazard construction needed to be brought about. The
issue was whether people would be able to do this on their own?
But
the government decided to allow people to construct their own houses. Looking at the
possibilities where things could go wrong, they evolved some checks and balances mecl~anisms.
-The first dealt with the issue about what if people took the money and still did not construct.
To address this problem, it was decided that the money should be released
in three iastalments.
It was decided to first give
mobilisation advance and, after the building comes to the plinth level,
release the second instalment, and when it comes
to lintel level, release the third instalment.
Simultaneously, the
governineilt decided to provide technical assistallce and supervision. They
hired Inore than 1600 engineers, trained them, and then these engineers were sent to the
villages. The engineers were given designated areas. It was decided that these engineers
,
would monitor the housing construction. At the plinth stage, if the engineers felt satisfied they
would give a certificate
of approval, the government would then release the second instalment.
If something went wrong, it was decided to evolve guidelines for corrective actions to be taken.

234. Relzabilitntion, Reconsf~;r(ction and Recovery
The house ov,rner would then take corrective actions and get back to the government for
inspecting the house again. It was then the second instalnlent of money would be released and
after that the third instalment.
Another issue was that what if somebody constructed and cane upto plinth level, took the
second instalrnent and went upt~ roof level, got the third instalment, and still did not construct
according
to the specifications - what should government then do? It only costs 10 to 15 per
cent
of the
total cost of construction in the rural areas to retrofit the house. So, to check
whether the houses were constructed according to the specifications, the governnlent also
introduced a third party quality audit, which meant 100 per cent inspection of the houses by
a third party. For this, it did not rely on government engineers. It appointed an independent
agency for third party audit.
The Government of
Gujarat has, thus, conducted the biggest experiment in training the
communities, the people and the masons. The experiment has proved to%e a success and can
now be replicated elsewhere. The local masons of that area did not know how to adhere to
disaster resistant construction, so they took
a massive programme through
NGOs, with the help
of independent agencies like National Council for Cement and
Building Material. They imparted
training to more than 27,000 masons and about
6000 engineers. As a result, if you now go to
any earthquake
-affected area in Gujarat, you will find that even the poor person has started
talking about retrofitting.
A high intensity of percolation of knowledge has taken place. This is a step towards long
-term
disaster
rnanage~nent capacity building. Many informative booklets have been printed and
distributed amongst the community. The results have been heartening.
A large number of
houses have been reconstructed and retrofitted by the community, NGOs and government in
close cooperation with each other.
21.7 CONCLUSION
In order to ensure long -term counter disaster planning at the national level, India's national
disaster management policy has been
moving towards a community-based and prevention1
preparedness orientation. This has strongly been felt both by the governnlent as, well as the
people, Crisis nianagement can no longer be the only way to Inanage disasters. Precious lives
and property are lost in natural disasters, and much more is spent on recovery and rehabilitation
than mitigation. Suitable policies are needed to incorporate this kind of paradigmatic shift into
the mainstream development. Community participation in long
-term counter disaster planning
plays a
vely important role. Besides going the community way, it is important to focus on how
to improve the delivery systems. Aspects of sustainability, quality management and upscaling
are critical in this respect. This Unit highlighted some of these issues.
21.8 KEY CONCEPTS
Local Capacity Building I
i
Building the capacity. of the co~nmunity aild local level elected representatives through training
&nd education on disaster preparedness, in order to equip then1 to face the wrath of disasters
through sustained self
-help and community participation.
Community-based
Sustainability I
It means building the capacity of the community to withstand disasters so that it could reap the
benefits of development initiative in affected areas over time. Sustainable eam~nunities are

235. Long-term Counter Disaster Planning 255
chose that have the capabilities and infrastructure to not only withstand present disaster situations,
but also cope with future calamities in an' effective manner.
Total
Quality Nlanageraaent
It is a management technique to bring about all -round quality in the structures and processes
of an organisational system. It is basically a diagnostic tool to identify the necessary elements
for a successful quality management approach, and to see how they fit together to accomplish
quality goals. Successful
TQM requires both behavioural and cultural changes. An effective
TQM system brings Organisational Management System and Humar~ Resource Management
System together with a behavioural hnd culthral commitment to customer quality.
211.9 mFEWENCES AND FURTHER READING
Carter, W. Nick, 1991, Disaster Managem.ent: A Disaster Manager's Haizdbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
-.
Gupta, Harsh K, 2003, Disaster Management, University Press, Hyderabad.
Uunzan Development Report, 1999, Oxford University Press, Oxford..
. Report of the Asian Developnzent Bank, 1991, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and Pacific ",
ADB, Manila.
Sahni,'Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2001, Disaster Mitigation: Experiences
and Reflections, Prentice
-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni,
Pardeep and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk Reduction in
South Asia, Prentice -Hall of India, New Delhi.
231.10 ACTIVITIES
1) Enlist all planning activities that you can think of with regard to counter disaster management
planning.
Sort these out into short-term, medium -term and
long-term-measures.
2) For each counter disaster planning activity, identify the key role -players. Prepare two separate
lists, one of counter disaster planning activities that can be carried out
by community groups theillselves without any external assistance and the second list of those that can be carsied out
with some external assistance from govenimental, non-governmental and international. agencies.
3) Based on Activity Two, comment on the role of community in long -term counter disaster
management planning,