Research Methodology

Research methodology refers to the systematic and structured approach used to conduct research and gather data. It involves a set of techniques, tools, and procedures that are used to collect, analyze, and interpret data in order to answer research questions or test hypotheses. The methodology used in a research study is critical to the validity and reliability of the results obtained.

The research methodology typically includes a detailed description of the research design, sampling strategy, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and ethical considerations. The research design outlines the overall plan for the study, including the type of research (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods), the research approach (experimental, correlational, or descriptive), and the research setting (field, laboratory, or online).

The sampling strategy describes how participants are selected for the study, including the sample size, sampling technique, and inclusion/exclusion criteria. The data collection methods describe how data is collected from participants, such as through surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. The data analysis techniques describe how the data is analyzed, such as through statistical tests, content analysis, or thematic analysis.

#ResearchMethodology #ResearchDesign #DataCollection #DataAnalysis #SamplingStrategy #QualitativeResearch #QuantitativeResearch #MixedMethodsResearch #ExperimentalResearch #CorrelationalResearch #DescriptiveResearch #EthicalConsiderations #ResearchEthics #ResearchProcess #ResearchStudy #ResearchFindings #AcademicResearch #ScholarlyResearch #ResearchCommunity #ResearcherLife #ResearchSkills #ResearchTips #ResearchWriting #ResearchPublication #ResearchPaper #ResearchProposal #ResearchConference #ResearchPresentation

1. The Research Methodology
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2. Purposes of Research
Exploration
Gainingsomefamiliaritywithatopic,discoveringsomeofits
maindimensions,andpossiblyplanningmorestructured
research
Description
CensusBureau’sreportonnumberofpupils
Politicalpollpredictingwhowillwinanelection
Anthropologist’sethnographicaccountofapreliteratetribe
Explanation
Takeitonestepfurther
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3. Research ‘Musts’
Problemmustbeclearlyrecognized
Determineinformationalreadyavailableandwhat
furtherinformationisrequired,aswellasthebest
approachforobtainingit
Obtainandassessinformationobjectivelytohelp
informthedecision
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4. ‘Six’ Phases of Research
1.Problemdefinition
2.Literaturereview
3.Selectionofresearchdesign,subjects,anddata
collectiontechniques
4.Datagathering
5.Dataprocessingandanalysis
6.Implications,Conclusions,andRecommendations
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5. Problem Definition
Describebroadercontext(background)
Statetheobjectivesorpurposes
Informreaderaboutthescopeofthestudy,
includingdefininganyterms,limitations,or
restrictions
Reducespotentialcriticisms
Statethehypothesis(es)
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6. Literature Review
Givestheoreticalrationaleofproblembeingstudied,what
researchhasbeendoneandhowitrelatestotheproblem
Helpfultodividetheliteratureintosub-topicsforeaseof
reading
Qualityofliteratureshouldbeassessed
Besuretoincludewellrespected‘individuals’inthe
researcharea(iftheyexist)
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7. Selection of Research Design
Theresearchdesignindicatesthestepsthatwill
needtobetakeandthesequencetheywilloccur
Eachdesigncanrelyononeoremoredata
collectiontechnique
Assessreliabilityandvalidity
Criticalconsiderationindeterminingmethodology
istheselectionofsubjects
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8. Data Gathering
Mustpretest
Designthesamplingscheme
Questionnairesmustbecoded
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9. Data processing and analysis
Describedemographicsofthedata
Comparebehavior(ifapplicable)
Chooseappropriatestatisticaltechnique(ifapplicable)
Lookforpatternsindata(ifapplicable)
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10. Interpreting the Results
Makesuretoconsidertheaudience
Discussimplicationsforthepopulationof
interestandfutureresearch
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11. Operational Definitions
Variablesfirstdefinedbyconceptualdefinitions
thatexplaintheconceptthevariableistryingto
capture
Variablesthendefinedbyoperationaldefinitions
whicharedefinitionsforhowvariablewillbe
measured
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12. Language of Sampling
Population:entirecollectionofpeople/things
Parameter:#thatresultsfrommeasuringallunitsin
population
Samplingframe:specificdatafromwhichsampleisdrawn
Unitofanalysis:typeofobjectofinterest
Sample:asubsetofsomeoftheunitsinthepopulation
Statistic:#thatresultsfrommeasuringallunitsinthesample
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13. Unit of Analysis
Majorentityyouareanalyzinginyourstudy
Itisthetypeofobjectthatmakesupeachdatapoint
Individuals
Artifacts(books,photos,newspapers)
Geographicalunits
Socialinteractions
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14. Unit of Analysis Error
Insomestudiespeopleareallocatedingroups,rather
thanindividually.Whenthisisdone,theunitof
allocationisdifferentfromtheunitofanalysis
(usually).
Thisissometimescalledaunitofanalysiserror.
Itcanresultinstudieshavingnarrowerconfidence
intervalsandreceivingmoreweightthanisappropriate.
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15. Independent and Dependent Variables
independent variable is what
is manipulated
a treatment or program or
cause
‘Factor’
dependent variable is what is
affected by the independent
variable
effects or outcomes
‘Measure’
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16. Research Design and Methodology
Ingeneral,aresearchdesignislikeablueprintfor
theresearch.
ResearchMethodologyconcernshowthedesignis
implemented,howtheresearchiscarriedout.
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17. A few designs
Cross-Sectional Design
Longitudinal Design
Time Series Design
Panel Design
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18. Cross-Sectional Design
Across-sectionaldesignisusedforresearchthatcollects
dataonrelevantvariablesonetimeonlyfromavarietyof
people,subjects,orphenomena.
Across-sectionaldesignsprovidesasnapshotofthe
variablesincludedinthestudy,atoneparticularpointin
time.
Cross-sectionaldesignsgenerallyusesurveytechniques
togatherdata,forexample,theIndianCensus.
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19. Advantages:dataonmanyvariables,datafromalarge
numberofsubjects,datafromdispersedsubjects,dataon
attitudesandbehaviors,goodforexploratoryresearch,
generateshypothesesforfutureresearch,datausefulto
manydifferentresearchers
Disadvantages:increasedchancesoferror,increasedcost
withmoresubjectsandeachlocation,cannotmeasure
change,cannotestablishcauseandeffect,nocontrolof
independentvariable,difficulttoruleoutrivalhypotheses,
static
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20. Longitudinal Designs
Alongitudinaldesigncollectsdataoverlongperiodsof
time.
Measurementsaretakenoneachvariableovertwoor
moredistincttimeperiods.
Thisallowstheresearchertomeasurechangeinvariables
overtime.
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21. Time Series Design
ATimeSeriesDesigncollectsdataonthesame
variableatregularintervalsintheformofaggregate
measuresofapopulation.
Timeseriesdesignsareusefulfor:
establishingabaselinemeasure
describingchangesovertime
keepingtrackoftrends
forecastingfuture(shortterm)trends
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22. Advantages:dataeasytocollect,easytopresentingraphs,
easytointerpret,canforecastshorttermtrends
Disadvantages:datacollectionmethodmaychangeover
time,difficulttoshowmorethanonevariableata
time,needsqualitativeresearchtoexplainfluctuations,
assumespresenttrendswillcontinueunchanged
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23. Data Collection Methods
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24. What is DATA?????
Dataaresimplyunitsofinformation.
Dataaremeasured,collected,reported,analyzed,andusedtocreate
datavisualizationssuchasgraphs,tablesorImages.
Data are the set of values of qualitative or
quantitative variables about one or more persons
or objects.
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26. Quantitative Data (Numerical)
Data refers to measurable observations.
Examples-
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27. Qualitative Data (categorial)
Qualitative data is the data that can be arranged into categories
based on physical traits, gender, colors or anything that does not have
a number associated with it.
Qualitative-involves more details tells you why, when and how!
Examples-
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28. WhatisDataCollection?
Itistheprocessbywhichthe
researchercollectstheinformation
neededtoanswertheresearch
problem.
Thetaskofdatacollectionbegins
afteraresearchproblemhasbeen
defined.
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29. Incollectingthedata,theresearchermust decide:
Whichdata is tocollect?
HowtocollecttheData?
WhowillcollecttheData?
WhentocollecttheData?
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30. The Purpose of Data Collection
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31. MethodsofDataCollection
EssentialyTwoTypes:
PRIMARYDATA
Primarydataarethosewhicharecollectedfor
thefirsttimeandareoriginalincharacter.
SECONDARYDATA
Secondarydataarethosewhichhavealready
beencollected-bysomeoneelse.
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32. Primary Data v/s Secondary Data
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33. Methods of Collecting PrimaryData
•Observation
•Surveys
•Interviews
•Questionnaires
•Schedules
Primary
Data may
be
collected
through:
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34. 1. ObservationMethod
Observationmethodisamethodunderwhichdata
fromthefieldiscollectedwiththehelpof
observationbytheobserverorbypersonallygoingto
thefield.
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35. StepsForAn EffectiveObservation
Determine what needs to beobserved
Select participants
Random/Selected
Conduct the observation
(venue, duration, recording materials, take photographs )
Compile data collected Analyze and
interpret data collected
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36. Types of OBSERVATION Methods
1-StructuredObservation
Whentheobservationischaracterizedbyacarefuldefinition
oftheunitstobeobserved(predefined),thestyleofrecordingthe
observedinformation,standardizedconditionsofobservationand
theselectionofrelateddataofobservation.
2-UnstructuredObservation
Whenittakesplacewithouttheabovecharacteristics.
(Notpredefined)
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37. 3-ParticipantObservation
Whentheobserverismemberofthegroupwhichheisobserving
thenitisParticipantObservation.
4-Non-ParticipantObservation
Whentheobserverisnotthememberofthegroupwhichheis
observingthenitisNon-ParticipantObservation.
observerisobservingpeoplewithoutgivinganyinformationto
themthenitisNon-ParicipantObservation.
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38. 5-UncontrolledObservation
Whentheobservationtakesplaceinnaturalcontitioni.e.,
uncontrolledobservation.Itisdonetogetspontaneouspictureoflife
andpersons.
6-Controlled Observation
Whenobservationtakes placeaccordingto pre-arranged plans,
withexperimentalprocedurethenitiscontrolledobservation generally
doneinlaboratoryundercontrolledcondition.
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39. Advantages of observationMethod
Produces Large quantities of data.
All data obtained from observations are usable.
The observation technique can be stopped or begun at any time.
Relatively Inexpensive
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40. disadvantages of observationMethod
Interviewing selected subjects may provide more
information, economically, than waiting for the
spontaneous occurrence of the situation.
Limited information
Extensive Training is needed.
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41. ONE OF THE WIDELY USED RESEARCH
DESIGN TO COLLECT DATA IS
SURVEYS
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42. How to collect Primary information through survey
A researcher can collect information
either
by observation
OR
by asking.
WHEN HE/SHE ASKS FOR INFORMATION, WE SAY THAT
HE/SHE IS CONDUCTING A SURVEY.
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43. 2. SURVEY Method
A‘survey’isatechniqueofgatheringinformationbyquestioningthose
individualswhoaretheobjectoftheresearchbelongtoarepresentative
sample,throughstandardizedorquestioningprocedure,withtheaimof
studyingtherelationshipamongthevariablesand/orcollecting
informationthatprobablydescribethewholepopulation.
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44. There may be different
ways to conduct surveys…
In-Home Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
E-mailInternet
Survey
Methods
Telephonic
Survey
Personal Electronic
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45. 3.InterviewMethod
TheInterviewMethodofcollectingdatainvolves
presentationoforal-verbalstimuliandreplyin
termsoforal-verbalresponses.
wherethequestionsareaskedpersonallydirectlyto
therespondent.
Interviewerasksquestionstorespondent.(which
areaimedtogetinformationrequiredforstudy)
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46. Prepare interview schedule
Select subjects/ key Respondent Conduct the interview
Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview
StepsForAnEffectiveInterview
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47. Types of Interview Methods
1-StructuredInterviews:
Inthis case,asetofpredecidedquestionsarethere.
2-UnstructuredInterviews:
Inthiscase,wedon’tfollowasystem ofpre-determinedquestions.
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48. 3-Focused Group Interview
Unstructured and Free flowing
Focus Group has one Moderator
Moderator maintains control and focuses
discussion
It involves 6 to 10 people
Group interview start with broad topic
and focus in on specific issues
Relatively homogeneous
Similar lifestyles and experiences
Generate discussion and interaction
Listens to what people have to say
Everyone gets a chance to speak
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49. 4-ClinicalInterviews:
•Informationisgeneratedandutilizedateverystepthisprocessincludingthe
activitiesofinvestigation,observation,monitoring,diagnosis,planning,treatment
andreview.
•Theyalsorecordtheirplans,orders,proceduresperformed,observations,test
results,opinionsanddiscussions.
5-GroupInterviews:
Itisdoneinagroupof6to8individualsisinterviewed.
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50. 6-QualitativeandquantitativeInterviews:
Itisdividedonthebasisofsubjectmatteri.e.,whether
qualitativeorquantitative.
7-IndividualInterviews:
Interviewermeetsasinglepersonandinterviewshim.
8-SelectionInterviews:
DoneforselectionofpeopleforcertainJobs.
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51. Advantagesof Interview Method
More information at greater
depth can be obtained
Resistance may be overcome
by a skilled interviewer
Personal information can be
obtained
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52. disadvantages of Interview Method
It is an expensive Method
Interviewer bias
Respondent bias
Time consuming
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53. 4.Questionnaires
The term“questionnaire”referstoan instrumentfor
the collectionof data, usually in writtenform,
consisting of open/closed questions and other
enquiriesrequiringaresponsefromsubjects.
AQuestionnaireissent(bypostorbymail)tothepersonsconcernedwith
arequesttoanswerthequestionsandreturntheQuestionnaire.
AQuestionnaireconsistsofanumberofquestionsprintedinadefinite
orderonaform.
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54. StepsForAnEffectiveQuestionnaire
Prepare questions
(Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions, make copies)
Select your respondents
Random/Selected
Administer the questionnaire
(date, venue, time )
Tabulate data collected Analyze and interpret data collected
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55. Types of Questionnaire Methods
1-Open-ended questions
This gives the respondents the ability to respond in their own
words.
2-Close-ended or fixed alternative questions
This allows the respondents to choose one of the given
alternatives.
Types:-Dichotomous questions and Multiple Questions.
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56. EssentialsofGoodQuestionnaire
Should be short and simple
Follow a sequence of questions from easy to difficult one
Technical terms should be avoided
Should provide adequate space for answers in questionnaire
Directions regarding filling of questionnaire should be given
Physical Appearance –Quality of paper, Color
Sequence must be clear
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57. advantages of questionnaireMethod
Low cost –even when the universe is large and is widespread
Free from interviewer bias
Responddents have adequate time to think through the answers.
Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
Large samples can be used
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58. disadvantages of questionnaireMethod
Time consuming
The respondents need to be educated and cooperative
This method is slow
Possibility of unclear replies.
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59. 5. Schedules
VerysimilartoQuestionnairemethod
Themaindifferenceisthatascheduleisfilledby
theenumeratorwhoisspeciallyappointedfor
thepurpose.
Enumeratorgoestotherespondents,asks
themthequestionsfromtheQuestionnairein
theorderlisted,andrecordstheresponses
inthespaceprovided.
Enumeratormustbetrainedinadministeringthe
schedule.
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60. QuestionnaireVs.Schedule
Questionnaire
Q generally send to through mail
and no further assistance from
sender.
Q is cheaper method.
Non response is high.
In questionnaire, it is not confirmed
that expected respondent have filled
the answers.
Schedule
Scheduleisfilledbythe
enumerator orresearch
worker.
Costly requires field
workers.
Nonresponseislow.
Inscheduleidentityof
personisknown.
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61. Questionnaire
Very slow method.
Incomplete and wrong
Information is more.
No personal contacts.
Depends on the quality of
questionnaire.
Q can used only when respondent
is educated and well cooperative.
Schedule
Informationiscollectedwellon
time.
DependsonHonestyofthe
enumerator.
Directpersonalcontacts.
Relativelymorecorrectand
complete.
Informationcanbecollectedfrom
illiteratesalso.
QuestionnaireVs.Schedule
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62. Secondary Data Collection Methods
•Data gathered and recorded by someone else.
•Secondary data is data that has been collected for another
purpose.
•It involves less cost, time and effort.
•Secondary data is data that is being reused. Usually in a
different context.
•For example: data from a book.
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63. © 2023 Sasidharan Murugan IND, Inc. All rights reserved.

64. SOURCES of secondary data collection
INTERNAL SOURCES
Internal sources of secondary data are usually for
marketing application-
Sales Records
Marketing Activity
Cost Information
Distributor reports and feedback
Customer feedback
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65. EXTERNAL SOURCES
External sources of secondary data
Journals
Books
Magazines
Newspaper
Libraries
The Internet
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66. Other Sources of secondary data collection:
•Publications of Central, state , local government
•Technical and trade journals
•Books, Magazines, Newspaper
•Reports & publications of industry ,bank, stock
exchange
•Reports by research scholars, Universities,
economist
•Public Records
Secondary Data Sources
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67. •Reliabilityofdata-Who,when,whichmethods,atwhattimeetc.must
beinvestigated.
•Suitabilityofdata–Object,scope,andnatureoforiginalinquiryshould
bestudied,asifthestudywaswithdifferentobjective,thenthatdatais
notsuitableforcurrentstudy
•Adequacyofdata–Levelofaccuracy,•Areadifferencesthendataisnot
adequateforstudy
Factors to be considered before using secondary data
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68. Nature ,Scope and object of inquiry
Availability of Funds
Time Factor
Accuracy Required
Selection of proper Method for collection of Data
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69. advantages of secondary data Method
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70. disadvantages of secondary data Method
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71. TobeContinued....
THANK YOU ALL
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72. Panel Designs
PanelDesignscollectrepeatedmeasurementsfromthesame
peopleorsubjectsovertime.
Panelstudiesrevealchangesattheindividuallevel.
Advantages:revealsindividuallevelchanges,establishestimeorderof
variables,canshowhowrelationshipsemerge
Disadvantages:difficulttoobtaininitialsampleofsubjects,difficultto
keepthesamesubjectsovertime,repeatedmeasuresmayinfluence
subjectsbehavior
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