Research methodology for NRM students at Jigjiga university

Research methodology for NRM students at Jigjiga university

1. Chapter two FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

2. Contents 1.1 Knowledge & Sources of Knowledge 1.2 Definition of Research, 1.3 Purpose of Research and Ethics, 1.4 Types of Research, 1.5 Research and Theory 1.6 The Scientific Approach 1.7 Stages of Research Process 11/18/2024 2

3. 2.1 Selecting a general topic Choosing a good research title is one of the difficult phases of a research project is the choice of a suitable problem. Beginners are likely to choose a problem that is much too broad in scope. This may be due to a naive desire to solve an important problem quickly and immediately. Their low level of understanding of the nature of research and the scientific approach could also be a factor.

4. What to Consider when you are choose a research topic Reflect on your personal experiences. Combine your personal topic with some aspects of your academic studies Consider economic or scientific problems that may interest you to carry on research Observe your immediate environment curiously Talking with others: Listen to people in your college and community as they express their concerns. This might trigger an idea for a topic Using a computer search: The internet, CD-ROMS and even your libraries can quickly show you what research has been done on a topic and even lead you to think about your subject in new ways. Using printed sources Go into the library with key words and review reference books, biographies and relevant periodicals.

5. Literature Review Literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. It is not just a descriptive list of the materials available but a critical analysis that shows an evaluation of the existing literature and a relationship between the different works. It uses available documents (both published and unpublished) on the topic, which contain; Information, Ideas, Data and Evidence written from a particular topic Literature review is a way to compare studies and know “what’s out there” on a specific topic

6. Purpose of Literature review It provides a background to the study being proposed. Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done; Discovering important variables relevant to the topic; Synthesizing and gaining a new perspective; Identifying relationships between ideas and practice; Establishing the context of the topic or problem; Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the subject under review Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research Point the way forward for further research

7. Sources of Literatures Information for literature review can be collected from books, journal articles, internet (electronic journals), newspapers, magazines, theses and dissertations, conference proceedings, reports, and documentaries. What should U do before writing the literature review? Clarify Find models Narrow your topic Consider whether your sources are current

8. Cont………….. How to write the review? The whole process of reviewing includes: Searching for literature, sorting and prioritizing the saved literature, comparison across studies, organizing the content and writing the review. What should you write? You can write the accepted facts in the area, popular opinion, main variables, the relationship between concepts and variables, shortcomings in the existing findings, limitations in the methods used in the existing findings, the relevance of your research and suggestions for further research in the area.

9. Citation in the literature In the text, references should be cited with author’s name and year of publication in parenthesis as shown in examples below: When only one author (eg. Fisseha (author), 2010 (year)) Chickens production is a predominant farming practice in many parts of Ethiopia (Fisseha, 2010). Two authors in one paper (Eg. Dahir and Tadeos (authors), 2022 (year)) Determinants of the adoption of rainwater harvesting technologies in Kebri-Beyah District, Somali Region, Ethiopia (Dahir & Tadeos , 2022). More than two authors in one paper (Eg. Dahir, Dereje , Tadeos (authors), 2022 (year)) Variability of soil chemical properties in lower Wabishebele Sub-Basin in Somali Region South-eastern Ethiopia, as influenced by land use and land cover (Dahir et al ., 2022).

10. Specification of objectives and hypothesis Having decided what to study, and knowing why s/he wants to study it, the investigator can now formulate his study objectives. Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. For example, if the problem identified is low soil nutrient status of the agricultural areas of Jigjiga district, the general objective of the study could be to investigate the nutrient status of the soil. Formulation of the research objectives The formulation of objectives will help us to: Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials) Avoid  collection  of  data  that   are   not   strictly   necessary Organize the study in clearly defined parts

11. Cont……… How should we state our objectives? Should cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a rational way and in a logical sequence Are  clearly expressed   in measurable terms Are  realistic   considering local conditions Meet the purpose of the study Use  action verbs   that are specific enough to be measured Examples of action verbs are: to determine to compare to verify to calculate to describe to find out to establish

12. Articulating Hypotheses The next step in planning a research study is articulating the hypotheses that will be tested.  hypotheses   attempt to explain, predict, and explore the phenomenon of interest. It is an “Educated guess” or testable prediction. There may or may not be an underlying knowledge about the hypothesis .

13. Types of hypotheses Null Hypothesis ( H ) states the assumption to be tested It states that there is no significant difference between two parameters e.g. Noug   ( Guizotia abyssinica ) seed cake application does not affect the performance of layers It is the hypothesis that the researcher wants to falsify Alternative Hypothesis ( H 1 ) is the opposite of the null hypothesis It states that there is significant difference between two parameters. e.g. Noug seed cake application affects the performance of layers It is the hypothesis that is believed to be true by the researcher. But it may or may not be accepted

14. Decisions and Consequences in Hypothesis Testing

15. Concept of variable An image, perception or concept that is capable of measurement – hence capable of taking on different values – is called a variable. The definition of a  variable  in the context of a research study is some feature with the potential to change, typically one that may influence or reflect a relationship or outcome. For example, potential variables might be time it takes for something to occur, whether or not an object is used within a study, or the presence of a feature among members of the sample.

16. The difference between a concept and a variable Measurability is the main difference between a concept and a variable. Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meanings vary markedly from individual to individual, whereas variables are measurable, though, of course, with varying degrees of accuracy

17. Types of Variables 1. Independent variable: the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about change(s) in a phenomenon or situation. 2. Dependent variable: the outcome or change(s) brought about by introduction of an independent variable. Example: Suppose you want to study the effects of a marriage counselling service on marital problems among customers of an agency providing such a service Counselling service Assumed cause Independent variable Marriage problem Assumed effect dependent variable -Another person in the R/ship -Pressure from friends & relatives Effect of the R/ship Extraneous

18. Independent vs dependent vs control variables Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment) Independent variables  ( treatment variables) Variables you manipulate in order to affect the outcome of an experiment. The amount of salt added to each plant’s water. Dependent variables (  response variables ) Variables that represent the outcome of the experiment. Any measurement of plant health and growth: in this case, plant height and wilting. Control variables Variables that are held constant throughout the experiment. The temperature and light in the room the plants are kept in, and the volume of water given to each plant.

19. Cont……….. 3. Extraneous variable: is several other factors operating in a real-life situation may affect changes in the dependent variable. These factors, not measured in the study, may increase or decrease the magnitude or strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables. 4. Intervening variable: sometimes called the confounding variable (Grinnell 1988: 203), it links the independent and dependent variables. In certain situations the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable cannot be established without the intervention of another variable. The cause, or independent, variable will have the assumed effect only in the presence of an intervening variable.

20. Independent, Depend, extraneous and intervening variables

21. Attribute and active variables Active variables: Those variables that can be manipulated, changed or controlled. Example Consider a research project on the effect of water on greenhouse tomatoes.  The amount of water provided to each tomato  is an active variable because it is controlled by the investigator. Attribute variables: Those variables that cannot be manipulated, changed or controlled, and that reflect the characteristics of the study population, for example age, gender, education and income.

22. Categorical and continuous variables Categorical variables are measured on nominal or ordinal measurement scales Continuous variables the measurements are made on either an interval or a ratio scale. There are three types of categorical variables: Constant variable has only one category or value, for example taxi, tree and water; Dichotomous variable has only two categories, as in male/female, yes/no, good/bad, head/tail, up/down and rich/poor; polytomous variable can be divided into more than two categories, for example religion (Christian, Muslim, Hindu); political parties (Labor, Liberal, Democrat); and attitudes (strongly favorable, favorable, uncertain, unfavorable, strongly unfavorable).

23. Types of measurement scale Nominal A nominal scale is category labels. The category labels are not ordered, so it doesn't matter which number comes first.  For example, the following list has three items on a nominal scale: 1. Apple 2. Orange 3. Banana

24. Ordinal A nominal scale doesn't tell us anything about the relationship between the different categories. However, in the ordinal scale of data, there is an order. However, the difference between them cannot be quantified. For example, the following list has three ratings of a product on an ordinal scale: 1. Good 2. Better 3. Best

25. Interval scale The interval scale An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale; that is, individuals or responses belonging to a subcategory have a common characteristic and the subcategories are arranged in an ascending or descending order. In addition, an interval scale uses a unit of measurement that enables the individuals or responses to be placed at equally spaced intervals in relation to the spread of the variable. Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are examples of an interval scale.

26. Ratio scale The ratio scale A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales and it also has a starting point fixed at zero. The measurement of income, age, height and weight are examples of this scale. A person who is 40 years of age is twice as old as a 20-year-old. We know that 10 Kg is greater than 5 Kg. The difference in weight between 10 Kg and 5 Kg is the same as the difference between 100 Kg and 95 Kg. Also, we do have an absolute zero here. A weight of 0 Kg means that there is no weight.

27. End of Chapter 2 11/18/2024 27