RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ( NTA 7)_EAE_EBE (2) (1).pptx

Research is a systematic process of discovery and advancement of human knowledge’ (Gratton & Jones, 2009, p.4).
According to Theodorson and Theodorson (1969) research refers to any honest attempt to study a problem systematically or to add to man’s knowledge of a problem.
According to Saunders et al. (2007) research is something that people undertake to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge
According to Waltz and Bansell (1981). Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships.
According to Kothari (2006). Research is a pursuit of trust with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem.
According to Payton (1979). Research is the process of looking for a specific question in an organized, objective, reliable way.
Kerlinger (1873). Research is a systematic controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

1. Higher Diploma in EBE & EAE Module Name: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Number of Credits: 6 Module Name: GSU 07402 By: Mr. VICTOR NGAAI ARUSHA TECHNICAL COLLEGE

2. Contents Meaning of research Objectives of Research Motivation of research Importance of research Ongeza research problem meaning etc Problem with Research Today The process of Educational Research Types of Research Research approaches Qualitative Research Designs Quantitative Research Designs Sampling procedures etc

3. Meaning of Research Research is the process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. At general level research consists of three steps: Step 1: Pose a question Step II: Collect Data to answer the Question Step III: Present an answer to the question. This should be a familiar process. You engage in solving problems every day and you start with a question, collect some information and form an answer (Creswell, 2012).

4. Meaning of Research Cont.... Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem (Kothari, 2013).

5. Objectives of Research Kothari (2004) states that, the purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered yet. Through each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

6. Objectives of Research Cont.... To gain familiarity with phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies) To determine the frequency in which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies). To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are knowing as hypothesis-testing research studies).

7. Motivation in Research The motives of doing research may be one or more of the following Desire to get a research degree along with it consequential benefits Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e. concern over practical problems initiates research Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work Desire to be of service to society Desire to get respectability Apart from the list above there are other factors such as directives from of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening may motivate people to perform research operations (Kothari,2013).

8. Importance of Research Research adds to our Knowledge Educators strive for continual improvements. This requires addressing problems or issues and searching for potential solutions. Adding to knowledge means that educators undertake research to contribute to existing information about the issue. Example the pressing educational issues being debated today, such as integration of HIV/AIDS education and terrorism into the school curriculum. Research plays a vital role in addressing these issues. Through research we develop results that help to answer the questions and as we accumulate these results, we gain a deeper understanding of the problems. In this way researchers are much like bricklayers who build a wall brick, continually adding to the wall and in the process creating a stronger structure.

9. Importance of Research Cont.... Research Improves Practice Research is important because it suggests improvement for practice. Armed with research results, teachers and other educators become more effective professionals. This effectiveness translates into better learning for kids. It offers practicing educators new ideas to consider as they go about their jobs. Not only that but also research helps practitioners to evaluate approaches that they hope will work with individuals in educational settings .

10. Importance of Research Cont.... Research Informs Policy Debate Research provides information to policy makers when they research and debate educational topics. Policy makers may range from federal government employee and state workers to local school board members and administrators and they discuss and take positions on educational issues important to constituencies. For these individuals, research offers results that can help them weigh various perspectives (Creswell, 2012).

11. Importance of Research Cont.... Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system The government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.

12. Problem with Research Today Contradictory or vague findings due to lack of proper grounding on theory of research Questionable data, fabrication and cooking is rampant Unclear statement of intent of the study problem statement Lack of full disclosure on data collection procedure and steps Inarticulate rendering of the research problem, precise and clear problem being pursued.

13. The process of Educational Research Creswell (2012) identified six (6) steps in the research process Identifying a research problem Reviewing the Literature Specifying a purpose for Research Collecting data Analyzing and Interpreting the data Reporting and evaluating Research

14. The process of Educational Research 1. Identifying a research problem Specifying an issue to study Developing a justification for studying the problem Suggest the need to study it for audiences 2. Reviewing the Literature Locating summaries, books, journals and indexes publication on a topic Selectively choosing which literature to include in your review Summarizing the literature in a written report.

15. The process of Educational Research Cont.. 3. Specifying a purpose for Research Identifying the purpose statement Narrowing the purpose statement to research questions or hypothesis 4. Collecting data Selecting individuals to study Obtaining permissions Gathering information

16. The process of Educational Research Cont.. 5. Analyzing and Interpreting the data Breaking down the data Representing the data Explaining the data 6. Reporting and evaluating Research Deciding on the audiences Structuring the report Writing the report sensitively

17. Types of Research Historical Research A systematic process of searching for information and fact to describe, analyze or interpret the past Value -can provide prospective for decision making about current problems-issues are often better understood if we understand the historical perspective Sources -must have good backed sources to protect from criticism -most common sources are past records

18. Types of Research Cont... Descriptive Research Describes, interprets and clarifies what in the present -often done with surveys -may be done by observation or an observational instrument Correlation Research The purpose is to find relationships between two or more variable so as to: - Better understand the conditions and events that we encounter (what goes with what) - To predict future conditions and events. - Correlations do not show cause and effect

19. Types of Research Cont... Experimental Research An experiment is a research situation where at least one independent variable, called the experimental variable, is deliberately manipulated or varied by the researcher. Variable –element or characteristic being studied Parameter -element that remains unchanged (age, number of subjects)

20. Research Approaches Qualitative Qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena. That is to say, it aims to help us to understand the world in which we live and why things are the way they are. It is concerned with the social aspects of our world and seeks to answer questions about: Why people behave the way they do How opinions and attitudes are formed How people are affected by the events that go on around them How and why cultures have developed in the way they have The differences between social groups Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with: why? how? in what way? (Hancock, 2002)

21. Research Approaches Cont. Quantitative Quantitative research is the numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations reflect. It is used in a wide variety of natural and social sciences, including physics, biology, psychology, sociology and geology(Wikipedia Encyclopedia , 2005).

22. Research Approaches Cont. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Qualitative Quantitative Subjective Objective Holistic Reductionist Phenomenological Scientific Anti positivist Positivist Descriptive Experimental Naturalistic Contrive Inductive Deductive

23. Research Approaches Cont.. Characteristics of Qualitative Researcher makes decisions based on views of participants Researcher opens the inquiry up to understand the complexity of the situation Researcher asks open-ended questions – single phenomenon Researcher analyzes words and images Researcher places emphasis on individual meaning, context, and self-reflexivity Researcher writes the report using a flexible, literary structure

24. Research Approaches Cont.. Characteristics of Quantitative Researcher makes decisions before study (variables, hypotheses, instruments) Researcher reduced the inquiry to a small number of variables to study and a large number of people Researcher asks specific closed-ended questions Researcher analyzes numbers Researcher places importance on reliability, validity, generalizability , replicability , control, and lack of bias Researcher writes the report using a standard structure

25. Research Design Important Concepts Relating to Research Design Variable: refers to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among the people or organization being studied. Dependent and independent variables Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable. Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses.

26. Research Design Important Concepts Relating to Research Design Cont.... Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts.

27. Qualitative Research Designs Phenomenology literally means the study of phenomena. It is a way of describing something that exists as part of the world in which we live. Phenomena may be events, situations, experiences or concepts. We are surrounded by many phenomena, which we are aware of but not fully understand. Our lack of understanding of these phenomena may exist because the phenomenon has not been overtly described and explained or our understanding of the impact it makes may be unclear. For example, we know that lots of people are carers. But what does “caring” actually mean and what is it like to be a carer?

28. Qualitative Research Designs Cont.. Ethnographic Design Qualitative procedures for describing, analysing and interpreting a cultural groups shared patterns of behaviour, beliefs, and language that develop over time Has a background in anthropology. The term means “portrait of a people” and it is a methodology for descriptive studies of cultures and peoples. The cultural parameter is that the people under investigation have something in common. Examples of parameters include: geographical - a particular region or country, religious, tribal, shared experience

29. Qualitative Research Designs Cont.. Grounded theory The main feature is the development of new theory through the collection and analysis of data about a phenomenon. It goes beyond phenomenology because the explanations that emerge are genuinely new knowledge and are used to develop new theories about a phenomenon.

30. Qualitative Research Designs Cont.. Case study Like surveys, case study research is one of those research approaches which can take a qualitative or quantitative stance. In this resource pack, the qualitative approach to case study is described wherein the value of case study relates to the in depth analysis of a single or small number of units. Case study research is used to describe an entity that forms a single unit such as a person, an organisation or an institution. Some research studies describe a series of cases.

31. Quantitative Research Designs Survey design are procedures in quantitative research in which you administer a survey or questionnaire to a small group of people (sample) to identify trends in attitudes, opinions, behaviors or characteristics of large group of people (population). In this design , you may not want to test an activity or materials or may not be interest in the association among variables. Instead you seek to describe trends in large population of individuals. 11/26/2014

32. Quantitative Research Designs Experimental designs In an experiment , you test an idea (or practice or procedure) to determine whether it influences an outcome or dependent variable. Determine activities with which to “experiment” Assign individuals to experience it (and have some individuals experience something different) Determine whether those who experienced the activities (or practice or procedure) performed better on some outcome than those who did not experience it. 11/26/2014

33. Experimental Design Cont.... When do you use experimental procedures? To establish cause and effect Between independent and dependent variables Control for all variables that might influence the outcome Used when testing theories Used when comparing two or more groups

34. Experimental Design Cont.... When do you use experimental procedures? Random assignment Control over extraneous variables Manipulation of the treatment conditions Outcome Measures Group Comparisons Threats to validity

35. Experimental Design Cont.... When do you use experimental procedures? Randomly assign individuals at random conditions or to groups Random assignment equates groups and distributes variability between or among groups and conditions Different from Random Selection which is selection of participants at random

36. Experimental Design Cont.... When do you use experimental procedures? Cont… Extraneous Variables: influences in participant selection, procedures, statistics, or the design likely to affect the outcome and provide an alternative explanation results than what was expected. Random assignment helps to control for extraneous variables Done before the experiment begins

37. Experimental Design Cont.... When do you use experimental procedures?

38. SAMPLING Meaning of a Sample A sample can be defined as a group of relatively smaller number of people selected from a population for investigation purpose. or A sample is a “subgroup of a population” It has also been described as a representative “taste” of a group .The sample should be “representative in the sense that each sampled unit will represent the characteristics of a known number of units in the population” The standard definition always includes the ability of the research to select a portion of the population that is truly representative of said population.

39. SAMPLING CONT... PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING The aim of all sampling method is to draw a representative sample from the population. With a representative sample one can confidently generalize the results to the rest of the population from whom the sample was drawn. This would not only save time and money but also dealing with problems of validity and generalization. If the sample is biased (not representative) one can generalize less validity from the sample to the population.

40. SAMPLING CONT... PROBABILITY SAMPLING Probability Sampling assures that each subject in the population has a known chance of being included in the sample. There are four major types of probability sample designs: simple random sampling stratified sampling systematic sampling cluster sampling

41. SAMPLING CONT... PROBABILITY SAMPLING CONT... Simple Random Sampling Is one in which all the members of a population have equal chance of selection. The method involves making a list of all members of the population (preparing a sampling frame) and using random tables, dice etc to throw up numbers for inclusion. The advantage of random sampling is that, it is possible to estimate exactly how representative the sample is. Because of a random sample is usually more representative than non-random samples the Sample size is needed for good prediction of population characteristics is small. The disadvantages of simple random sampling are: The researcher needs to list every member of the population. Often this is not possible. Cost is higher. It is cheaper to use conveniently available groups. Random sampling involves considerable planning and expense.

42. SAMPLING CONT... PROBABILITY SAMPLING CONT... Stratified Random Sampling Stratified sampling is a procedure in which the target population is first separated into mutually exclusive, homogeneous segments (strata), and then a simple random sample is selected from each segment (stra­tum). The samples selected from the various strata are then combined into a single sample. This sampling procedure is sometimes referred to as “quota random sampling.” For example simple random samples are taken separately of men and women in a study of hypertension or of different social classes. The main reason for choosing this type of sampling is to overcome the possibility that the subgroups may differ significantly on the variable of interest for example social class and mortality rates.  

43. SAMPLING CONT... PROBABILITY SAMPLING CONT... Systematic sampling (or interval random sampling) Is a probability sampling procedure in which a random selection is made of the first element for the sample, and then subsequent elements are selected using a fixed or systematic interval until the desired sample size is reached. For example, after a random start, one may systematically select every 10 th or 20 th patient visiting an emergency room in a hospital, store customers standing in line, or records in file drawers.

44. SAMPLING CONT... PROBABILITY SAMPLING CONT... Cluster Random Sampling Cluster random sampling is done when simple random sampling is almost impossible because of the size of the population. Just imagine doing a simple random sampling when the population in question is the entire population of Asia. In cluster sampling, the research first identifies boundaries, in case of our example; it can be countries within Asia. The researcher randomly selects a number of identified areas. It is important that all areas (countries) within the population be given equal chances of being selected. The researcher can either include all the individuals within the selected areas or he/she can randomly select subjects from the identified areas

45. SAMPLING CONT... PROBABILITY SAMPLING CONT... Mixed/Multi-Stage Random Sampling This probability sampling technique involves a combination of two or more sampling techniques. In most of the complex researches done in the field or in the lab, it is not suited to use just a single type of probability sampling. Most of the researches are done in different stages with each stage applying a different random sampling technique

46. SAMPLING CONT... NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING In non-probability sampling there is no way of assuring that each subject has a known probability of being included in the sample and therefore the sample cannot be expected to reflect the entire population. The conclusions of the research in such instances become less liable or generalizable . On the other hand there is advantage of convenience and low cost which sometimes outweighs such risks. For example opinion polls which are common in some countries at the time of elections are examples of non-probability sampling. The most easily accessible members of the public are polled and the results cannot claim to represent the trend in the general population. They are in fact, examples of incidental sampling.

47. SAMPLING CONT... NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING CONT..... Quota Sampling Quota sampling has some similarities to stratified sampling. The basic idea of quota sampling is to set a target number of completed interviews with specific subgroups of the population of interest. Ideally, the target size of the subgroups is based on known information about the target population (such as census data). Quotas are often based on more than one characteristic. For example, a quota sample might have interviewer-assigned quotas for age by gender and by employment status categories (Bobbie, 2007)

48. SAMPLING CONT... NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING CONT..... Purposive sampling This is a non-representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whomever is available.   A subset of purposive sampling is: Snowball Sampling - a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate. Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a very small subgroup of the population. This type of sampling technique works like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest. Convenience Sampling - a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher. Examples; One of the most common examples of convenience sampling is using student volunteers as subjects for the research. Another example is using subjects that are selected from a clinic, a class or an institution that is easily accessible to the researcher. A more concrete example is choosing five people from a class or choosing the first five names from the list of patients.

49. WAYS FOR DATA COLLECTION In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

50. WAYS FOR DATA COLLECTION CONT... Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he/she observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he/she examines the truth contained in his/her hypothesis.

51. WAYS FOR DATA COLLECTION CONT... Survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways: i . By observation This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.

52. WAYS FOR DATA COLLECTION CONT... ii. Through personal interview The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent. iii. Through telephone interviews This method of collecting information involves contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.

53. WAYS FOR DATA COLLECTION CONT... iv. By mailing of questionnaires The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.

54. WAYS FOR DATA COLLECTION CONT... v. Through schedules Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.

55. WAYS FOR DATA COLLECTION CONT... NOTE: The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy. Though the researcher should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher.

56. DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES Analysis of data After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

57. DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES Analysis of data After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

58. DATA ANALYSIS CONT... Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance.

59. DATA ANALYSIS CONT... .....Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analysing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyse the collected data with the help of various statistical measures.

60. DATA ANALYSIS CONT... Hypothesis-testing After analysing the data, a the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he/she had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

61. DATA ANALYSIS CONT... Generalisations and interpretation If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he/she might seek to explain his/her findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.

62. PREPARATION OF THE REPORT OR THE THESIS Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him/her. Kothari (2013) recommends that, Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following: 1. The layout of the report should be as follows: ( i ) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and ( iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

63. PREPARATION OF THE REPORT OR THE THESIS CONT... The main text of the report should have the following parts: (a) Introduction It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part. (b) Summary of findings After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised. (c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections. (d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up. At the end of the report , appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.

64. PREPARATION OF THE REPORT OR THE THESIS CONT... 2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like. 3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more clearly and forcibly. 4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

65. Criteria of Good Research Kothari (2013) acknowledged that, whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria: The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

66. Qualities of a Good Research In summary: Qualities of a good research 1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

67. Qualities of a Good Research Cont... In summary: Qualities of a good research 1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

68. Qualities of a Good Research Cont... In summary: Qualities of a good research Good research is logical This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.

69. Qualities of a Good Research Cont... In summary: Qualities of a good research 3. Good research is empirical It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results. 4. Good research is replicable This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

70. Review Questions and Group Works ASSIGNMENT 1 :GROUP WORK (a) Discuss five (5) Problems you may encounter when doing an empirical research in Tanzania. (b) In each of the mentioned Problem give the solution to it. ASSIGNMENT II: GROUP WORK 2. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an experiment and a survey

71. Review Questions and Group Works 1. Describe fully the techniques of defining a research problem. 2. What is research problem? Define the main issues which should receive the attention of the researcher in formulating the research problem. Give suitable examples to elucidate your points. 3. How do you define a research problem? Give three examples to illustrate your answer. 4. What is the necessity of defining a research problem? Explain. 5. Write short notes on: (a) Experience survey; (b) Pilot survey; (c) Components of a research problem; (d) Rephrasing the research problem. 6. “The task of defining the research problem often follows a sequential pattern”. Explain. 7. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow down the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.” Explain the underlying idea in this statement in the context of defining a research problem. 8. Write a comprehensive note on the “Task of defining a research problem”. Refer (Kothari, 2013), CreswelI (2012)

72. Review Questions and Group Works 1. Explain the meaning and significance of a Research design. 2. Explain the meaning of the following in context of Research design. (a) Extraneous variables; (b) Research hypothesis; (c) Experimental and Control groups; (d) Treatments. 3. Describe some of the important research designs used in experimental hypothesis-testing research study. 4. “Research design in exploratory studies must be flexible but in descriptive studies, it must minimise bias and maximise reliability.” Discuss. 5. Give your understanding of a good research design. Is single research design suitable in all research studies? If not, why?

73. Review Questions and Group Works 1. What do you mean by ‘Sample Design’? What points should be taken into consideration by a researcher in developing a sample design for this research project. 2. How would you differentiate between simple random sampling and complex random sampling designs? Explain clearly giving examples. 3. Why probability sampling is generally preferred in comparison to non-probability sampling? Explain the procedure of selecting a simple random sample. 4. Under what circumstances stratified random sampling design is considered appropriate? How would you select such sample? Explain by means of an example. 5. Distinguish between: (a) Convenience and purposive sampling; (b) Systematic and stratified sampling; (c) Cluster and Quota sampling. 6. Under what circumstances would you recommend: (a) A probability sample? (b) A non-probability sample? (c) A stratified sample? (d) A cluster sample?

74. Review Questions and Group Works 1. Enumerate the different methods of collecting data. Which one is the most suitable for conducting enquiry regarding family welfare programme in Tanzania? Explain its merits and demerits. 2. “It is never safe to take published statistics at their face value without knowing their meaning and limitations.” Elucidate this statement by enumerating and explaining the various points which you would consider before using any published data. Illustrate your answer by examples wherever possible. 3. Examine the merits and limitations of the observation method in collecting material. Illustrate your answer with suitable examples. 4. Describe some of the major projective techniques and evaluate their significance as tools of scientific social research. 5. How does the case study method differ from the survey method? Analyse the merits and limitations of case study method in sociological research. 6. Clearly explain the difference between collection of data through questionnaires and schedules. 7. Discuss interview as a technique of data collection.

75. Review Questions and Group Works 8. Write short notes on: (a) Depth interviews; (b) Important aspects of a questionnaire; 9. What are the guiding considerations in the construction of questionnaire? Explain. 10. Critically examine the following: ( i ) Interviews introduce more bias than does the use of questionnaire. (ii) Data collection through projective techniques is considered relatively more reliable. (iii) In collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite and experience the chief teacher. 11. Distinguish between an experiment and survey. Explain fully the survey method of research. 12. “Experimental method of research is not suitable in management field.” Discuss, what are the problems in the introduction of this research design in business organisation?

76. References Creswell, J. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research . University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Pearson Education, Inc. Kothari, C.R. (2013). Research methodology: Methods and techniques (2 nd ed.). New Delhi: New age International (P) Limited Publishers.

77. SKILLS MAKES THE DIFFERENCE Thank you!