Research Methods in 4th IT-3_023126.pptx

research method by desu

1. WOLAITA SODO UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF INFORMATICS DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Research Methods in IT (ITec3171) By: Aklilu E. (MSc in IT) 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 1

2. Chapter 1 Introduction to Research Methodology What is research? Research refers to a search for knowledge . Scientific and systematic search for relevant information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation . Redman and Mory define research as a “ systematized effort to gain new knowledge. ” Some people consider research as a movement, from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 2

3. Other definitions of Research Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense . According to Clifford Woody: - It is defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions ; collecting, organizing and evaluating data ; making assumptions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis . D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson “ the manipulation of things , concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge helps in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 3

4. Other definitions of Research… Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the exposition of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short , the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 4

5. Objectives of Research The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet . Though each research study has its own specific purpose , we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings : 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 5

6. Research Objectives… To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it ( an exploratory or formulative research studies ); To describe accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group ( descriptive research studies); To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else ( diagnostic research studies);   To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables ( hypothesis-testing research studies ). 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 6

7. Motivation In Research What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits; Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; Desire to be of service to society; Desire to get respectability . Another motivating factors are: - directives of government, employment conditions, interest about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 7

8. Types of Research (i) Descriptive vs. Analytical : Descriptive research: - includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present . In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 8

9. Types of Research… In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material . (ii) Applied (action based) vs. Fundamental (basic/pure) Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 9

10. Types of Research… .” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research . (iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 10

11. Types of Research… It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind . (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose . Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 11

12. Types of Research… (iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone , often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research , coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment . empirical research can also be called as experimental type of research. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 12

13. (v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Examples: - O ne-time research or longitudinal research , F ield-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research , C linical or diagnostic research . E xploratory or it may be formalized . C onclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 13

14. Research Approaches Quantitative approach: - the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential , experimental and simulation approaches to research. Experimental approach: - is characterized by much greater control over the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables . Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated . Qualitative approach: - Refer previous descriptions… 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 14

15. Significance of Research Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization . The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times . Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for government and business. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system . Research is used as a tool to economic policy. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry . Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems . 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 15

16. Significance of Research In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood in the following points of view: (a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure; (b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood ; (life, income, fund, employment… ) (c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights; (d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative work; (e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories. Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 16

17. Research Methods versus Methodology Research Methods: - all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research . Research techniques refer to the behavior and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing research technique. Research Methodology: - is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 17

18. Research Methods versus Methodology… It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology . Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, …but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why . Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others . 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 18

19. Importance of Knowing How Research is Done The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering material arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required, training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems, in the use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation in recording evidence, sorting it out and interpreting it. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 19

20. Research Process Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. It consists of a number of closely related activities. (1) Formulating the research problem; ( 2) Extensive literature survey; (3) Developing the hypothesis; ( 4) Preparing the research design; ( 5) Determining sample design; (6) Collecting the data; (7) Execution of the project; (8) Analysis of data; (9) Hypothesis testing; (10) Generalizations and interpretation, (11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 20

21. Research Process… 1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, 1. Those which relate to states/conditions of nature and 2. T hose which relate to relationships between variables. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, U nderstanding the problem systematically, and R ephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an investigative point of view . The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 21

22. Research Process … 2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down . It is to differentiate between what has been done and what needs to be done. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 22

23. Research Process… 3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 23

24. Research Process… 4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e ., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted . T he function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal costs of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 24

25. Research Process… The preparation of the research design, involves usually the consideration of the following : (i) The means of obtaining the information; (ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any); (iii) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection; (iv) The time available for research; and (v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 25

26. Research Process… 5. Determining sample design: The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. (i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling. (ii) Simple random sampling : This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples has the same probability of being selected. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 26

27. 5. Determining sample design: … (iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling . Stratified sampling, Quota sampling , Cluster sampling and area sampling, Area sampling, Multi-stage sampling, Sequential sampling, Collecting the data, By observation e.t.c 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 27

28. 5. Determining sample design: … In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement . 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 28

29. Research Process… 6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data, By observation, Through personal interview, Through telephone interviews, By mailing of questionnaires, Through schedules, Execution of the project, 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 29

30. Research Process… 8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences . 9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 30

31. Research Process… Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation , i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations . Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 31

32. Criteria of Good Research 1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used. 2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained . 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible . 4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings . 5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully . 6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis . 7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity. In other words, we can state the following qualities of a good research as under: 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 32

33. Qualities of Good Research 1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions. 2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making. 3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results. 4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 33

34. THE END OF CHAPTER ONE ANY QUESTIONS?? 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 34

35. CHAPTER TWO Defining the Research Problem What Is A Research Problem? A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with: 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 35

36. What is a Research Problem? ( i )There must be an individual to whom the problem can be attributed. The individual or the organization occupies an environment which is defined by values of the uncontrolled variables   (ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C 1 and C 2, to be pursued. A course of action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 36

37. What is a Research Problem? (iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O 1 and O 2, of the course of action, of which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that there must be at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective. We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under :   ( i ) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem . (ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 37

38. What is a Research Problem? (iii) There must be alternative means (courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem. (iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives . This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives . (v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 38

39. What is a Research Problem? Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given problem , i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given environment. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 39

40. Selecting The Problem The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this connection. Nevertheless , every researcher must find out his own salvation for research problems cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant springing from its own seed. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 40

41. Selecting The Problem T he following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem ( i ) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case . (ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher . (iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided. (iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 41

42. Selecting The Problem (v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher , the costs involved , the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask himself the following questions : (a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research? 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 42

43. Selecting The Problem (b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford? (c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in research as subjects ?   If the answers to all these questions are in the positive, one may become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 43

44. Selecting The Problem (vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study . If the subject for research is selected properly by observing the above mentioned points, the research will not be a boring work, rather it will be love’s labour . 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 44

45. Necessity of Defining The Problem Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the path whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 45

46. Necessity of Defining The Problem Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored? What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus , defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 46

47. Technique Involved In Defining a Problem Is a mechanism to state the problem along with the bounds within which it is to be studied. In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view . How to define a research problem is certainly a remarkable task. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 47

48. Technique Involved In Defining a Problem A brief description of all these points will be helpful . ( i ) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 48

49. Technique Involved In Defining a Problem (ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 49

50. Technique Involved In Defining a Problem (iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. (iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 50

51. Technique Involved In Defining a Problem (v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to restate the research problem into a working proposition . T he following points must also be observed while defining a research problem (a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined . (b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated . 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 51

52. Technique Involved In Defining a Problem ( c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided. (d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem. (e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 52

53. Miscellaneous Exercise for Chapter two What is the research problem? What is ./ are the significances in your research? What are the techniques involved in defining the research? How you can select a problems in your research works? Why not too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided? 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 53

54. Chapter 3 Research Design Meaning of Research Design By Aklilu Elias (MSc in IT) Email: - [email protected] a [email protected] Contact: - [phone]/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 54

55. Meaning of Research Design The difficult problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the design of the research project , popularly known as the “ research design”. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an investigation or a research study constitute a research design 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 55

56. Meaning of Research Design “ A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” T he research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted ; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 56

57. Meaning of Research Design As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data . More explicitly/clearly, the designing decisions happen to be in respect of : What is the study about? Why is the study being made? Where will the study be carried out? 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 57

58. Meaning of Research Design What type of data is required? Where can the required data be found? What periods of time will the study include? What will be the sample design? What techniques of data collection will be used? How will the data be analyzed? In what style will the report be prepared ? 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 58

59. Meaning of Research Design Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into the following parts: (a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study ; (b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made ; (c) T he statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed ; and 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 59

60. Meaning of Research Design (d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out. From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as under : (i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem. (ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing data. (iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 60

61. Meaning of Research Design In brief, research design must, at least, contain: - (a) A clear statement of the research problem; (b) Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) The population to be studied; and (d) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 61

62. Need For Research Design Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth travel of the various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money . It stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis , keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money . 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 62

63. Need For Research Design Preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in it may upset/disappoint the entire project . It is an imperative/vital that an efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations. The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and insufficiencies. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 63

64. Features of A Good Design A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical and so on . The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed The design which gives the smallest experimental error A design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 64

65. Features of A Good Design A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors : (i) The means of obtaining information; (ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any; (iii) The objective of the problem to be studied; (iv) The nature of the problem to be studied; and (v) The availability of time and money for the research work. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 65

66. Important Concepts Relating To Research Design 1. Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. Eg . weight , height, income. Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called ‘ continuous variables’.* Variables can only be expressed in integer values are called non-continuous (discrete) variables ’. Eg . Age is an example of continuous variable, Variables can be expressed in a fixed number is called discrete variable. Eg . number of children. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable. The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is called an independent variable. Eg . height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 66

67. Important Concepts Relating To Research Design 2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed/recognized entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables . 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 67

68. Important Concepts Relating To Research Design 3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study minimizing the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to put away experimental conditions. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 68

69. Important Concepts Relating To Research Design 4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s ). 5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 69

70. Important Concepts Relating To Research Design 6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. 7. Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group ’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group ’. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 70

71. Important Concepts Relating To Research Design 8. Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’. 9. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis , relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 71

72. Different Research Designs 1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 72

73. Different Research Designs Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about: (a) The survey of concerning literature; (b) The experience survey and (c) The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples . The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 73

74. Different Research Designs 2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies: Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, D iagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic research studies. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 74

75. Different Research Designs The design in descriptive and diagnostic studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following : (a) Formulating the objective of the study ( b) Designing the methods of data collection ( c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?) (d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should the data be related?) (e) Processing and analyzing the data. (f) Reporting the findings. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 75

76. Different Research Designs 3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 76

77. Basic Principles of Experimental Designs Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs: ( 1) the Principle of Replication; ( 2) the Principle of Randomization; and the ( 3) Principle of Local Control . T he Principle of Replication , the experiment should be repeated more than once. Thus , each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 77

78. Basic Principles of Experimental Designs The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.” 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 78

79. Basic Principles of Experimental Designs The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary purposefully over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 79

80. Sample Research Design 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 80

81. Miscellaneous Exercise for Chapter three What is research design? What are the features of good research design? Define dependent and independent variable in the research? What are the Professor Fisher principles of experimental designs? 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 81

82. CHAPTER 4 Methods of Data Collection 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 82

83. Methods of Data Collection While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data, primary and secondary. The primary data are those which are collected a fresh/newly and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 83

84. Methods of Data Collection… The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data collection. The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected , while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation. We describe the different methods of data collection, with the pros and cons of each method. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 84

85. Primary Data Collection We collect primary data it can be obtained either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews. There are several methods of collecting primary data, That are (i ) observation method, ( ii) interview method, ( iii) through questionnaires, ( iv) through schedules, and 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 85

86. Primary Data Collection… (v) other methods which include; - a) warranty cards; (b) distributor audits; ( c) pantry audits; ( d) consumer panels; ( e) using mechanical devices; ( f) through projective techniques; ( g) depth interviews, and ( h) content analysis. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 86

87. Methods of Primary Data Collection 1. Observation Method The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioral sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, When it is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 87

88. Limitations of Observation It is an expensive method. The information provided by this method is very limited . Sometimes unexpected factors may interfere with the observational task. Most of the time, some people are rarely accessible to direct observation and therefore it creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively . While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like: What should be observed? How the observations should be recorded? Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured? 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 88

89. Observation Types 1. Structured observation Is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed , the style of recording the observed information , standardized conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data. 2. Unstructured observation I s to take place without the above characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 89

90. Observation Types 3. Uncontrolled observation. If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation , 4. Controlled observation. O bservation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 90

91. Interview Method I nvolves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews. 1. Personal interviews: requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other persons. This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations. But in certain cases it may not be possible or valuable to contact required person directly. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 91

92. Interview… S tructured interview F ollows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed means. U nstructured interviews C haracterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning. do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information. the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 92

93. Interview … Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects Clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience .., N on-directive interview , the interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic. Telephone interviews: contacting respondents on telephone itself. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 93

94. QUESTIONNAIRES This is a quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organizations and even by governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent ( usually by post ) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 94

95. Schedules This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, The little difference is the fact that schedules ( proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma . 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 95

96. Other Methods of Data Collection (v) other methods which include; - a) warranty cards; (b) distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f) through projective techniques; (g) depth interviews, and (h) content analysis. Reading Assignment 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 96

97. Secondary Data Collection Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 97

98. Secondary Data Collection… Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are available in: (a) Various publications of the central, state are local governments; (b) Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organizations; (c) Technical and trade journals; (d) Books, magazines and newspapers ; 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 98

99. Secondary Data Collection… (e) Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 99

100. Appropriate Data Collection Method Selection Thus, there are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must carefully select the method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors : Nature , scope and object of enquiry: Availability of funds: Time factor: 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 100

101. Miscellaneous Exercise for Chapter Four What is/ are the methods of primary data collection? What is/ are the methods of secondary data collection? Which data source is more reliable? And why? What are the criteria to select appropriate data selection Methods? 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 101

102. CHAPTER FIVE HYPHOTHESIS TESTING Self-Preparation and Presentation (2 questions =4%) 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 102

103. CHAPTER 6 RESEARCH ETHICS 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 103

104. Where do students learn ethical decision making ?   1 . Mentor, advisor 2. Fellow graduate students 3. Family 4. Friends not in graduate school 5. Other faculty 6. Religious beliefs 7. Discussions in courses, labs, seminars 8. Professional organizations 9. Courses dealing with ethical issues 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 104

105. What do we mean by research ethics ? The terms ethics and morals are often used interchangeably. Francis (1999) makes a useful distinction between the two: Morals generally refer to an unwritten set of values that provide a frame of reference that we use to help our decision-making and regulate our behavior. Ethics generally refer to a written code of value principles that we use in a particular context. Research ethics are therefore the principles that we use to make decisions about what is acceptable practice in any research project. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 105

106. Why do we need ethical codes ? I t is important that as researchers we do not violate these rights. It is required to ensure that there are agreed standards of acceptable behavior for researchers, which protect participants' moral and legal rights. It ensures that there is good scientific practice in research. It is essential that the public should be able to trust the results of research programs as these findings may impact significantly on their lives. Having researchers conform to codes of research ethics protects against scientific dishonesty and fraudulent results. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 106

107. What are the basic principles for ethical research ? Research studies have to comply with all legal requirements. Research is required to comply with the commonly agreed international standards for good practice in research . Why Publish a Research? A paper is an organized description of hypotheses, data and conclusions, intended to instruct the reader. “ if it wasn’t published, it wasn’t done ” 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 107

108. Authorship   The list of authors establishes accountability as well as credit. Policies at most scientific journals state that: - A person should be listed as the author of a paper only if that person made a direct and substantial intellectual contribution to the design of the research, the interpretation of the data, or the drafting of the paper. The acknowledgments section can be used to thank those who indirectly contributed to the work. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 108

109. Author Responsibilities Preparation and Submission of Manuscripts: Follow General Rules: Ensure work is new and original research All Authors are aware of submission and agree with content and support submission Agree that the manuscript can be examined by anonymous reviewers. Provide copies of related work submitted or published elsewhere Obtain copyright permission if figures/tables need to be reproduced Include proper affiliation 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 109

110. What is publishable …. Journals like to publish papers that are going to be widely read and useful to the readers   Papers that report “original and significant” findings that are likely to be of interest to a broad spectrum of its readers Papers that are well organized and well written , with clear statements regarding how the findings relate to and advance the understanding/development of the subject Papers that are concise and yet complete in their presentation of the findings 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 110

111. What is not acceptable …. Papers that are routine extensions of previous reports and that do not appreciably advance fundamental understanding or knowledge in the area Incremental / fragmentary reports of research results Verbose , poorly organized, papers cluttered with unnecessary or poor quality illustrations Violations of ethical guidelines , including plagiarism of any type or degree (of others or of oneself) and questionable research practices (QRP) 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 111

112. Research Misconduct ( a) Fabrication is making up data or results and recording or reporting them. (b) Falsification is manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record. (c) Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit. (d) Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion . 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 112

113. Definitions Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism Plagiarism : using the ideas or words of another person without giving appropriate credit Self-Plagiarism : The verbatim copying or reuse of one’s own research Both types of plagiarism are considered to be unacceptable practice in scientific literature Other Types of Ethical Violations 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 113

114. Data Manipulation Researchers who manipulate their data in ways that deceive others are violating both the basic values and widely accepted professional standards of science. - Failure to fulfill the following obligations . They mislead their colleagues and potentially impede progress in their field or research. They undermine their own authority and trustworthiness as researchers. 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 114

115. How Journals Detect and Handle Problem Paper Information received from reviewers or other editors Literature search for related papers by the author Withdrawal of a paper from publication Prohibition authors from publication in the journal for 3-5 years and informing the co-authors and editors of related journals of our action For less serious cases, placing the author on a “watch list” for careful examination of their Submissions prior to requesting reviews 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 115

116. Research Ethics is an integral part of graduate research . Statements , Figures And Tables Reproduced in a Report, Presentation and/or Paper require proper citation . Published work is protected by Copyright Law Copyright permission is necessary if you are reproducing your work in another publication (This applies even if it is your own work). 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 116

117. Other Factors related with Research Ethics There are several other factors related to research ethics that you have to consider when designing your research project. Consent Protection of participants Debriefing Confidentiality Observational research Deception Withdrawal from the research Data storage . (Read each of These Terms in detail from the module) 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 117

118. Miscellaneous Exercise for Chapter Six What is meaning of the terms ethics and morals? Mentions and defines research misconduct? Why copyright is needed in research? What is the term plagiarism? Is there any application software to identify the plagiarism in research works? Mention Other factors related with Research Ethics? 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 118

119. THE END ANY QUESTIONS?? GOOD LUCK! WISH U ALL GOOD WORK OPPURTUNITY !! THANK YOU!! 5/18/2023 Compiled by Aklilu.E 119