research-paradigms (Advanced Research Methods)-5

research-paradigms (Advanced Research Methods)

1. Statistics & Research Methodology
Week 2
Research Philosophies,
Approaches, & Strategies
Assistant Professor:
Khalid A. Dahleez

2. This chapter explores:
•the nature of the relationship between theory and
research);
•epistemological issues ةفرعملاب ةطبترملا اياضقلا;
•ontological issues عقاولاو دوجولاب ةطبترملا اياضقلا ;
•how these issues relate to the widely used types
of research strategy, quantitative and qualitative
research;
•the ways in which values and practical issues are
also central to business research.
Chapter Overview

3. •Business research does not exist in isolation
–Link between social reality يعامتجلاا عقاولاand
research
–Link between business research methods and practice
connect with wider social relations
•Understanding the link between theory and research
–There are two key issues here:
•What form of theory is being referred to?
•Is data collected to test theories or build them?
Theory and Research

4. Figure 4.1 The research ‘onion’
Source: © 2015 Mark Saunders, Phillip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill

5. Definitions of Important Terms
•Research Paradigm (Lincoln & Guba, 2000)
= Philosophy (Saunder et al 2007) or even =
Worldview (Creswell 2009)
•A paradigm is ‘a clusterةعومجم of beliefs and dictates
which for scientists in a particular discipline influence
what should be studied, how research should be
done, [and] how results should be interpreted’
(Bryman 1988a: 4).
•Research philosophy is an over-arching ,عماج ,ماع
يلومش term relating to the development of knowledge
and the nature of that knowledge. (Saunders et al, 2009)

6. Definitions of important Terms
•Research Methodology = Research Strategy
•Research Methodology to emphasize an
‐
overall approach to the research process e.g.
Survey or Action Research
•Research Methods = Technique = Procedure
•Research Method used to outline a specific
‐
research technique or procedure for collecting and
analyzing data e.g. Questionnaire or Focus Group

7. Understanding your research philosophy
Thinking about research philosophy, there are 3
ways:-
•Ontologyعقاولا/دوجولا ةعيبط – what assumptions do we make
about the ways the world works? Are social entities
objective (reality external to social actors) or are they built
on social constructions (perceptions of social actors)? له
؟هل مهتيؤرو مهلاعفأ للاخ نم وأ نيلعافلا نع رظنلا ضغب عقاولا مهفن نأ عيطتسن
•Epistemologyاهيلع لوصحلا ةيفيكو ةربتعملا ةفرعملا – acceptable
knowledge in a particular field of study? What is/shd be
regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline. Can the
social world be/shd be studied using the same principles &
procedures like natural science?

8. Ontological considerations
•Social ontology: the nature of social entities
•What kind of objects exist in the social world?
•Do social entities exist independently of our perceptions
of them?
•Is social reality external to social actors or constructed
by them?

9. Epistemological considerations
•What is (or should be) considered acceptable
knowledge?
•Can the social world be studied ‘scientifically’?
•Is it appropriate to apply the methods of the natural
sciences to social science research?
•Positivism and interpretivism are contrasting
approaches

10. Understanding your research philosophy
Aspects of ontology
•Objectivismةيعوضوملا – social phenomena and their
meanings have an existence that is independent of
social actors.نيلعافلا نع اهتلاولد
=مو ةيعامتجلاا رهاوظلا ةيللاقتسا
•Subjectivismةيعامتجلاا رهاوظلل يتاذلا/يصخشلا ريسفتلا – social
phenomena are created from the perceptions and
consequent actions of social actors, concerned with
their existence.

11. Aspects of Ontology

12. What is objectivism?
•Objectivism is an ontological position that asserts
that social phenomena and their meanings have an
existence that is independent of social actors.
•It implies that social phenomena and the categories
that we use in everyday discourse have an existence
that is independent or separate from actors.

13. What is constructionism?
•Constructionism is an ontological position which
asserts that social phenomena and their meanings
are continually being accomplished by social actors.
•It implies that:
–social phenomena and categories are produced through
social interaction
–social phenomena and categories are in a constant state of
revision
–Researchers' own accounts of the social world are
constructions
–Knowledge is indeterminate
•Also referred to as constructivism

14. Understanding your research philosophy

15. Inter-relationship between the building blocks of Research
OntologyEpistemologyMethodologyMethods Sources
What’s out
there to
know?
What and
how can
we know
about it?
How can we
go about
acquiring
knowledge?
What
procedures
can we use to
acquire it?
Which
data can
we collect?
Adapted from Hay, 2002, pg. 64

16. Understanding your research philosophy
Aspects of philosophy
•Positivism - the stance of the natural scientist,
observable social reality, result law-like
generalisations
•Realism - (reality is independent of the mind)
direct and critical realism (Bhaskar, 1989),
knowledge of reality is due to social conditioning
•Interpretivism – researchers as ‘social actors’,
understanding social reality through the actors point
of view
•Axiology – studies judgements about value, our own
value plays a role in the research

17. Positivism
• Only phenomena and hence knowledge confirmed by the senses
can genuinely be warranted as knowledge (phenomenalism).
• The purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested
and that will allow explanations of laws to be assessed (deductivism).
• Knowledge is arrived at by gathering facts that provide the basis for
laws (inductivism).
• Science must (and can) be conducted in a way that is value free (i.e.
objective).
• There is a clear distinction between scientific statements and
normative statements and the former are the true domain of the
scientist.

18. Interpretivism
• Interpretivism is taken to denote an alternative to positivism.
• It is predicated upon the view that a strategy is required that
respects the differences between people and the objects of the
natural sciences and therefore requires the social scientist to grasp
the subjective meaning of social action.
• Derives from:
–Weber's notion of Verstehen;
–the hermeneutic-phenomenological tradition;
–symbolic interactionism.

19. •Realism shares two features with positivism:
–a belief that the natural and the social sciences can and should
apply the same approach to data collection and explanation;
–a commitment to the view that there is an external reality to which
scientists direct their attention (in other words, there is a reality
that is separate from our descriptions of it).
•There are two forms of realism:
–Empirical realism simply asserts that, through the use of
appropriate methods, reality can be understood.
–Critical realism is a specific form of realism which recognizes the
reality of the natural order and the events and discourses of the
social world.
Realism

20. What is a Theory? (1)
Zikmund (p. 39) has defined a theory as “a coherent set of general
propositions, used as principles of explanation of the amount of the
apparent relationships of certain observed phenomona”
•Put another way, a theory is a formal, testable explanation of some
events that includes explanations of how things relate to one another.
•A theory can be built through a process of reviewing previous findings
of similar studies, simple logical deduction, and/or knowledge of
applicable theoretical areas.
•Understanding and predicting—are the two purposes of theory. Thus
a theory enables us to predict the behavior or characteristics of one
phenomenon from the knowledge of another phenomenon.

21. The Abstraction Ladder
Observations of Objects,
Events and Occurrences (Reality)
Concepts / Constructs
Propositions
Theory
Levels of
Abstraction
Empirical Level
Abstract Level

22. What is a Theory? (1)
Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of
theory development. A concept (or construct) is a
generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes that have been given a name.
A concept (or construct) may vary in terms of the level of
abstraction
Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation

23. What is a Theory? (1)
•A construct is an abstract concept that is
specifically chosen (or “created”) to explain a
given phenomenon.
•A construct may be a simple concept, such as a
person’s weight, (unidimensional construct)
•Or a combination of a set of related concepts
such as a person’s communication skill, which
may consist of several underlying concepts such
as the person’s vocabulary, syntax, and spelling.
(multi-dimensional construct)

24. What is a Theory? (2)
A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship
between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical
linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of
abstraction than concepts
Example: Smoking is injurious to health
Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They
are usually concerned with the relationships between variables
Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production

25. What is a Theory? (3)
•Scientific research requires operational definitions that define
constructs in terms of how they will be empirically measured.
•A variable is a measurable representation of an abstract construct.
As abstract entities, constructs are not directly measurable, and
hence, we look for proxy measures called variables.

26. What is a Theory? (4)

27. What is a Theory? (5)
Example

28. Qualities of a Good Theory (1)
“A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two
requirements. It must accurately describe a
large class of observations on the basis of a
model that contains only a few arbitrary
elements. And it must make definite
predictions about the result of future
observations”
Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time,
1988

29. Qualities of a Good Theory (2)
Often, competing theories are put forth to explain certain
phenomena. One cannot really be 100% certain that a
given theory is correct because, no matter on how many
occasions the results of experiments agree with the
theory, there may come an occasion when some do not
Theories must be:
Objective
Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)
Falsifiable / disprovable
Good theories must understand, explain and predict

30. Research Approach To Theory Building
Deductive and Inductive Theory
•Deductivismجاتنتسلااو للادتسلاا ىلع ينبم :
•Theory guides research ةيرظنلا رابتخلا تانايبلا عمجن
–Theory  data
–Explicit hypothesis to be confirmed or rejected
–Quantitative research
•Inductivismءارقتسلاا ىلع ينبم :
•Theory is an outcome of research ءانبل تانايبلا عمجن
ةيرظنلا
–Data  theory
–Generalizable inferences from observations
–Qualitative research /grounded theory

31. Research Approach
Deductive and Inductive Theory

32. Research Wheel
Deductive and Inductive Theory

33. The process of deduction

34. Deductive Reasoning
Theory
Hypotheses
Observation
Confirmation
Using deductive reasoning, one
starts with a given theory as the
basis for which we develop
hypotheses and then confirm
these with specific
data acquired using observation
or experimentation
(Is our theory valid or not?)

35. Research Approaches - Deduction
5 sequential stages of testing theory
•Deducing a hypothesis
•Expressing the hypothesis operationally
•Testing the operational hypothesis
•Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry
•Modifying the theory (if necessary)
Adapted from Robson (2002)

36. Research Approaches - Deduction
Characteristics of Deduction
•Explaining causal relationships between variables
•Establishing controls for testing hypotheses
•Independence of the researcher
•Concepts operationalised for quantative measurement
•Generalisation

37. Research Approaches - Induction
Building theory by –
•Understanding the way human build their world
•Permitting alternative explanations of what’s
going on
•Being concerned with the context of events
•Using more qualitative data
•Using a variety of data collection methods

38. Inductive Reasoning
Observation
Pattern
Tentative Hypothesis
Theory
Using inductive reasoning, one
starts with a specific observation
as the basis for which we develop
a general pattern and tentative
hypothesis as the foundation
of a theory

39. Choosing your research approach
The right choice of approach helps you to
•Make a more informed decision about the
research design
•Think about which strategies will work for your
research topic
•Adapt your design to cater for any constraints
Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

40. Combining research approaches
Things worth considering
•The nature of the research topic
•The time available
•The extent of risk
•The research audience – managers and
markers, supervisors, external examiners

41. Deductive and Inductive research - Summary
Major differences between these approaches
Saunders et al, (2009)
Table 4.2 Major differences between deductive and inductive approaches to
research

42. Deductive and Inductive research - Summary

43. Research strategy:
quantitative research
Quantitative research is a research strategy that
emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of
data and that:
•entails a deductive approach to the relationship between
theory and research, in which the emphasis is on the testing
of theories;
•has incorporated the practices and norms of the natural
scientific model and of positivism in particular; and
•takes a view of social reality as an external, objective reality

44. Research strategy:
quantitative research

45. Features of quantitative research
•A measurement of social variables
•Common research designs: surveys and experiments
•Numerical and statistical data
•Deductive theory testing
•Positivist epistemology
•Objectivist view of reality as external to social actors

46. Research strategy:
qualitative research
Qualitative research is a research strategy that
emphasises words rather than quantification in the
collection and analysis of data and that:
•predominantly emphasizes an inductive approach to the
relationship between theory and research, in which the
emphasis is placed on the generation of theories;
•has rejected the practices and norms of the natural scientific
model and of positivism in particular in preference for an
emphasis on the ways in which individuals interpret their
social world; and
•takes a view of social reality as a constantly shifting
emergent property of individuals’ creation.

47. Research strategy:
qualitative research

48. Features of qualitative research
•Understanding the subjective meanings held by actors
(interpretivist epistemology)
•Common methods: interviews, ethnography
•Data are words, texts, and stories
•Inductive approach: theory emerges from data
•Social constructionist ontology

49. Mixed methods research
• It is possible to combine quantitative and qualitative
strategies within a research project.
• Holmberg et al’s (2008) study of leadership shows
how combining quantitative and qualitative research
provided a more rounded and complete picture.

50. •Organizational
•Historical
•Political
•Ethical
•Evidential
•Personal
Factors influencing researchers’
choice of methods

51. Quantitative Quantitative
researchresearch
•Its purpose is to explain
social life
•Is nomothetic – interested
in establishing law-like
statements, causes,
consequences, etc
•Aims at theory testing
•Employs an objective
approach
Qualitative Qualitative
researchresearch
•Its purpose is to
understand social life
•Is ideographic –
describes reality as it is
•Aims at theory building
•Employs a subjective
approach
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52. Quantitative Quantitative
researchresearch
•Is etiological – interested
in explanations over
space and time
•Is a closed approach – is
strictly planned
•Research process is
predetermined
•Uses a rigid and static
approach
Qualitative Qualitative
researchresearch
•Is historical – interested
in real cases
•Is open and flexible in all
aspects
•Research process is
influenced by the
respondent
•Uses a dynamic approach
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53. •Employs an inflexible
process
•Is particularistic,
studies elements,
variables
•Employs random
sampling
•Employs a flexible
process
•Is holistic – studies
whole units
•Employs theoretical
sampling
Quantitative researchQuantitative research
Qualitative researchQualitative research
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54. •Places priority on
studying differences
•Employs a reductive
data analysis
•Employs high levels
of measurement
•Employs a deductive
approach
•Places priority on
studying similarities
•Employs an
explicative data
analysis
•Employs low levels
of measurement
•Employs an
inductive approach
Quantitative researchQuantitative research
Qualitative researchQualitative research
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55. FeatureFeature Quantitative Quantitative
MethodologyMethodology
Qualitative Qualitative
MethodologyMethodology
Nature of realityNature of realityObjective; simple;
single; tangible
sense
impressions
Subjective;
problematic;
holistic; a social
construct
Causes and Causes and
effectseffects
Nomological
thinking; cause –
effect linkages
Non-deterministic;
mutual shaping; no
cause – effect
linkages
The role of valuesThe role of valuesValue neutral;
value-free inquiry
Normativism;
value-bound
inquiry
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56. FeatureFeature Quantitative MethodologyQuantitative MethodologyQualitative MethodologyQualitative Methodology
Natural and social Natural and social
sciencessciences
Deductive; model of
natural sciences;
nomothetic; bases on
strict rules
Inductive; rejection of the
natural sciences model;
ideographic; no strict
rules; interpretations
MethodsMethods Quantitative,
mathematical; extensive
use of statistics
Qualitative, with less
emphasis on statistics;
verbal and qualitative
analysis
Researcher’s roleResearcher’s role Rather passive; is the
‘knower’; is separate from
subject – the known:
dualism
Active; ‘knower’ and
‘known’ are interactive
and inseparable
GeneralizationsGeneralizations Inductive generalizations;
nomothetic statements
Analytical or conceptual
generalizations; time-
and-context specific

57. Practical considerations
•May influence or determine choices on:
–research strategy
–design
–method
–resources and costs
•May be influenced or determined by:
–nature of the topic
–people being investigated
–political acceptability

58. Key Points
•Relevance to practitioners and the fundamental
purpose of business research.
•Quantitative and qualitative research constitute
different approaches to social investigation.
•Theory can be depicted as something that precedes
research or as something that emerges out of it.
•Epistemological considerations influence research
strategy.

59. Question?
•Do we have to adopt philosophy?
•Pragmatism – research question is the most
important determinant of epistemology,
ontology and axiology of our research.

60. The Scientific Method
The “scientific method” is basically an overarching
perspective on how scientific investigations should be
undertaken. It can, in effect, be considered as a complete set
of principles and methods that help researchers in all
scientific disciplines obtain valid results for their research
studies, and which includes the provision of clear and
universally accepted guidelines for acquiring, evaluating and
communicating information in the context of a research study
The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to
understand, explain and predict

61. Elements of the Scientific Method
 Empirical Approach
 Observation
 Questions
 Hypotheses
 Experiments
 Analysis
 Conclusion
 Replication

62. Elements of the Scientific Method
(Empirical Approach)
Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle
behind all research conducted in accordance
with the scientific method
Data derived from direct, systematic and careful
observation and experimentation (as opposed to
speculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gut
feeling)

63. Elements of the Scientific Method
(Observation)
Awareness of the real / physical / social world in which
we exist. This, in turn, gives rise to questions as the
basis for research studies or investigations

Operational Definitions – Ensures consistency when
researchers talk about or are interested in undertaking or
replicating research on the same phenomenon.
Example: What is “exercise”?

64. Elements of the Scientific Method
(Questions)
Making an answerable question out of a research idea. The
question must be answered using available and established
scientific research techniques and procedures. Scientific
Analysis should not be attempted on questions which cannot
be answered
Example of an answerable question: Can regular exercising
reduce an individual’s cholesterol level?
Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is time
travel possible?

65. Elements of the Scientific Method
(Hypotheses)
Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest. A hypothesis
is a proposition which is empirically testable. It usually seeks to
explain relationships between variables, and predict, and must be
falsifiable
Typical hypotheses structures:
Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will result
Correlational - The value of Variable B is observed to be related with
changes in the value of Variable A
Causal – The value of Variable ψ determines the value of Variable ξ

66. Elements of the Scientific Method
(Experiments)
Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena
and collecting accurate and reliable data which are used
for analysis and evaluation
Accuracy – Correctness of the Measurement
Reliability – Consistency of the Measurement

67. Elements of the Scientific Method
(Analysis)
Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitative
tools and techniques to process data
Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more
desirable (objective) than qualitative tools and
techniques
Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively
analyze data acquired in research studies

68. Elements of the Scientific Method
(Conclusions)
Based on the results of the analysis conducted, and used to
support or refute a hypothesis
When undertaking research, conclusions should only be
based on the available data and not broadened to include
statements which are not supported by the data
Example: If the research analysis shows that two variables are
correlated (related), do not assert also that a causal
relationship exists between them

69. Elements of the Scientific Method
(Replication)
The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the same
research study is conducted with different participants (i.e.
researchers, research subjects), then the same results are
achieved
Replication establishes the reliability of a research study’s
conclusions
Conclusions are often based on the results of one research
study (aberration effect) which may not be accurate

70. References
Materials in this presentation were adapted from several
sources, most visited:
•Bryman, A. (2015). Social research methods. The Unites States: Oxford university
press.
•Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2015).
 
Business research methods. Oxford University Press,
USA.
•Christensen, L. B., Johnson, B., & Turner, L. A. (2015). Research methods, design,
and analysis (S. Frail Ed. 12 ed.). England: Pearson Education Limited.
•Horn, R. (2012). Researching and Writing Dissertations: A Complete Guide for
Business: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.
•Saunders, M. N., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2016). Research methods for business
students (7 ed.). England: Pearson Education Limited.
•Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., & Griffin, M. (2013).
 
Business research
methods. Cengage Learning.